Generated by All in One SEO Pro v5.0.1.1, this is an llms-full.txt file, used by LLMs to index the site. # Lives Transforming Your Life. Transformed. Now. ## Posts ### [Biblical Household Codes](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-household-codes/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Biblical Household Codes The instructions related to slaves, women, and children in the New Testament might be characterized by the concept of mutual submission in Christ. The authors of the New Testament were certainly products of their time, while simultaneously promoting a strong counter-cultural initiative. The following brief analysis not only interacts with the relevant biblical passages that point to the household codes, but it also engages both Craig Keener and Shi-Min Lu to highlight the biblical perspective within a Greco-Roman culture. The key biblical passages that address the household codes are Ephesians 5:21-6:9, Colossians 3:18-4:1, and 1 Peter 2:11-3:7. Regarding slavery, the Greco-Roman culture provided a certain amount of humane treatment to slaves. S. Scott Bartchy explains that Augustus honored freed slaves who served in the military, and laws were passed in the first century to limit the punishment of slaves.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) However, in a fascinating passage, the apostle Paul commands servants to obey their masters while on earth, but then profoundly goes on to state, “Masters, do the same to them” (Eph 6:9, English Standard Version). Within the cultural milieu of the day, Paul did not advocate overthrowing the institution of slavery, or any other domestic institution for that matter, but, as Keener notes, to suggest that masters “do the same” to the slaves as slaves do to the masters is certainly a radical approach that moves well beyond ethical theory and into praxis.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The radicalness of Paul’s thought moves beyond treating slaves as fellow servants (Eph 6:9), and also includes husbands serving their wives by giving themselves up for them (Eph 5:25), and serving children by not provoking them (Eph 6:4). The master becomes the servant; the boss becomes the slave. The concept continues to be radically relevant in the twenty-first century. By way of illustration, Paul would not likely attempt to overthrow the office of the President that pervades every corner of American culture, but he would clearly redefine even the modern perspective of most presidents. Keener observes that Paul frames the entire household code directives within the concept of “mutual submission: submitting to one another (Eph 5:21) and doing the same things to them (Eph 6:9).”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Although overtones of Pauline thought pervaded Greco-Roman culture, nothing close to Paul’s radical approach existed in ancient times. According to Keener, Xenophon hinted at mutual submission, but did not suggest complete mutuality; the Stoic thinker Musonius Rufus purported an equality between men and women but stopped [short of Pauline thought](https://www.livestransforming.com/modern-pauline-bible-scholarship/); Aristotle and later Philo asserted that the male was by nature superior, and, finally, Josephus assumed that the instability of women made them unfit for court testimony.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Paul’s radicalness continues in his letter to the Colossians. Regarding slavery, most translations render Colossians 4:1 something like “treat your bondservants justly (δίκαιον) and fairly (ἰσότητα).” However, Keener contends that a comprehensive lexical analysis shows that ἰσότητα normally means “equality” not “fairly.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) If Keener is correct, then further evidence exists for Paul’s counter-cultural perspective of mutual submission. Shi-Min Lu also spends considerable time engaging the ancient Greco-Roman environment in order to elucidate an understanding of the household codes within the New Testament. Lu recognizes that the topic of household management can be traced to Plato and his ideal state as well as to Aristotle and his concept of harmony in the city-state.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Without question, both thinkers recognized the contribution of domestic affairs within a broader society. Likewise, Augustus, according to Lu, promoted domestic stability by passing laws that encouraged procreation while also exposing adultery.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Although ancient thought leaders, at times, pointed to a more egalitarian environment, Everett Ferguson notes that life was difficult for women because they were not treated as equals.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In sum, men continued to rule women in the ancient Greco-Roman culture and lacked the mutuality conveyed within the biblical teaching of the New Testament. Although the Christian perspective did not attempt to usurp or overthrow any ancient domestic institution, the question remains as to what initiated such a strong initiative further down the path of equality. Lu believes the answer lies within the gospel message. To be clear, Lu is not referring to a gospel built upon prompting an individual to raise a hand, walk down an aisle, and land on a list of “wins.” Instead, Lu is referring to a new cosmic reality, a new personhood, a new identity in Christ. [![Ephesians Volume 42 182x300 - Biblical Household Codes](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Ephesians-Volume-42-182x300.jpg "Biblical Household Codes - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4iWCyR7)Ephesians, Volume 42 (42) (Word Biblical Commentary) Specifically, the language that precedes the codes in 1 Peter 2:11-3:7 properly explains the reason for the biblical departure from the current culture.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The author of 1 Peter clearly communicates that believers are born again into a newly inaugurated eschatological inheritance and reality (1 Pet 1:3-5) while reminding his readers that they had been singled out as a chosen race for the *possession* of God as God’s own people (1 Pet 2:9-10, italics mine). In other words, people did not possess women, slaves, or children; God possessed His people whose identity was forged in Christ through the Spirit. Accordingly, Andrew Lincoln asserts that mutuality between believers occurred because of the Christians’ new identity in Christ.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) As a result, Lu explains that the New Testament household codes highlight both the grace and mercy of the gospel “for the oppressed and marginalized.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The radicalness of the New Testament’s concept of mutual submission built on a foundation of a believer’s identity in Christ provides the backbone for a biblical perspective of the household codes that were both informed by the Greco-Roman culture while simultaneously departing from it. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) S. Scott Bratcher, “Slaves and Slavery in the Roman World,” in *The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, ed. Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017), 175. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Craig S Keener, “Mutual Submission Frames the Household Codes,” *Priscilla Papers* 35, no. 3 (2021): 10. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 11. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 12. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Shi-Min Lu, “Woman’s Role in New Testament Household Codes: Transforming First-Century Roman Culture,” *Priscilla Papers* 30, no. 1 (2016): 9. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 10. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Everett Ferguson, *Backgrounds of Early Christianity*, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 78. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Lu, “Woman’s Role in New Testament Household Codes,” 11–12. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Andrew T. Lincoln, *Ephesians*, vol. 42, *Word Biblical Commentary*, ed. Bruce M. Metzger, David Allen Hubbard, and Glenn W. Barker (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2014), 366–368. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Lu, “Woman’s Role in New Testament Household Codes,” 14. # Bibliography - Bratcher, S. Scott. “Slaves and Slavery in the Roman World.” In *The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, edited by Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017. - Ferguson, Everett. *Backgrounds of Early Christianity*. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. - Keener, Craig S. “Mutual Submission Frames the Household Codes.” *Priscilla Papers* 35, no. 3 (2021): 10–14. - Lincoln, Andrew T. *Ephesians*. Vol. 42, *Word Biblical Commentary*, edited by Bruce M. Metzger, David Allen Hubbard, and Glenn W. Barker. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2014. - Lu, Shi-Min. “Woman’s Role in New Testament Household Codes: Transforming First-Century Roman Culture.” *Priscilla Papers* 30, no. 1 (2016): 9–15. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [The New Perspective on Paul (NPP)](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-new-perspective-on-paul-npp/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The New Perspective on Paul (NPP) The debate between a “Lutheran” or traditional view of Paul and the New Perspective on Paul (NPP) is likely the most important of the last century regarding Pauline studies. Although overly simplistic, according to the traditional view, the distinction between Paul’s Christianity and Judaism is that the former purported salvation through faith and the latter purported salvation through works. The language of tradition may be somewhat misleading, as the Lutheran view seems to have arisen primarily from Luther’s protest against Roman Catholicism during the Reformation rather than any sort of ancient tradition. Regardless, in a sense, E. P. Sanders birthed the NPP with his landmark book, *Paul and Palestinian Judaism*.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Sanders does not perceive a dichotomy between works and grace, but instead, he synthesizes the concepts in an attempt to explain the strict legalistic sayings that exist alongside the profound affirmations of grace within Judaism. Sanders concludes that Palestinian Judaism viewed soteriology through the following lens: “*Obedience to the commandments* was not thought of as earning salvation, which came rather by God’s grace, but was nevertheless required as a *condition of remaining in the covenant*; and not obeying the commandments would damn.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) In general, the NPP has provided an important corrective to the simplistic idea that Christianity is *only* about grace and Judaism is *only* about works. Several tenets of the NPP are convincing. First, Sanders’s view that Judaism is a religion of grace is convincing. First and foremost, Jews believed they were God’s chosen people because they were descendants of Abraham. The relationship between Yahweh and the Jews occurred because God graciously chose the Jews to be His people, not because the Jews met a certain behavioral standard. In fact, the entire [Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/) testifies to the Jews not living up to certain standards; however, to [suggest that Judaism is a religion](https://www.livestransforming.com/jewish-religious-thought/) of grace and not of works goes too far. Second, James D. G. Dunn also provides an important contribution to understanding the phrase “works of the law.” Stanley Porter recognizes Dunn’s assertion that Jewish “works of the law” are boundary markers rather than an effort to win God’s favor as the Reformers suggested.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Although it is true that Dunn contends that works of the law provided certain ethnic boundary markers, Dunn also makes an important cautionary clarification when stating that he does not “narrow ‘the works of the law’ to boundary issues.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Regardless of the nuance, Dunn’s insight highlights that part of the purpose of Paul’s gospel message was to break down barriers between Jews and Gentiles.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) [![Paul and the Faithfulness of God 182x300 - The New Perspective on Paul (NPP)](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Paul-and-the-Faithfulness-of-God-182x300.jpg "The New Perspective on Paul (NPP) - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40pgQOs)Paul and the Faithfulness of God Third, N. T. Wright also productively contributes to the conversation. He asserts that when a first-century writer refers to God’s righteousness “he is speaking of (a) an attribute of God himself and (b) more specifically of the attribute of covenant faithfulness.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Wright’s emphasis on the covenantal relationship between God and His people must not be overlooked. Without question, God keeps his covenantal promises. Furthermore, Christ is faithful and righteous, and, at times, the phrase, πίστεως Χριστοῦ, likely needs translated with the subjective genitive – the faithfulness of Christ. The contributions of the NPP are significant. Accordingly, the Pauline interpreter must consider the aspect of Judaism that embraces the grace of God, the concept of boundary markers within the Jewish religious system, and the importance of God’s covenantal faithfulness to Paul’s soteriology. However, to suggest that Judaism had nothing to do with works, had a legal system that only pertained to boundary markers, and had a view of righteousness completely limited to covenant faithfulness also moves beyond the evidence.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) In sum, I do believe that the NPP has provided some important correctives to Reformation theology, but without nuancing the perspective, the interpreter will likely wind up in extreme positions that do not align with the biblical evidence. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) See E. P. Sanders, *Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion* (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 320. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Stanley E. Porter, *The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2016), 114. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) James D. G. Dunn, *New Perspective on Paul: Collected Essays* (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2005), 25. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 29. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) N. T. Wright, *Paul and the Faithfulness of God* (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2013), 804. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) See D. A. Carson, Peter T. O’Brien, and Mark A. Seifrid, eds., *Justification And Variegated Nomism* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001). # Bibliography - Carson, D. A., Peter T. O’Brien, and Mark A. Seifrid, eds. *Justification And Variegated Nomism*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001. - Dunn, James D. G. *New Perspective on Paul: Collected Essays*. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2005. - Porter, Stanley E. *The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2016. - Sanders, E. P. *Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion*. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977. - Wright, N. T. *Paul and the Faithfulness of God*. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2013. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Path to Learn Biblical Languages](https://www.livestransforming.com/path-to-learn-biblical-languages/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Path to Learn Biblical Languages ## **Discussion Board 1: Question 3** [![Basics of Biblical Greek Video Lectures 182x300 - Path to Learn Biblical Languages](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Basics-of-Biblical-Greek-Video-Lectures-182x300.jpg "Path to Learn Biblical Languages - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4iYaAo4)Basics of Biblical Greek Video Lectures: For Use with Basics of Biblical Greek Grammar, Fourth Edition My previous experience in the formal study of biblical languages aligns with the typical language progression of a Master of Divinity program. First, I took two semesters of beginning Greek. The course followed **William Mounce’s *Basics of Biblical Greek* textbook**. The first semester focused on nouns, and the second semester focused almost solely on verbs. My third semester of Greek, called Greek Syntax, used Daniel Wallace’s textbook, *The Basics of New Testament Syntax: An Intermediate Greek Grammar*. The text was an abridged version of Wallace’s standard intermediate text called *Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics*. Since the primary focus was syntax, the amount of time focused on exegesis was quite limited. Next, I took a similar path with learning Hebrew. I took two semesters of beginning Hebrew. The course followed Gary Pratico and Miles Van Pelt’s *Basics of Biblical Hebrew*. Like Greek, the first semester focused on nouns, and the second semester focused on verbs. As an aside, Van Pelt’s video series that accompanies the textbook is one of the most clear and concise teaching series that I have ever experienced. The third semester Hebrew class, Hebrew Exegesis, was significantly different from the third semester Greek Syntax class. The Hebrew Exegesis class was likely the most valuable class I took during my MDiv program. In this class, I learned word studies, textual criticism with the use of critical apparatus, and how to think about applying language study to exegetical analysis. I look forward to the two additional classes required in the PhD program that focus on the exegesis of Galatians and Jonah. In my current ministry, I very seldom study a passage without incorporating language analysis. Often the process entails my own personal language study. However, one of the significant benefits of learning Greek and Hebrew is that the academic commentaries become accessible. Accordingly, sometimes I will consult various academic commentaries to investigate the various scholarly options, and then revisit my own language study to clarify my perspective. When teaching, I may have a personal preference, but more importantly, I am able to coherently provide different scholarly perspectives to my students when consensus does not exist. I use several tools to work with biblical languages. First, and foremost, I use Logos Bible Software. My Hebrew Exegesis professor was on staff at the Faithlife Corporation and provided some valuable lessons on how to use Logos for language study. In Logos, I have created several custom layouts for studying both Greek and Hebrew. For example, in my basic Greek layout, I have the ESV, USB5, NA28 and a few other resources at the top half of the screen. I tie all these tabs together so when I search a verse such as John 1:1 the verse is found in each tab simultaneously. In the bottom section, I have the New Testament and LXX interlinears along with various dictionaries such as *The Theological Dictionary of the New Testament*. On the left-hand side of the screen I have the BDAG Greek-English Lexicon. BDAG is also tied to the other tabs so whenever I highlight a word in the English Bibles, Greek New Testaments, or interlinears the BDAG entry automatically appears. Finally, when doing word studies, a search allows the student to identify quickly each time the word is used in both the New Testament and the LXX. I have a similar layout for the Hebrew language. The primary reason for using Logos is that it saves a massive amount of time. Secondarily, by using digital resources, it saves a lot of room in my library. To be clear, I am not always a fan of digital resources. I always read physical copies of textbooks because I highlight, write in the margins, and interact with each text. However, for language study, I cannot imagine not using a software program. I expect my usage of biblical languages to increase as a result of my current coursework. With a PhD focused on biblical theology, it is difficult to imagine any advanced exegetical work not considering the impact of the original languages. Furthermore, as I continue to use the languages, I am becoming more and more comfortable in using the Greek and Hebrew in environments outside of academic work. For example, when I do my devotions, I often use a reader’s edition. For those with limited biblical language background, a reader’s edition provides the definition and parsing for less common words. The Greek New Testament reader’s edition that I use is produced at Tyndale House and published by Crossway. I also use this version when doing translation work. Again, similar resources are available for the Hebrew language. The tips that I would suggest for language learners are not unique. Almost everyone who has studied languages provides the same tips. First, learn enough vocabulary to make reading enjoyable. Currently, I know the vocabulary required in both the Hebrew and Greek classes. However, I have expanded my Greek vocabulary to the most common one thousand words, which makes [Bible translation work much easier](https://www.livestransforming.com/why-bible-translations-are-different/). Second, when the student is in the middle of learning the grammar and syntax of a language, he or she often does not spend much time actually reading the Bible. Accordingly, it is important to read and translate as much as possible as soon as possible. For example, I just finished translating the book of John, and I will likely start through the book of Mark next. John and Mark are two of the less difficult books to translate. Although I am a long way from being proficient with the biblical languages, I do believe the endeavor is well worth the effort. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Biblical Historical Context and Textual Criticism](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-historical-context-and-textual-criticism/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Biblical Historical Context and Textual Criticism Historical Context and Textual Criticism To begin, I want to thank all the participants for such great questions. I do agree with Osborne that the historical background provides a three-dimensional aspect to a sermon or any biblical teaching. The question posed regarding the dangers on delivering a message on the Johannine Comma or the woman caught in adultery is quite interesting. First, the primary issues that surround John 8:1-11 and 1 John 5:7-8 are text critical, which Osborne categorizes under the literary context, and specifically under grammar. Accordingly, the primary danger associated with delivering a message on the two passages is to ignore that fact that John 8:1-11 was a likely addition, and 1 John 5:7-8 is almost certainly not part of the original manuscripts. By ignoring the text critical concerns, the individuals in the congregation who are aware of the issues could lose confidence in the teacher. Furthermore, any attempt to “protect” the congregation from the text critical issues would not only be unnecessary, but also extend a condescending attitude towards the capacity of the listeners. Alternatively, by highlighting the inerrancy of the original manuscripts and explaining the overwhelming accuracy of the Bible based on recent textual scholarship, the pastor has the opportunity to enhance Scripture’s trustworthiness. The next challenge is how the pastor would utilize historical and cultural background information to illuminate these verses if, after considering the textual issues, the sermon addressed either of the passages. John 8:1-11 may be the most appropriate text to preach because it likely has historical veracity. Furthermore, the historical background of the passage could be quite enlightening. First, as Osborne explains, the Old Testament can provide important background material. In this case, Scriptures that reference the topics of adultery and stoning, such as Deuteronomy 17:6, 22:22, and Leviticus 20:10, would both provide a historical backdrop to the pericope. Second, Roman law provides insight into the cultural milieu, which forbids execution without the governor’s approval. By highlighting the historical and cultural background, Craig Keener explains that the trap is set: If Jesus does not approve the execution, He violates the Mosaic law, but if Jesus approves the execution, He violates the Roman law.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The danger of ignoring the [historical and cultural background](https://www.livestransforming.com/historical-cultural-background/) is to miss the snare that shines the spotlight on Jesus’ famous punchline, which is a missed teaching opportunity [![Acts N. T. Wright for Everyone Bible Study Guides 182x300 - Biblical Historical Context and Textual Criticism](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Acts-N.-T.-Wright-for-Everyone-Bible-Study-Guides-182x300.jpg "Biblical Historical Context and Textual Criticism - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3W0dAX1)Acts (N. T. Wright for Everyone Bible Study Guides) Next, the perceived contradiction between Matthew 27:5 and Acts 1:18 must not be ignored, regardless whether a conversation with the married couple occurred or not. Again, the pastor’s credibility is at risk. If the pastor ignores the contradiction and a congregant later recognizes the issue, the individual may wonder what else the pastor is “hiding.” I remember one of my seminary professors stating, “People should not be protected from their Bible.” I agree. My goal would be to explain three aspects of the issue: (1) some perceive a contradiction, (2) some attempt to harmonize the two passages, and (3) some simply do not find it bothersome. First, it appears that Matthew suggests that Judas died from hanging, and Luke suggests that Judas died from his bowels bursting. Second, Joseph Fitzmyer explains that a harmonization is possible if the reader assumes that the rope broke from the hanging, and Judas’ bowels burst upon landing.[\[2\]](#_ftn2)Finally, N. T. Wright suggests that “since nobody in the early church attempted to tidy things up we probably shouldn’t try either.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Regardless of the options, the pastor has the opportunity to communicate that, although we may not currently have all the information necessary to harmonize every piece of Scripture, if all the information was available, the coherence and consistency of God’s Word would stand. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Craig S. Keener, *The Gospel of John: A Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 1:737. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Joseph A. Fitzmyer, *The Acts of the Apostles: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary* (New Haven: Yale University, 2010), 31:224. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) N. T. Wright, *Acts for Everyone: Part 1* (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2008), 18. ## Bibliography - Fitzmyer, Joseph A. *The Acts of the Apostles: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary*. Vol. 31. New Haven: Yale University, 2010. - Keener, Craig S. *The Gospel of John: A Commentary*. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003. - Wright, N. T. *Acts for Everyone: Part 1*. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2008. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Dialectical Bible Interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/dialectical-bible-interpretation/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Dialectical Bible Interpretation Although John O’Keefe and R. R. Reno explore the dialectical strategies of the Church Fathers in combination with lexical and associative strategies that often inform the development of typological and allegorical readings, the question at hand is much more specific: “Was Athanasius’ dialectical strategy of reading the Scriptures a valid exegetical methodology?” The question is within the context of the famous Christological argument between Arius and Athanasius, and accordingly, asks the question without reference to the resolution of the disagreement. O’Keefe and Reno already make a strong case for Athanasius’ dialectical logic, but is his approach a valid exegetical method? When approaching the topic of dialectical strategies in modernity and beyond, it is difficult to avoid engaging Hegelian philosophy and Barthian theology or at least a nod to Socrates and Zeno. However, reading modern thought or Greek philosophy into the question causes further problems. Accordingly, the focus will remain on Scripture and the validity of a dialectical strategy in exegesis. [![Reading Scripture with the Church Fathers 182x300 - Dialectical Bible Interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Reading-Scripture-with-the-Church-Fathers-182x300.jpg "Dialectical Bible Interpretation - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3PdWOA1)Reading Scripture with the Church Fathers Three aspects of a dialectical strategy need addressed. First, and most importantly, a dialectical strategy illuminates meaning. In fact, a reading devoid of dialectical methodology risks completely misinterpreting the “plain meaning” of the text. Although dialectical strategies can quickly exponentially increase in complexity, the following analysis touches upon a few basic illustrations for purposes of proving its validity. One of the most well-known examples is between Paul and James. Paul states, “For we hold that one is justified by faith apart from works of the law” (Romans 3:28).[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Alternatively, James states, “You see that a person is justified by works and not by faith alone” (James 2:24). Interestingly, both Paul and James use Abraham to prove their point. Ultimately, most scholars suggest that James is not undermining faith, but highlighting that faith finds fulfillment in action; they go hand in glove as one cannot exist without the other. Thus, the tension is resolved or synthesized. However, for purposes of the question posed, consensus regarding the resolution is not as important as the impact on exegesis. I contend that it is not possible to interpret James 2:24 without its juxtaposition with Romans 3:28. If this is the case, then a dialectical strategy is not just valid, but required. Said differently, just as a proper interpretation of James 2:24 is not possible outside its historical context, it is also not possible outside its juxtaposition with opposing concepts. The process is reflective of intertextuality, but is more appropriately categorized as interpretive correlation, which provides a safeguard against reductionism, and simultaneously, enhances the accuracy of interpretation. Second, a dialectical strategy maintains the unity of Scripture. Without a dialectical strategy, Scripture becomes nothing more than a compilation of divergent texts with unresolvable tensions. However, the wisdom of God becomes manifest in paradox, which unites the themes of Scripture into a cohesive whole. The thematic correlation ultimately supplies the necessary ingredients for the accurate development of theology as represented by Athanasius. Examples abound. However, a relatively recent emphasis in New Testament theology is inaugurated eschatology. Is the kingdom of God *here now*, or is the kingdom of God *not yet here*? Yes. Ironically, a recent popular business book by Jim Collins and Jerry Porras, *Built to Last*, spends time teasing out the ideas of “the genius of the and,” as compared to the “tyranny of the or.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Dialectical strategies integrate the mentality of the former, and thus, inaugurated eschatology has provided a unity necessary to support theology proper. Third, a dialectical strategy is not about compromise or polemics. Most uncompromising positions are polemical, but not with a dialectical approach. An example is something as simple as the biblical idea that “good is good,” and simultaneously, “bad is good.” In one of his letters to the Corinthians, Paul states, “And God is able to make all grace abound to you, so that having all sufficiency in all things at all times, you may abound in every good work” (2 Cor 9:8). It certainly seems like God gives sufficiency (the good) to believers, which lead to good works (the good). However, James states, “Count it all joy, my brothers, when you meet trials of various kinds…that you may be perfect and complete, lacking in nothing” (James 1:2-4). James seems to be saying that it is the difficult circumstances (the bad) that leads to lacking nothing (the good). In this example, compromise is illogical. An interpretation that suggests a middle ground, such as that a little less good or a little less bad is the reality that leads to blessings, is absurd. Furthermore, a polemic that only good circumstances lead to good outcomes, or only bad circumstances lead to good outcomes is not only unnecessary, but misses the interpretive point of both passages. Without question, a dialectical strategy of reading the Scriptures is a valid exegetical methodology. Importantly, a dialectical strategy illuminates the meaning of the text, maintains the unity of Scripture, and is neither compromise nor polemical. However, the strategy is a valuable tool for [biblical interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-interpretation/). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) James C. Collins and Jerry I. Porras, *Built to Last: Successful Habits of Visionary Companies* (New York: Harper Collins, 2002), 43–45. ## **Bibliography** - Collins, James C., and Jerry I. Porras. *Built to Last: Successful Habits of Visionary Companies*. New York: Harper Collins, 2002. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Bible Word Studies: 2 Cor. 7:10](https://www.livestransforming.com/bible-word-studies-2-cor-710/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Bible Word Studies: 2 Cor. 7:10 ## **Semantic Range Study** A traditional word study, also known as a semantic range study, first attempts to determine what a word *could* mean by identifying the word’s semantic range and then attempts to determine what the word *does* mean based on the word’s context. In Paul’s second letter to the Corinthians, he states, “For the sorrow that is according to the will of God produces a repentance without regret, leading to salvation, but the sorrow of the world produces death” (2 Cor 7:10).[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The Greek lemma under investigation that corresponds to the English word, repentance, is the noun μετάνοια. A lemma search reveals that μετάνοια is used twenty-two times in the New Testament, twelve times in the accusative case and ten times in the genitive case. Upon investigation of the twenty-two uses of the μετάνοια, the word could have five different meanings. First, μετάνοια could mean a form of prophetic calling for a new relationship with God signified by baptism. For example, [Luke writes](https://www.livestransforming.com/luke-as-author-of-the-book-of-acts/) that “John (the Baptist) had proclaimed before His coming a baptism of repentance to all the people of Israel” (Acts 13:24; See also Acts 19:4; Matt 3:11; Mark 1:4; Luke 3:3). Second, μετάνοια could also take on the meaning of conversion. For example, Jesus states in Luke 5:32, “I have not come to call the righteous but sinners to repentance.” Third, μετάνοια could mean the process of forgiveness of sins that brings life to the individual. For example, Luke writes that after Christ’s resurrection “repentance for forgiveness of sins would be proclaimed” (Luke 24:46-47; See also Acts 5:31, 11:18, 20:21). Fourth, μετάνοια could also refer to the types of deeds associated with repentance. For example, Luke 3:8 states, “Therefore bear fruit in keeping with repentance,” and Luke writes that everyone should perform “deeds appropriate to repentance” (Acts 26:20; See also Matt 3:8). Fifth, μετάνοια could mean a turning to God or the possibility of returning to God. For example, the writer of Hebrews states, “it is impossible to renew them to repentance” (Heb 6:6; See also Heb 6:1, 12:17; 2 Pet 3:9). The historical context of the passage under study relates to Paul’s disciplinary letter written to the church at Corinth, which has since been lost, that created grief and sorrow in the hearts of the members. Furthermore, the literary context provides additional insight. First, Paul states that “sorrow that is according to the will of God produces repentance” (2 Cor 7:10a). The literary context of the passage assumes that being sorry is not equivalent to repentance, but that sorrow produces repentance. Second, Paul states that the sorrow that produces repentance leads to salvation. Accordingly, just as sorrow is not repentance, repentance is not salvation. Repentance is something produced by sorrow and leads to salvation. Returning to the previous possibilities, the first three effectively equate the meaning of repentance with salvation: experience a new relationship, conversion, forgiveness. However, in the literary context of the passage, Paul is asserting that the meaning of repentance is not something approximately synonymous with salvation, but something that leads to salvation. Furthermore, the final two options equate repentance with deeds or the act of turning. If Paul is equating the meaning of repentance to deeds or acts of turning, then he is suggesting that human effort leads to salvation, which is incoherent in Pauline theology. Accordingly, none of the options in the New Testament appear to resolve the problem. A lemma search on the word μετάνοια and the related verb form μετανοέω in the LXX generated thirteen results from the Old Testament Prophets.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Of the thirteen results, twelve were translated from the Hebrew lemma נחם, which has the connotation of showing compassion by relenting, surrendering, or capitulating. More than half of the instances translated from נחם in the LXX are rendered “relent” in English by the NASB. It is this meaning that may have been going through Paul’s mind as he reflected on the forthtelling and disciplinary rebuke he delivered to the Corinthians that caused their sorrow. A sorrow that causes an individual to relent, capitulate, or surrender from being one’s own god, a surrender that leads to salvation. ### **Semantic Field Study** [![A Greek English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature 3rd Edition 182x300 - Bible Word Studies: 2 Cor. 7:10](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/A-Greek-English-Lexicon-of-the-New-Testament-and-Other-Early-Christian-Literature-3rd-Edition-182x300.jpg "Bible Word Studies: 2 Cor. 7:10 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3PgCD4h)A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd Edition Traditional word studies focus on a word’s semantic range within a given context. However, a semantic field study broadens the scope of a traditional word study to related words, such as the word’s synonyms and antonyms. The semantic field study supplements a semantic range study by examining words that the author could have used but decided not to use. Johannes Louw and Eugene Nida identify five related words or phrases to μετάνοια, which include four synonyms, στρέφομαι, ἐπιστρέφω, ἐπιστροφή, γεννάω ἄνωθεν, and one antonym, ἀμετανόητος.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) First, the word στρέφομαι normally means to change one’s life. The word στρέφομαι is absent from the Pauline corpus. Furthermore, Paul would likely not have used this word within the context of 2 Corinthians 7:10 lest it create a works-based salvation, where the changing of an individual’s way of life would result in or lead to salvation. Second, in most circumstances the phrase, γεννάω ἄνωθεν, means to be born again or to experience a new birth. The phrase, γεννάω ἄνωθεν, is also absent from the Pauline corpus. The phrase born again is closely related to salvation. Thus, within the literary context of 2 Corinthians 7:10, Paul would likely not use the phrase because he desires to use a word that leads to salvation, not a word that represents salvation. Third and fourth, the words ἐπιστρέφω and ἐπιστροφή almost always mean to turn toward or return to something. For example, Peter states, “A dog returns (ἐπιστρέψας) to its own vomit” (2 Pet 2:22). Paul uses the verb form three times in his letters. Twice he uses the word to mean turning toward God and once to mean turning away from God (See 2 Cor 3:16; Gal 4:9; 1 Thess 1:9). The verb form, μετανοέω, is used a total of thirty-five times in the New Testament, and it most often means to change one’s life and to live like God would desire, which, again, would not lead to salvation. Thus, Paul would avoid the word in the context of 2 Corinthians 7:10. Finally, and most importantly, is the antonym, ἀμετανόητος. Paul uses the word one time in Romans 2:5 as an adjective, which means unrepentant. Here Paul states that “because of your stubbornness and unrepentant heart you are storing up wrath for yourself” (Rom 2:5). Paul aligns the unrepentant (ἀμετανόητον) closely with stubbornness, which means unwilling rather than willing, reluctant rather than relenting, and defending rather than surrendering. Furthermore, verse 5 illuminates the previous verse as well, which states, “the kindness of God leads you to repentance” (Rom 2:4b). A threatening God would lead humanity to defend, but a kind God would provide the safety necessary for humanity to surrender their life to Him. Accordingly, the antonym provides clarity to the meaning of μετάνοια in 2 Corinthians 10:7, where Paul communicates that godly sorrow leads individuals to relent, to willingly surrender their lives, to capitulate: a repentance that leads to salvation. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *New American Standard Bible* (La Habra, CA: Lockman Foundation, 1995). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) The lemma searches also generated four additional results in the book of Proverbs, a less relevant genre, and nine additional results from the Apocrypha, a less relevant context. Although the Apocrypha and Proverbs could shed light on word meaning, the literary context of Paul’s exhortation and reprimand that caused the sorrow (see 2 Cor 7:8) echoes the more relevant Old Testament Prophets. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Johannes P. Louw and Eugene Albert Nida, *Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament* (New York: United Bible Societies, 1996), 509–10. # Bibliography - Louw, Johannes P., and Eugene Albert Nida. *Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament*. New York: United Bible Societies, 1996. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [The Pastor Theologian](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-pastor-theologian/) **Published:** December 24, 2024 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Pastor Theologian The vision of the pastor theologian is to bridge the divide between the practice of ministry and the theory of academia by encouraging pastors to become adept theologians. Because systematic theology revolves around the concerns of the church, it is not unreasonable that the implied focus for the pastor theologian is a topically oriented systematic theology that reflects the pastor’s ministerial context and experience. However, bridging the divide between ministry and academia by utilizing biblical theology may be a more effective approach. Richard Fuhr and Andrea Köstenberger provide four distinct benefits of biblical theology that support its use by pastor theologians; biblical theology embraces the historical, literary, and theological context of Scripture, develops theology by inductively starting from the text, accommodates the theological tension and diversity within the canon, and builds upon themes or motifs rather than imposing categories upon the text. [\[1\]](#_ftn1) Due to the distinctive benefits of biblical theology, it appears reasonable that the ideas espoused in the concept of a pastor theologian are transferrable to biblical theology and biblical scholarship. The integration of biblical theology into the role of pastor theologian may play out in the ministry of teaching, preaching, counseling, discipling, and any other form of ministry where the Word of God is administered. For instance, imagine a situation where the pastor discovered that a young woman in his congregation had an infant who just passed away from sudden infant death syndrome. Systematic theology has traditionally adopted a doctrine of original sin that declares that everyone is born sinful by inheriting the sin nature of Adam due to his disobedience in the Garden of Eden. The application of the traditional doctrine may leave the young mom wondering if her baby is in heaven. Little comfort may be gained from a discussion around the age of accountability, especially with the scarcity of biblical support for the concept. [\[2\]](#_ftn2) Alternatively, recent biblical theologians have re-engaged the standard text that supports the traditional doctrine, Romans 5:12, and recognized that it is death that is inherited, not sin. [\[3\]](#_ftn3) If these biblical theologians are correct, the pastoral implications for grieving parents or parents of children with significant mental disabilities are profound. My context of ministry is pastoral counseling. The integration of biblical theology into the role of a pastor theologian may play out in various ways including counseling frameworks and specific counseling situations. For example, a pastor theologian involved in pastoral counseling may want to use a counseling framework that utilizes a cognitive or cognitive behavioral approach to counseling and question whether it aligns with Scripture. By utilizing systematic theology to assess the framework deductively, the theologian may find significant support in numerous verses such as Romans 12:2, Philippians 4:8, and Ephesians 4:23. Alternatively, by utilizing biblical theology, the historical, literary, and theological context will likely provide further insight. For instance, although Ephesians 4:23 clearly states “to be renewed in the spirit of your minds,” the literary context highlights the unity between mind renewal and the believer’s new creation status. [\[4\]](#_ftn4) Accordingly, by examining the verse in context and investigating additional intertextual issues, the cognitive framework may require expansion beyond cognition in order to align with Scripture. Admittedly, the example is an oversimplification. However, the point remains: the concept of a pastor theologian is transferable to the realm of biblical theology. [![the pastor theologian 182x300 - The Pastor Theologian](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/the-pastor-theologian-182x300.jpg "The Pastor Theologian - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4iZlTfM)The Pastor Theologian: Resurrecting an Ancient Vision Three roles exist for pastoral theologians: a local theologian, a popular theologian, and an ecclesial theologian. Gerald Hiestand and Todd Wilson explain that local theologians minister primarily to the local church with a strong knowledge of Christian doctrine, popular theologians expand their range of influence by translating theology to other pastors and laity, and finally, ecclesial theologians engage the scholarship of other theologians and scholars. [\[5\]](#_ftn5) Although a pastor theologian may engage in one role more than the other roles, an overlap should exist. First, a local community of believers is important for all pastor theologians. Second, all pastor theologians ought to be sensitive to opportunities beyond a local congregation to bridge the gap between ministry and academia when possible. Finally, even if the pastor theologian’s primary focus is engaging other scholars and theologians, to restrict the dissemination of knowledge to other interested parties seems irresponsible. Accordingly, an overlap between the three roles is optimal. The popular theologian probably best describes my goal and vision for ministry. My ministry focus is pastoral counseling. Thus, one of my goals is not only to translate academic theology to other pastors and laity, but also to licensed therapists interested in integrating Christian theology into their practice. Furthermore, I used to be an executive pastor for a traditional local congregation. The church grew rapidly, but the teaching pastor and I recognized that lives were not being transformed. Accordingly, I currently pastor a very small local congregation on Sunday mornings that consists mostly of former ministers who have been removed from their churches for various reasons. I see myself continuing in this role, but hope to spend most of my effort as a popular theologian. Finally, I would thoroughly enjoy the role of an ecclesial theologian, especially as a conversation partner with other PhD’s in the fields of theology, counseling, and psychology, but I am not sure I have the capability or talent to fill that role. When I enrolled in the PhD program for biblical exposition, I was unclear about the vision of the program. However, upon reading the vision of a pastor theologian in both assigned books, the need for the program and its application to my ministry became clear. I was uncomfortable applying to a PhD in theology because I was concerned that the required specialization would not fit my ministry context. I was looking for a program with the possibility for some application to a pastoral counseling environment. Furthermore, since my focus of ministry is primarily pastoral counseling, the standard DMin program also seemed to lack cohesion with God’s leading. I was looking for a program that was more research oriented and flexible with regard to application. Accordingly, the vision of a pastor theologian with a PhD in biblical exposition seems to provide the desired integration of research and application. The pastor theologian can engage in a variety of vocational ministries. The obvious role of a pastor theologian is in a traditional local congregation. However, a pastor theologian also could engage in a missionary vocation. With thousands of missionaries leaving the mission field each year, one wonders if the theological anemia that faces the church also faces missionaries and contributes to the high attrition rate. A less obvious, but no less important, vocation would be a worship pastor, worship arts pastor, or musician. A cursory review of music and the arts quickly exposes the lack of theological training that exists in many of the initiatives. Finally, in my own area of interest, the concept of a pastor theologian also aligns with the vocation of pastoral counseling. The number of [Christian counselors providing services](https://www.livestransforming.com/services/) that lack solid theological content is staggering due to the absence of theological training necessary to extend such services. I hope I can play a small part in rectifying the problem. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Richard Alan Fuhr Jr. and Andreas J. Köstenberger, Inductive Bible Study: Observation, Interpretation, and Application Through the Lenses of History, Literature, and Theology (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016), 340–48. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Without referencing specific Scripture, Millard Erickson provides a common systematic defense of the age of accountability by asserting that the inherited guilt of Adam “is only a conditional imputation of guilt.” However, to assert that Adam’s guilt is inherited and simultaneously conditioned lacks definitive support from biblical theology. Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013), 582. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) See Mark E. Biddle, Missing the Mark: Sin and Its Consequences in Biblical Theology (Nashville: Abingdon, 2005). See also Michael S. Heiser, “Romans 5:12,” Dr. Michael S. Heiser, accessed August 18, 2019, http://drmsh.com/romans-512/. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the English Standard Version (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Gerald Hiestand and Todd Wilson, The Pastor Theologian: Resurrecting an Ancient Vision (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2015), 79–87. ## **Bibliography** - Biddle, Mark E. Missing the Mark: Sin and Its Consequences in Biblical Theology. Nashville: Abingdon, 2005. - Erickson, Millard J. Christian Theology. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013. - Fuhr, Richard Alan, Jr. and Andreas J. Köstenberger. Inductive Bible Study: Observation, Interpretation, and Application Through the Lenses of History, Literature, and Theology. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016. - Hiestand, Gerald, and Todd Wilson. The Pastor Theologian: Resurrecting an Ancient Vision. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2015. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Theological Research](https://www.livestransforming.com/theological-research/) **Published:** December 24, 2024 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Theological Research [![covers 182x300 - Theological Research](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/covers-182x300.jpg "Theological Research - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DxARJF)From Topic to Thesis: A Guide to Theological Research ## From Topic to Thesis The treatment of sources is the concept from the book From Topic to Thesis: A Guide to Theological Research by Michael Kibbe that is of most interest to me. The concept has significant implications for my research as I move forward through the [PhD in Bible Exposition program](https://www.livestransforming.com/modern-pauline-bible-scholarship/). First, regarding finding direction, Kibbe explains the chronological order of sources for research: (1) tertiary sources, (2) primary sources, and then (3) secondary sources.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Prior to beginning the PhD program, I had just finished a 5,000-word research paper that examined Isaac Dorner’s mediating position on God’s immutability as part of a ThM program. The primary source was Dorner’s essay, Divine Immutability: A Critical Reconsideration. At the time, it seemed logical that my priority should be to read Dorner’s work. As I began to read Dorner’s essay, I quickly realized that I did not understand the issues that he was addressing. Although the paper’s focus was God’s immutability, Dorner was engaging the doctrine of divine simplicity, kenotic Christology, the deism and pantheism debate of the nineteenth century, the philosophy of Schelling and Hegel, and the theology of Frederick Schleiermacher. Due to my confusion, I then began investigating secondary sources, such as peer-reviewed journal articles, to supplement my understanding. I knew that tertiary sources were not academically valid, so I was in the habit of ignoring them. However, upon reflection, if I had first introduced myself to the various topics Dorner was engaging by reading the tertiary sources, then I would have understood the bigger picture, which would have likely saved me a lot of time. Second, regarding Kibbe’s chapter on gathering of sources, he suggests not spending too much time on any one source, and he also notes that not every source will be well-written.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) I really needed this advice a few months ago, and I believe sometimes these issues work together. As I reflect once again on the Dorner paper, I realize now that I was getting bogged down in reading one specific journal article that addressed Dorner’s use of Hegelian philosophy. My challenge was that this specific paper directly related to a section of my research paper, and it was the only one I could find on the topic; thus, I felt I had to use it. Unfortunately, the more I read it, the more confused I became. Granted, Hegelianism is rather complex, but I kept thinking that I must not be smart enough to understand. Accordingly, I took way too much time dissecting the article. During my research, I also remember moving on to another article and some of the concepts began to gel. I then found myself thinking that maybe I am not so dumb after all. In retrospect, I now realize, through Kibbe’s assistance, that the article that addressed Dorner’s use of Hegelian philosophy was just not well written. The combination of a complex topic, a poorly written journal article, and allowing myself to spend too much time on one article caused much frustration. For some reason, I had a mental filter that caused me to think that if an academic source was peer reviewed, then the source had to be well-written. Unfortunately, that is not the case. Although I have a long way to go in developing my own writing skills, I now have a deeper appreciation for the concepts of clarity and conciseness. Third, regarding Kibbe’s chapter on entering the discussion, I appreciated the advice regarding the utilization of sources to engage in the academic conversation. I had always heard that research was about new knowledge. Although I recognize that at the dissertation level the concept of new knowledge becomes more acute, in the past I would often feel stuck in my research by thinking that my arguments needed to be novel. Accordingly, Kibbe’s reinforcement of the idea that my research may not be new to the scholarly conversation, but the knowledge is new to me, was quite helpful. He also explains that contributing to the discussion could simply be agreeing or disagreeing with a position, building upon an already existing argument, or simply stating a position where scholars have already provided both sides of an argument.[\[3\] ](#_ftn3)I wish I would have had Kibbe’s guidance several years ago. In sum, Kibbe’s suggestions regarding the treatment of sources will significantly enhance my research efforts. ## Quality Research Papers The concept of most interest to me in the book Quality Research Papers: For Students of Religion and Theology by Nancy Vyhmeister pertains to thinking: research thinking and dissertation thinking. First, Vyhmeister’s chapter on research thinking is a good reminder of the importance of objectivity, focus, presuppositions, organization, intellectual honesty, and humility [\[4\]](#_ftn4) Although complete objectivity is impossible, the importance of weighing all the evidence, both for and against, of a given position is crucial. Focus and organization are two of my strengths. However, the importance of stating my presuppositions and recognizing the presuppositions of others should not be underestimated. Early on, I remember wondering what the professor meant by identifying the author’s presuppositions. Currently, I investigate the author’s background before reading any book or journal article to understand the perspective each scholar brings to their work. Clearly communicating one’s presuppositions is also part of intellectual honesty. Intellectual honesty has probably been my most difficult challenge as a writer. Intentional plagiarism is not a problem. However, the subjectivity of when to cite a source continues to cause some consternation. I recognize that a citation is needed when an idea is not my own, and it is not part of a field’s common knowledge. However, when a student is new in the field, it is difficult to know what is considered common knowledge. I find myself citing less now than I did when I first began graduate work, but a gray area seems to still exist. [](#_ftn4) Vyhmeister’s chapter regarding the thought process behind dissertations was also quite helpful[](#_ftn4).[\[5\] ](#_ftn5)The explanation of the literature review was particularly productive. A comprehensive review of the relevant literature plays an important role in verifying that the dissertation does not directly overlap other research. Furthermore, it allows the researcher and reader to understand the bigger picture within which the research lands. Also, the scope and nature of the dissertation itself was informative. Since a dissertation is expected to be 250-500 pages, I assume that one way to mitigate the overwhelming nature of the project is to recognize that I have written many twenty-page research papers, so the work of a dissertation will require the work of twenty of the individual research papers aligned into a cohesive whole. Furthermore, understanding the three stages of the dissertation process, proposal, writing, and defending, assists in thinking through preliminary steps I may be able to take currently. For example, as I come across relevant resources, it seems prudent to begin databasing the sources. In sum, Vyhmeister’s book provided several insightful observations. However, the chapter that examined how to think about research and the chapter that summarized the thought process behind dissertations were most profitable. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Michael Kibbe, From Topic to Thesis: A Guide to Theological Research (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2016), 45–47. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 56–57. [\[3\] ](#_ftnref3)Ibid., 77–79. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Nancy Jean Vyhmeister, Quality Research Papers: For Students of Religion and Theology (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008), 57–66. [\[5\] ](#_ftnref5) See Ibid., 209–20. # Bibliography - Kibbe, Michael. From Topic to Thesis: A Guide to Theological Research. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2016. - Vyhmeister, Nancy Jean. Quality Research Papers: For Students of Religion and Theology. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008. [](#_ftnref6) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Hermeneutical Virtues](https://www.livestransforming.com/hermeneutical-virtues/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Hermeneutical Virtues ## **Discussion Board 3: Hermeneutical Virtues** [![Invitation to Biblical Interpretation 182x300 - Hermeneutical Virtues](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Invitation-to-Biblical-Interpretation-182x300.jpg "Hermeneutical Virtues - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/41VDeQG)Invitation to Biblical Interpretation: Exploring the Hermeneutical Triad of History, Literature, and Theology Andreas Köstenberger and Richard Patterson’s book, *Invitation to Biblical Interpretation*, provides twelve interpretive virtues in the spirit of 1 Peter 1:3-11.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Powerfully, Peter explains that whoever lacks these virtues has “forgotten that he was cleansed from his former sins” (1 Pet 1:9).[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Alternatively, when I remember that I am already cleansed, I no longer need to *prove* that I am clean or good enough, which empowers a life full of virtues that fight against my flesh such as humility, submissiveness, and perceptivity. Although difficult to narrow, the following six virtues seem to be my weakest, thus most important to address. The first virtue is to be submissive. Being submissive to the Word means that I must acknowledge an authority greater than myself. The result of submitting to a higher authority includes serving others with the Word, rather than using the Word to serve personal agendas. However, most impactful to my current journey is the challenge to not domesticate Scripture. When I first entered seminary, I was concerned that my study of Scripture, especially its historical and literary context, might undermine my faith. What if the Enuma Elish was evidence that the creation story of Genesis was a myth? Did God really commit genocide against the Canaanites? What if Bultmann was right and miracles require domestication in modernity? Fortunately, I had a few professors who convinced me that there is nothing to be afraid of when studying Scripture. God can handle all my questions. The significance to my role as a biblical interpreter is that I have no reason to fear engaging any topic of Scripture or receiving any questions about God’s Word from those that I disciple or counsel. The second virtue is to be humble. Learning academic humility came from my first attempt at a biblical word study. Examples of feedback I received: (1) “This is not sound reasoning.” (2) “Here you overstate the data, but you do not realize it.” (3) “Do you realize what you wrote?” I was upset. I emailed my professor. He graciously walked me through my errors. I began focusing on the issues, instead of the person. In the end, my professor inspired me to finish my two graduate degrees and apply to the PhD program. Unfortunately, sometimes I think I need my pride. Pride makes me feel in control, and that I have more freedom to think what I want, but that freedom is an illusion. For me, humility means giving up being my own God. When I terminate myself as deity, it brings a real relief, a deep breath, a true freedom. The significance of humility to my role as a Bible interpreter is that it frees me from fearing failure and avoiding alternative views. The third virtue is to be seasoned. Becoming a seasoned interpreter means acquiring knowledge and experience. Although knowledge requires effort, experience usually requires pain. An interpreter’s pain often occurs when the pertinent scholarly arguments are missed. For example, Paul states in Romans 7:7, “What then shall we say? That the law is sin? By no means! Yet if it had not been for the law, I would not have known sin.” Paul begins the verse using the first-person plural and then moves to the first person singular. He remains in the first person singular to the end of the chapter. The inexperienced scholar may determine that the “I” refers to Paul with no further reflection. However, scholars suggest four alternatives regarding who the “I” may refer to: the Adamic direction, the autobiographical direction, the Israeli direction, and the existential direction. No scholarly consensus exists. The seasoned interpreter must identify and engage in the ongoing academic debate. The significance of being seasoned to my role as a Bible interpreter is that it assists in furthering the credibility and relevance of my arguments. The fourth virtue is being committed to the proper interpretive procedure. For me, a proper interpretive method means using the framework of the hermeneutical triad. The exploration of the historical-cultural, literary, and theological context of each passage provides a solid foundation for the interpreter’s efforts. For example, while considering the assignment on Amos coming in week seven, I began a cursory review of a few tertiary sources. The historical-cultural context highlights that Israel was experiencing significant economic prosperity during the time of Amos. Israel thought that God provided the wealth, but nothing could be further from the truth. Without an understanding of the historical-cultural context, the meaning of Amos could be distorted or lack impact. Similar insights are available regarding the literary and theological context. The significance of being committed to a proper interpretive procedure is that my teaching and counseling will rest on the correct meaning of Scripture. The fifth virtue is to be perceptive. For me, the virtue of perceptivity means to see clearly by listening empathically. Listening empathically is seeing from the perspective of another person to enhance understanding. The greatest empathic event was the incarnation. Christ placed Himself in my shoes as He walked on this earth, which allowed Him to deeply understand me. Bible interpreters can listen empathically by putting themselves in the shoes of the biblical writers, characters, and Christ Himself. For example, when I imagine myself in Abraham’s shoes on his way to the alter with Isaac, the story takes on new depth. While holding my son’s hand, I smell the sweetness of the grass as we take the long, laborious walk. I hear the crackle of the wood, hoping I will soon wake from a dream. The smoke burns my eyes, and then my heart sinks when my son asks, “Where is the lamb?” I trust anyway. The significance of being perceptive in my role as a Bible interpreter is that it enhances my ability to deeply understand Scripture and the individuals I disciple and counsel. The sixth virtue is to be courageous. For me, being courageous means to not waver in the face of adversity. I can remember years ago when I read Romans 3:21-26 and something shifted. [Christ’s righteousness](https://www.livestransforming.com/living-life-in-christ/) was given to me by grace through faith, but this time I really understood it. I was an elder at the church I attended, and I began teaching from Romans. The class I was teaching grew larger than the attendance of the church’s first service. Suddenly, I became a heretic to some. Maybe I was wrong. I needed to know, so I signed up for classes in theology at Liberty. Later, through the assistance of Liberty, I discovered I was not wrong. Although I have had plenty of cowardly moments, this time the attacks did not deter me. The significance of being courageous in my role as a Bible interpreter is that the Word of God will prevail against adversity and attacks. While reflecting upon the six virtues, it is difficult not to be both discouraged and encouraged. Discouraged because I see how often I lack these virtues when I take my eyes off God’s truth. Encouraged because I see God graciously allowing me to experience the necessary suffering that draws me closer to Him. My prayer is that the virtues will grow and benefit others as we walk each other home. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Andreas J. Köstenberger and Richard D. Patterson, *Invitation to Biblical Interpretation: Exploring the Hermeneutical Triad of History, Literature, and Theology* (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2011), 798–800. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). ## **Bibliography** - Köstenberger, Andreas J., and Richard D. Patterson. *Invitation to Biblical Interpretation: Exploring the Hermeneutical Triad of History, Literature, and Theology*. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2011. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Why Bible Translations are Different](https://www.livestransforming.com/why-bible-translations-are-different/) **Published:** December 24, 2024 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Why Bible Translations are Different Arguments regarding which version of the Bible is considered the best translation have been occurring for centuries. However, students may not understand that legitimate reasons exist, which explain the differences between Bible translations. By understanding and appreciating why translations differ, students can increase observation skills, enhance interpretive decision making, and inform the use of Bible translations. Richard Fuhr and Andreas Köstenberger provide three major reasons why Bible translations may differ: exegetical decisions, translation theory, and textual criticism. This analysis explains each of the three reasons and provides a relevant example for each. [](#_ftn6) The first major reason that English Bible translations might differ is due to exegetical decision making. Translation work requires interpretive decisions. Whether it is a word’s semantic range, case flexibility, or uncertain contextual issues, the translator must make difficult exegetical decisions. For example, John 1:5 states, καὶ τὸ φῶς ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ φαίνει, καὶ ἡ σκοτία αὐτὸ οὐ κατέλαβεν, which may be translated as, “The light shines in the darkness, and the darkness has not overcome it.” [\[1\]](#_ftn1) At issue is the word κατέλαβεν that some translations render “comprehend” (e.g., NASB, NKJV) and other translations render “overcome” (e.g., ESV, NIV). D. A. Carson explains that the verse is “a masterpiece of planned ambiguity.” [\[2\]](#_ftn2) In other words, the context of the first few verses of the [Gospel’s prologue clearly articulate](https://www.livestransforming.com/a-basic-understanding-the-gospels/) a creation narrative; thus the light that John refers to could literally be the light of creation. If the interpreter determines that the creation context prevails, then it is logical that darkness cannot overcome light because, by definition, there can be no darkness where light exists. However, it is incoherent to suggest that literal light could not be intellectually understood by darkness. An alternative rendering relies on the context of the subsequent verses in the prologue, which clearly communicate the figurative message that Jesus is the light. If the interpreter determines that the figurative context prevails, then it is logical that the spiritual darkness of the world cannot comprehend Jesus. Furthermore, a figurative context also supports the translation “overcome,” especially considering Jesus’ words in John 16:33, “But take heart; I have overcome the world.” Importantly, Carson notes that it is possible that “John, subtle writer that he is, wants his readers to see in the Word both the light of creation and the light of the redemption the Word brings in his incarnation.” [\[3\]](#_ftn3) In sum, the translator must determine how various factors, including the contextual environment, inform exegesis, and how exegesis informs translation decisions. The second major reason that English Bible translations might differ is due to translation theory. Formally equivalent translations adhere as close to the original languages as possible and attempt to provide a word-for-word translation. Formally equivalent translations include versions such as the NASB and ESV. Dynamically equivalent translations attempt to provide a functionally equivalent, thought-for-thought, translation. Translations that lean toward dynamic equivalence include the TNIV and NLT. Translation philosophy influences the translators work. For example, a phrase in Ephesians 2:11 states, τὰ ἔθνη ἐν σαρκί, which is often translated by formally equivalent translations as “Gentiles in the flesh” (e.g., ESV, NASB). Other more dynamically equivalent translations render the phrase “Gentiles by birth” (e.g., NIV). The broad semantic range of σάρξ allows for multiple translation options. Certainly, the phrase, Gentiles in the flesh, is a more literal translation of τὰ ἔθνη ἐν σαρκί, thus reasonable for formally equivalent translations. Alternatively, the phrase, Gentiles by birth, expresses the meaning of the thought more clearly than in the flesh, a phrase not common in the English language. Accordingly, the NIV’s translation, which highlights that Gentiles were not born Jews, is a reasonable translation considering its dynamically equivalent initiative. Interestingly, Harold Hoehner explains that in the immediate context, “Paul is stating that the Jews considered the Gentiles inferior just by what can be observed in the flesh.” [\[4\]](#_ftn4) In other words, the meaning of the phrase, in the flesh, may have less to do with heritage and more to do with where circumcision is performed, which suggests an overlap between translation theory and exegetical decision making. In sum, translation theory can cause significant differences between Bible translations that may require further attention by the interpreter. The third major reason that English Bible translations might differ is due to text-based decision making. Textual criticism attempts to ascertain the original Greek and Hebrew texts used for translation purposes. Consensus regarding the original text does not exist due to the variant manuscript readings that text critics use as source material. For example, in the NASB, Deuteronomy 32:8 states, “When the Most High gave nations their inheritance, when He separated the sons of man, He set the boundaries of the peoples according to the number of the sons of Israel \[emphasis added\].” [![Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible 182x300 - Why Bible Translations are Different](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Textual-Criticism-of-the-Hebrew-Bible-182x300.jpg "Why Bible Translations are Different - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3ZXM2CN)Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible: Revised and Expanded Fourth Edition Alternatively, in the ESV Deuteronomy 32:8 states, “When the Most High gave to the nations their inheritance, when he divided mankind, he fixed the borders of the peoples according to the number of the sons of God \[emphasis added\].” Thus, at issue is whether the final phrase should be rendered “sons of Israel” or “sons of God.” According to the BHS, the final phrase in the MT is בני ישראל, “the sons of Israel.” Emanuel Tov explains that the final phrase in some LXX manuscripts is υἱῶν θεοῦ, sons of God, in most LXX manuscripts is ἀγγέλων θεοῦ, angels of God, and in the Dead Sea Scroll manuscript, 4QDeutj, is בני אלהים, sons of God. [\[5\]](#_ftn5) Accordingly, the ESV follows the Qumran tradition and some LXX manuscripts, while the NASB follows the MT. Interestingly, finding an English translation that follows most of the LXX manuscripts that render the phrase “angels of God” is quite difficult. The overlap between textual and exegetical decisions in Deuteronomy 32:8 is palpable. Granted, the MT is often preferred, but should not be uncritically accepted. Furthermore, the older manuscripts, such as the Qumran text, often take precedence, a betive process. but again, internal evidence must be considered. Michael Heiser explains that the assumption of Masoretic priority suggests either an intentional error in the Qumran and Septuagintal texts due to theological predispositions or an unintentional parablepsis, where the first three letters of the word Israel (ישראל) were omitted, which left the Hebrew word for God (אל). [\[6\]](#_ftn6) Alternatively, Heiser concludes that Qumran’s theology was not misguided, but instead the theological predisposition of the MT altered the original “to eliminate a reference to heavenly beings in order to avoid allegedly polytheistic language.” [\[7\]](#_ftn7) Accordingly, the exegetical decisions of Qumran and the Masoretes necessarily merge into translation decisions. In the case of Deuteronomy 32:8, it is reasonable that the ESV and NASB may consider both textual criticism and the exegetical implications of the textual decision to determine the translation. In sum, textual criticism is a significant factor in explaining certain differences between English Bible translations. Richard Fuhr and Andreas Köstenberger suggest that three of the major reasons Bible translations differ is due to exegetical decisions, translation theory, and textual criticism. The examples provided assist in highlighting why understanding the differences between Bible translations is important. Ultimately, understanding the reason behind the translation enhances the interpr **Bibliography** . The Pillar New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans, 1991. Heiser, Michael. “Deuteronomy 32:8 and the Sons of God.” Bibliotheca Sacra 158, no. 629 (2001): 52–74. Hoehner, Harold W. Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002. Tov, Emanuel. Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible. 2nd rev. ed. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001. ### **References** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1)Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the English Standard Version (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). [\[2\] ](#_ftnref2)D.A. Carson, The Gospel According to John, The Pillar New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans, 1991), 119. [\[3\] ](#_ftnref3)Ibid., 120. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Harold W. Hoehner, Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002), 353–54. [\[5\] ](#_ftnref5)Emanuel Tov, Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, 2nd rev. ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001), 269. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Michael Heiser, “Deuteronomy 32:8 and the Sons of God,” Bibliotheca Sacra 158, no. 629 (2001): 57–58. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 59. [](#_ftnref8) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Exegesis of 1 Peter 3.18-22](https://www.livestransforming.com/exegesis-of-1-peter-3-18-22/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Exegesis of 1 Peter 3.18-22 ## **A Brief Exposition of 1 Peter 3:18-22** [![The Message of the General Epistles in the History of Redemption 182x300 - Exegesis of 1 Peter 3.18-22](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Message-of-the-General-Epistles-in-the-History-of-Redemption-182x300.jpg "Exegesis of 1 Peter 3.18-22 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DSqUX3)The Message of the General Epistles in the History of Redemption The only scholarly consensus surrounding 1 Peter 3:18-22 is that the passage is quite challenging to interpret. The two primary exegetical issues pertain to the location and timing of Christ’s proclamation to the spirits in prison in verse 19 and the salvific efficacy of baptism in verse 21. Regarding Christ’s proclamation, Brandon Crowe provides two options for the recipients of Christ’s message: believing or unbelieving humans or spiritual beings such as angels or demons.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Regarding the time of the proclamation, Crowe explains that if the recipients are human, then it occurred in the days of Noah, but if the recipients were spiritual beings, then it occurred [subsequent to Jesus’s resurrection](https://www.livestransforming.com/heaven-hell-and-resurrection-according-to-paul/).[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The following analysis argues Jesus’s proclamation occurred to spiritual beings after the resurrection. It would be difficult not to engage the allusions from the passage to the pseudonymous book of 1 Enoch found in the Jewish tradition. Karen Jobes notes that 1 Enoch provides the background language and imagery for 1 Peter 3:19-20, as both “involve spirits who receive a proclamation from God and who are closely associated with the story of Noah.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) More specifically, 1 Enoch 6-7 recounts the story of Genesis 6:1-4 by describing an episode where spiritual beings called the sons of God or Watchers copulated with human women who bore a line of giants called the Nephilim.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In 1 Enoch 9-11, the author tells of the intercession of four archangels that resulted in the Watchers being led away “to the prison where they will be confined forever” (1 Enoch 10:13).[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The Watchers then ask Enoch to petition God so they might receive forgiveness and be released from prison under the earth (1 Enoch 10:13). Enoch petitions God, but then returns to the imprisoned Watchers and gives them the bad news: “You will not obtain your petition for all the days of eternity; but judgment has been consummated in the decree against you” (1 Enoch 14:4).[\[6\]](#_ftn6) With the backdrop of 1 Enoch firmly in place, the meaning of the pericope begins to crystallize. Peter utilizes allusions to 1 Enoch typologically and provides a theological analogy between Genesis 6 and Christ’s resurrection, which assists in understanding the passage. Michael Heiser explains that Jesus is a type of Enoch who, like Enoch, “descended to the imprisoned fallen angels to announce their doom.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Thus, in 1 Peter 3:19, Jesus descends to the same spirits in prison declaring victory and proclaiming that “they were still defeated, despite his crucifixion.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In other words, Peter used the allusion to 1 Enoch to highlight that all creation, natural and supernatural, is subject to Christ (1 Pet 3:22). According to Paul J. Achtemeier, when the passage is viewed in light of a victory declaration, the immediate literary context becomes supportive as the passage provides the theological basis for Christians to resist the persecution referred to in 1 Peter 3:13-17.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) In light of Peter’s message of the authority and victory of Christ over all opposition, the issues surrounding the topic of baptism begin to resolve. The interpretive key occurs in the final phrase of 1 Peter 3:21, where baptism is “an appeal (ἐπερώτημα) to God for a good conscience (συνειδήσεως).” Heiser explains that the term ἐπερώτημα is best understood as a pledge, and συνειδήσεως often connotes the “disposition of one’s loyalties” within Greek literature.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Thus, according to Jobes, Peter is not suggesting that baptism is in itself salvific, but instead, a pledge of loyalty to Christ that aligns with Peter’s exhortation to his readers “to continue to live, even under persecution, in a way that honors their baptism.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Finally, it would be difficult to miss the connection between fallen angels and baptism as the sacred rite has always engaged in spiritual warfare between the powers of darkness and light. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Brandon D. Crowe, *The Message of the General Epistles in the History of Redemption: Wisdom from James, Peter, John, and Jude* (Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R, 2015), 181–82. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 182. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Karen H. Jobes, *1 Peter*, *Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2005), 244. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) George W. E. Nickelsburg and James C. VanderKam, *1 Enoch: The Hermeneia Translation* (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2012), 23–25. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 26-31. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 33. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Michael S. Heiser, *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible* (Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2019), 338. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Paul J. Achtemeier and Eldon Jay Epp, *1 Peter: A Commentary on First Peter*, *Hermeneia* (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996), 243. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Heiser, *The Unseen Realm*, 338. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Jobes, *1 Peter*, 255–56. # Bibliography - Achtemeier, Paul J., and Eldon Jay Epp. *1 Peter: A Commentary on First Peter*. *Hermeneia*. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996. - Crowe, Brandon D. *The Message of the General Epistles in the History of Redemption: Wisdom from James, Peter, John, and Jude*. Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R, 2015. - Heiser, Michael S. *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2019. - Jobes, Karen H. *1 Peter*. *Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2005. - Nickelsburg, George W. E., and James C. VanderKam. *1 Enoch: The Hermeneia Translation*. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2012. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Baptized for the Dead in 1 Cor. 15:29](https://www.livestransforming.com/baptized-for-the-dead-in-1-cor-15-29/) **Published:** January 18, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Baptized for the Dead in 1 Cor. 15:29 ## **Paul and the Practice of Baptism** [![1 Corinthians 182x300 - Baptized for the Dead in 1 Cor. 15:29](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/1-Corinthians-182x300.jpg "Baptized for the Dead in 1 Cor. 15:29 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4a7ORpn)1 Corinthians: A Paragraph-by-Paragraph Exegetical Evangelical Bible Commentary – BECNT (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament) Explaining Paul’s reference to those who were baptized for the dead in 1 Corinthians 15:29 is a conundrum that has faced interpreters for centuries. 1 Corinthians 15:29 states, “For otherwise, what will those do who are baptized for the dead? If the dead are not raised at all, why then are they baptized for them?” (NASB). The meaning of the verse is quite clear on its face. Paul refers to the practice of baptizing people on behalf of the dead to highlight the absurdity of the practice if a belief in the resurrection of the dead existed. As David Garland points out: “The ritual of a baptism for the dead assumes that there will be a future resurrection of the dead.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Based on a plain reading of the original Greek text, Paul’s communication and message seem quite clear. Gordon Fee explains that the plain understanding would not be questioned, and the myriad of alternatives would not be espoused, were it not for the historical and theological difficulties involved.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Fee identifies two specific problems. First, historically, no biblical precedent exists for vicarious baptism, and second, theologically, Paul appears to be contradicting his view of salvation by grace through faith.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) More poignantly, it appears that Paul is suggesting that a religious rite performed by a living person on behalf of a dead person has salvific efficacy. In light of the [historical and theological](https://www.livestransforming.com/acts-as-theological-history/) challenges, several alternatives exist. Anthony Thiselton provides no less than thirteen different interpretations with various sub-categories that nuance the initial thirteen.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) However, three interpretations appear most common and plausible: the vicarious view, the metaphorical view, and the reconciliation view. First, Garland acknowledges that most commentators continue to align with the most natural interpretation of the phrase “on behalf of the dead” and assume a vicarious baptism for the dead, which likely aligns with the preoccupation with the underworld by the Corinthians.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) A second view is that the term “dead” is used metaphorically.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) In other words, dead refers to those who have been baptized but are currently living; the recipients of baptism are considered dead. As the Apostle Paul explains in his letter to the Romans, believers have been “buried with Him (Jesus) through baptism into death” (Rom 6:4). A third view emphasizes the preposition ὑπὲρ and interprets the term to mean “with a view toward” or “for the sake of.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Thiselton explains this view by suggesting that baptism for the sake of the dead refers to an individual requesting to be baptized in order to be united or reconciled with believers who have formerly passed away.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Personally, Ockham’s razor initially prompts me to embrace the vicarious view. It seems possible that Paul could have used a common pagan practice and belief as an example to further his argument without actually supporting the convention. However, in agreement with Garland, it does seem unlikely that Paul would have ignored that the practice “smacks of a ‘magical’ view of sacramentalism.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Alternatively, Thiselton supports the reconciliation view, which appears reasonable; however, the perspective appears to place undue influence upon the preposition ὑπὲρ.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Finally, the metaphorical view appears to be most plausible, especially in light of the intertextual connections of Pauline thought. Importantly, as mentioned above, the reason that Paul made the reference was to argue for the absurdity of practicing baptism while simultaneously rejecting the resurrection of the dead; thus, the reference does not necessarily equate to support by the Apostle. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) David E. Garland, *1 Corinthians*, *Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 716. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Gordon D. Fee, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, Revised., *The New International Commentary on the New Testament* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 846. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 846–47. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Anthony C. Thiselton, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, *New International Greek Testament Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2000), 1242–49. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Garland, *1 Corinthians*, 716. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 717. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 718. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Thiselton, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, 1248. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Garland, *1 Corinthians*, 717. See also Fee, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, 847. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 718. # Bibliography - Fee, Gordon D. *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*. Revised. *The New International Commentary on the New Testament*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014. - Garland, David E. *1 Corinthians*. *Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003. - Thiselton, Anthony C. *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*. *New International Greek Testament Commentary*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2000. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [How Did Apostles Interpret the Bible?](https://www.livestransforming.com/how-did-apostles-interpret-the-bible/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # How Did Apostles Interpret the Bible? [![The Hermeneutics of the Biblical Writers 182x300 - How Did Apostles Interpret the Bible?](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Hermeneutics-of-the-Biblical-Writers-182x300.jpg "How Did Apostles Interpret the Bible? - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3W2oX0K)The Hermeneutics of the Biblical Writers: Learning to Interpret Scripture from the Prophets and Apostles Regarding the concept of Abner Chou’s prophetic hermeneutic, an important question is how the New Testament apostles interpreted the Old Testament prophets. Did the apostles shift the meaning of the prophets, or did the apostles find a fuller meaning (*sensus* *plenior*) that was absent from the prophetic understanding of the text? Chou concludes that the prophets wrote with an intentionality that sets up future writers by understanding the revelation of the past, the current location of redemptive history, and the theological consequences of their words.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Chou utilizes Matthew 1:23 and its reference to Isaiah 7:14 as a case study to further his polemic. Although Chou neither denies the challenges that King Ahaz faced, nor opposes the use of Immanuel as a sign of Judah’s deliverance, he asserts that Isaiah’s focus also addressed a future reality.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The most compelling argument supporting Chou’s perspective is the surrounding literary context. For example, it appears that Isaiah 9:1-7 is unavoidably messianic. The strongest argument against a messianic interpretation is the plain historical sense of Isaiah 7:1-17. The author explains that Judah is being attacked by two neighboring kingdoms with the intent of dethroning King Ahaz, and God offers Ahaz a sign in the form of a child’s birth that represents the end of the crisis. I agree with Chou’s conclusion that the text in Isaiah signifies something beyond the present that points toward a grander narrative, which lays the foundation for future developments. The concept of a dualistic prophecy or double fulfillment may exist within Isaiah 7. A near fulfillment may pertain to Ahaz, and the far fulfillment may pertain to Jesus. If so, William Klein, Craig Blomberg, and Robert Hubbard suggest that the near and far fulfillment could mean that the author of Isaiah 7:14 intended multiple meanings.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Alternatively, the far fulfillment could suggest that Mathew recognized a “fuller” sense (*sensus plenior*) within the text of Isaiah 7:14 that was unknown to the original author. Craig Blomberg appears to provide support for the concept of a fuller sense by stating, “Matthew could indeed speak of Isaiah’s prophecy as fulfilled in Christ,” because “the canonical form of Isaiah was already pointing in this twofold direction.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) However, it appears Chou resists both options. First, Chou presupposes that Scripture verses have one meaning, the original author’s intent, thus would reject the idea of multiple meanings.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Second, Chou also asserts that the “ideas and implications are already there” and ready for subsequent authors, thus he dismisses the idea of *sensus* *plenior*.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) If the interpreter assumes that the New Testament writers align with a specific hermeneutical assumption such as a single meaning, multiple meanings, or *sensus plenior*, then not only will the exegetical approach taken by the writers shift in the view of the interpreter, but the interpreter’s exegesis will also shift according to the hermeneutic chosen. In a similar vein as double fulfillment, a contemporary analysis of Matthew’s use of the Old Testament is offered by Christopher Wright. Wright’s nuanced approach suggests the idea of promise and fulfillment, where the promise, which is bound in the Old Testament covenants, involves ongoing levels of fulfilment.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Wright focuses on the relational aspect of the promises of God and how they are fulfilled throughout salvation history. In sum, according to Wright, the New Testament writers looked at all the events of [Jesus in light of the Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-functions-of-old-testament-law/) promises and recognized that “God had kept his word,” and “the Old Testament had declared the promise which Jesus fulfilled.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In order to summarize these factors into a cohesive whole in respect to the New Testament’s use of the Old Testament, several observations need made. First, Chou asserts that the author of Isaiah is fully aware that the text in 7:14 pertains not only to the present, but also the future, and that although the author did not know everything, he knew enough to setup the future. If this is the case, then it appears that the prophet knew that his text had two meanings, a near and a far. If so, then how does Chou maintain a traditional hermeneutical methodology that relies on a single meaning, the author’s intent, with multiple applications.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Second, if Chou is suggesting that Isaiah 7:14 only has one meaning, but the author was aware of the potential significance or application in Matthew, then why is it necessary for the author to know the future significance? A traditional hermeneutical methodology does not require authorial intent to encompass the knowledge of all the potential applications of the one meaning. Third, the concept of *sensus plenior* may pertain to the near and far fulfillment in Isaiah 7:14, but to suggest that the author of Isaiah was unaware of the hidden messianic meaning behind the text goes too far considering the eschatological context of Isaiah 9:1-7. Accordingly, an alternative explanation for Matthew’s use of Isaiah 7:14 is necessary. Matthew’s intent in writing, “Behold, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and they shall call his name Immanuel” (Matt 1:23), was not to provide an exegetically sound interpretation of Isaiah 7:14 that aligns with the concepts of a conservative hermeneutic textbook.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Matthew had in mind something much more important. Specifically, John Goldingay explains that in Isaiah 7:14 a girl will have a baby signifying that Ahaz’s crisis is over, which will prove that “God is with us,” and a few centuries later, a girl will have a baby in a manger signifying that “God is with us.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The reader can almost hear Matthew’s exuberant thoughts as he recognizes the type of situation he had read about many times in Isaiah, “It is like the story in Isaiah, this is that, God is with us now like he was with Ahaz! Do you see it?” Is it possible that the author of Isaiah could see something more than just the present circumstance of Ahaz, something eschatological, something messianic? Certainly, but it seems unlikely that Matthew was overly concerned about exactly what the original author knew seven hundred years earlier. Matthew was overjoyed by the unchanging character of God working out His plan right in front of his very eyes. God was with Ahaz, and God was with Matthew, and God is still with each one of us today. This…is…that. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Abner Chou, *The Hermeneutics of the Biblical Writers: Learning to Interpret Scripture from the Prophets and Apostles* (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2018), 119. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 114. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) William W. Klein, Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard, *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation* (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004), 174. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Craig L. Blomberg, “Matthew,” in *Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament*, ed. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 5. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Chou, *The Hermeneutics*, 26–34. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 103. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Christopher J. H. Wright, *Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1992), 70. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 102. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Chou, *The Hermeneutics*, 32, 196, 229. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Unless Otherwise Noted, All Biblical Passages Referenced Are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) John Goldingay, *Isaiah for Everyone* (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2015), 34. ## Bibliography - Blomberg, Craig L. “Matthew.” In *Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament*, edited by G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007. - Chou, Abner. *The Hermeneutics of the Biblical Writers: Learning to Interpret Scripture from the Prophets and Apostles*. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2018. - Goldingay, John. *Isaiah for Everyone*. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2015. - Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004. - Wright, Christopher J. H. *Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1992. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [The Hope of Israel: Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-hope-of-israel-book-review/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Hope of Israel: Book Review [![The Hope of Israel The Resurrection of Christ in the Acts of the Apostles 182x300 - The Hope of Israel: Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Hope-of-Israel_-The-Resurrection-of-Christ-in-the-Acts-of-the-Apostles-182x300.jpg "The Hope of Israel: Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4010auW)The Hope of Israel\_ The Resurrection of Christ in the Acts of the Apostles During the last couple of centuries, the book of Acts has come under fire from many directions including the identification of the book’s purpose and its historical reliability, which, in turn, impacts discussions around the topic of Jesus’s resurrection. Brandon Crowe, in his book *The Hope of Israel: The Resurrection of Christ in the Acts of the Apostles,* argues that “a robust appreciation of the resurrection of Christ in Acts…provides a hermeneutical guide to help untangle a number of knotty issues.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Crowe’s main thematic initiative is that the resurrection is central to the meaning of Acts. Without a proper understanding of the centrality of the resurrection in Acts, interpreters may misunderstand its exegetical nuances and also miss its theological implications. His research first provides an exegetical foundation for his initiatives followed by an examination of concepts that synthesize the resurrection’s theological significance. *Crowe not only proves the centrality of the resurrection in the book of Acts but also appropriately applies the implications of the resurrection to certain difficult issues in the book of Acts.* The following analysis first summarizes the content of Crowe’s work and then provides an analysis of its strengths and weaknesses. ## **Summary and Main Themes** In chapter one, after identifying his primary argument and main thematic initiative as explained in the introduction above, Crowe identifies his approach as a biblical-theological-canonical methodology that focuses on the text rather than historical-critical methods (7-8). Crowe then provides a brief literature review prior to identifying three aspects of Acts’s theology that highlight the centrality of the resurrection: the accomplishment of salvation, the reality of God’s kingdom, and the importance of the apostles’ witness (15-18). In chapters two through four, the author provides an exegetical analysis of the resurrection that primarily revolves around three major resurrection speeches, which include: Peter’s speech during Pentecost (Acts 2), Paul’s speech at Pisidian Antioch (Acts 13:16-41), and Paul’s speech before Herod Agrippa II (Acts 26) (19). Regarding Peter’s speech, Crowe asserts that the resurrection lays the foundation for the outpouring of the Spirit by Christ, which marks the coming of a newly inaugurated eschatological reality through Christ as foreshadowed in the Old Testament (Joel 2:28-32; Ezek 36-37) (29). Regarding Paul’s speech at Pisidian Antioch, Paul’s rhetoric provides important insights by linking phrases such as “lifting up” with the idea of resurrection, by connecting the fulfillment of prophetic promises to the resurrection, and by fusing the concepts of forgiveness and justification with the resurrection (49-57). Furthermore, Gentile inclusion is also due to a new era of messianic sonship that highlights the covenantal impact of the resurrection (61-64). Regarding Paul’s speech before Herod Agrippa II, Crowe explains that the importance of the resurrection is found in Paul’s retelling of his conversion encounter with the resurrected Christ, Paul’s assertion that his belief in the resurrection is not rejecting his ancestral faith, and Paul’s argument that he is not crazy but logically engaging [the Old Testament prophets](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/) (76-81). In sum, Paul is on trial because of the resurrection, but ironically, the resurrection is the hope of Israel (Acts 28:20) (81). Finally, surrounding the three speech pillars, the author spends considerable effort teasing out the centrality of the resurrection in several other speeches and passages in Acts. In part two of Crowe’s book, he addresses the theological significance of the resurrection in Acts by addressing the following: (1) the accomplishment of salvation, (2) the experience of salvation, (3) the defense of Scripture, and (4) the book’s canonical relevance. Regarding *historia salutis*, in chapter five, Crowe emphasizes the discontinuity that occurs via the accomplishment of salvation (105-126). To be clear, Crowe acknowledges that the continuity of the resurrection is seen in the Holy Spirit’s work prior to Jesus’s birth and that a unity exists between the various aspects of Jesus, which include resurrection, ascension, and exaltation (112-125). However, the emphasis of *historia salutis* on discontinuity spawned by the resurrection highlights a new eschatological age, which is seen in the relativization of the temple, the new equipping of the saints, and the shifts in perspectives regarding the Sabbath, food laws, circumcision, and worldwide missions (116-124). Regarding *ordo salutis*, in chapter six Crowe emphasizes the continuity represented by the experience of salvation (127-148). The sequential order of salvation takes a back seat to the experience of salvation as Crowe asserts that *order salutis* depends on *historia salutis* (128-131). The experience of forgiveness and justification (*order salutis*) occurs both before and after the accomplishment of salvation (*historia salutis*) through the death and resurrection of Christ (132-139). In other words, continuity exists in the experience of salvation across all ages. Finally, continuity also exists in the Spirit’s role, which is not fundamentally different across ages as seen in both the process of original creation and the new recreation (140-143). Regarding a defense or *apologia pro scriptura*, in chapter seven Crowe suggests that Luke’s primary initiative was to defend the Scriptures by appealing to the resurrection (149-150). Specifically, the author provides numerous examples where the resurrection fulfills the Old Testament prophecies and where the New Testament alludes to the resurrection in the Old Testament (150-167). The point is that the resurrection of Christ defends the truthfulness of the Old Testament Scriptures while simultaneously defending God’s faithfulness to keeping His covenant promises through the resurrection, which legitimizes Christianity (168-173). Finally, regarding the impact on early Christianity, in chapter eight Crowe argues that the book of Acts and, more specifically, the resurrection supports the overall coherence of the New Testament canon (175). Crowe then provides examples of how Acts unifies the New Testament and how the resurrection unites Acts to the other books of the New Testament (176-187). Since the doctrine and theological implications of the resurrection are central to Acts and since the book of Acts is the bridge and context for reading other New Testament books, the resurrection “provides part of the necessary framework for interpreting all the New Testament epistles” (188). In sum, both the exegetical foundation and the theological implications provided by Crowe feed the main thematic initiative that the resurrection is central to the meaning of Acts and provides a hermeneutical guide providing insights into several difficult exegetical issues. ## **Critical Evaluation** The following evaluation of Crowe’s book first identifies several strengths followed by a brief discussion regarding a few weaknesses. Regarding strengths, Crowe should be commended for taking on the topic of the resurrection from a text-based perspective utilizing a biblical-theological-canonical approach regarding a topic that has been underserved in the scholarly community. The overarching beauty of Crowe’s work is his ability to explain precisely how Luke places and highlights the resurrection within the book of Acts. Crowe, under the influence of Reformed scholars such as Richard Gaffin, seems to not only expertly engage biblical theology but also seamlessly weave systematic theology into his analysis. With an exegetical foundation laid, Crowe then engages the concepts of *historia salutis* and *ordo salutis* in light of the impact of the resurrection. The result of the endeavor is that Crowe appropriately holds the somewhat paradoxical tension between the continuous and discontinuous reality of salvation history without overemphasizing either perspective. Another strength of Crowe’s work shows up in the connection between the resurrection and the defense of Scripture in chapter seven. In Matthew Jensen’s critique, he asserts that Crowe’s exegetical evidence was insufficient to support the idea that “the reason the Scriptures were quoted in the context of the resurrection were to validate the Scriptures.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Certainly, the Scriptures validate the resurrection. However, it seems difficult to believe that the significant intertextual connections do not cut both ways, and that the resurrection also validates the truthfulness of Scripture, which is what Crowe insightfully recognizes. Crowe also engages in a strong exegetical analysis within part one of the monograph. The exegesis is reasonable and the author, while often digging into the details of the original language and minutia of the text, does not seem to get bogged down and brings the reader back to the overarching initiatives. For example, Crowe references Peter’s quotation of Joel 2:28-32 as an example where the Spirit points to the latter days. Crowe then appropriately points back to the intertextual connections of the Old Testament while also pointing forward to the impact of the resurrection with the gathering of the Jews in Jerusalem at Pentecost (Acts 2:5) (22-23). In other words, Crowe finds a balance between the details and the overarching thematic initiatives. Regarding weaknesses, the most significant pertain to the author leaving the reader wanting more. At times, Crowe would make a strong case for an assertion, make the assertion, and then leave the reader with unanswered questions. To be fair, no book answers all questions, and a book written for a popular rather than scholarly audience also has its limitations. However, for example, Crowe asserts that “Christ’s resurrection…overcomes the sin of Adam” and is “related to the granting of the Holy Spirit” (36). Both assertions are made, and neither is unreasonable, but the reader is left wondering how exactly the two relate. Additionally, regarding *historia salutis*, Crowe asserts that the resurrection is the “key to the righteousness and justification of his people” (111). Again, the contention is not unreasonable, but the reader is left wondering exactly how the author perceives the relationship between the resurrection and δικαιοσύνη, especially in light of how it may canonically inform Pauline soteriology. A minor weakness involves the blurring of lines of discontinuity and continuity between *historia salutis* and *order salutis*. For example, Crowe uses the accomplishment of salvation to support the discontinuity of salvation history, but then intermingles the continuity of the Spirit from creation (Gen 1:2) to recreation within the discussion on discontinuity (115-116), which could create confusion when the reason for inclusion is not evident and when the following chapter so appropriately handles the issue (140-143). Crowe not only proves the centrality of the resurrection in the book of Acts but also appropriately applies the implications of the resurrection to issues surrounding the experience and accomplishment of salvation, the reciprocal relationship between the resurrection and Scripture, and the canonical placement of the book of Acts. Regardless of the minor issues noted above, Crowe provides an accessible book for a variety of readers. Students will likely find the intertextual Old Testament connections and the canonical insights regarding the book of Acts particularly interesting. Scholars will find a work that continues to contribute to the ongoing conversation regarding the centrality of the resurrection in the book of Acts. Finally, all audiences will find the exegetical analysis and theological implications engaging. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Brandon D. Crowe, *The Hope of Israel: The Resurrection of Christ in the Acts of the Apostles* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2020), 5. Note that parenthetical numerals will be used to reference the book under investigation for the remainder of the critique. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Matthew D Jensen, “The Hope of Israel: The Resurrection of Christ in the Acts of the Apostles,” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 31, no. 3 (2021): 438. ## Bibliography - Crowe, Brandon D. *The Hope of Israel: The Resurrection of Christ in the Acts of the Apostles*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2020. - Jensen, Matthew D. “The Hope of Israel: The Resurrection of Christ in the Acts of the Apostles.” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 31, no. 3 (2021): 436–38. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Bo’s Cafe](https://www.livestransforming.com/bos-cafe-2/) **Published:** October 9, 2010 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Bo’s Cafe A delightful video training series based on the deeply rich life lessons from Bo’s Cafe focusing on God’s love, discipleship, our identity in Christ, creating safer relational space created by John Lynch, author of Bo’s Cafe and Derek Wilder of Lives Transforming. **BOOK SUMMARY** High-powered executive Steven Kerner is living the dream in southern California. But when his bottled pain ignites in anger one night, his wife kicks him out. Then an eccentric mystery man named Andy Monroe befriends Steven and begins unravelling his tightly wound world. Andy leads Steven through a series of frustrating and revealing encounters to repair his life through genuine friendship and the grace and love of a God who has been waiting for him to accept it. A story to challenge and encourage, BO’S CAFE is a model for all who struggle with unresolved problems and a performance-based life. Those who desire a fuller, more authentic way of living will find this journey of healing a restorative exploration of God’s unbridled grace. **Segment 1: Why Bo’s Café** John Lynch, author of Bo’s Cafe, explains why Bo’s Cafe was written **Segment 2: Discipleship – How?** It appears that discipleship is a main theme of Bo’s Cafe. Listen to John’s perspective on discipleship. **Segment 3: Who Am I?** Who I Am is discussed throughout the book. Why is this so important? John explains why this is key to our spiritual growth. **Segment 4: Performance** Performing ourselves into the good graces of God can be very risky. John explains how this critical issue changes everything. **Segment 5: Safe Places** Creating safe places is a key component for spiritual growth. John answers why it is so difficult for Christians to create safety in relationships. **Segment 6: Fix Them!** Is it our job to try and fix people who are broke? Our fixing mentality can be very dangerous and John explains why. **Segment 7: Listening Power** Listening is a powerful part of discipleship. Listening for readiness may be the most undervalued skill of discipleship. **ABOUT THE AUTHOR** Bruce McNicol is president of Leadership Catalyst, Inc. and an international speaker and consultant. He holds a master’s in theology and a doctorate in organizational and leadership development. Previously he served for ten years as president of the international church planting organization Interest Associates. Bill Thrall serves as vice-chair of Leadership Catalyst, mentor, and coauthor of the bestselling *TrueFaced* resources (www.truefaced.com), The Ascent of a Leader, and Beyond Your Best. John Lynch is a national conference speaker and writer for LCI, holds a master’s of theoology from Talbot Seminary, and has twenty years’ experience as a teaching pastor of Open Door Fellowship. He’s also cofounder and playwright of a theater troupe in Phoenix. **Categories:** Uncategorized --- ### [FREEDOM Video Training - Introduction](https://www.livestransforming.com/freedom-introduction/) **Published:** June 26, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Spiritual Growth is a topic most Christians agree is vital, but few know how it occurs. The FREEDOM Training Video Series shows you the HOW! This introductory video lays a foundation that will be built on in the next training videos that explain how to be a disciple from the Inside-Out. **Content:** ![author avatar](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Wilder.jpg) Derek Wilder Executive Director DEREK WILDER, PhD, is the Executive Director of Lives Transforming Group, Inc., a Christian counseling ministry focused on personal transformation, and the author of FREEDOM and Minds on Fire. Wilder has a Master of Theological Studies, an MDiv in Pastoral Counseling, and a PhD in Biblical Exposition. Wilder's scholarly focus lies in Pauline studies, with his doctoral dissertation specifically examining the ontological implications present in the eighth chapter of Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Wilder, an adjunct professor, founded Convergence Therapy, integrating cognitive therapy and grace-based theology into the accredited college course: “Thought Life & Spirit Growth.” [See Full Bio](https://www.livestransforming.com/derek-wilder-author-bio/) [ ](https://www.livestransforming.com/derek-wilder-author-bio/) Biblical Theology Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Pauline Studies **Categories:** 0. Freedom Introduction --- ### [Theology of Jonah](https://www.livestransforming.com/theology-of-jonah/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Theology of Jonah ## **Introduction** The overall theological message of the book of Jonah has been debated throughout the centuries. The vast number of themes in Jonah surely contribute to the diversity of the debate. A popular proposal is to read the book of Jonah typologically where Jonah represents the nation of Israel, a nation that resists Gentile inclusion. Alternatively, the typological interpretation can be applied to Christ, as a figure that preached repentance and experienced a type of death and resurrection. Another proposal focuses on the missional aspect of the book. When God calls the church to a mission, the church must listen. Finally, some suggest the overall message of the book is repentance and forgiveness, which is certainly highlighted in chapter 3. All the proposals have merit, but each one falls short of encapsulating the basic overriding theological message of Jonah: God is sovereign. The following analysis explores three major theological themes that support the overall theological message of the book: (1) God is in control of life, (2) God is in control of salvation, and (3) God is in control of His mission. ## **God Is in Control of Life** The fact that God is in control of life is quickly revealed in the first chapter of Jonah. Jonah announces to the mariners God’s sovereignty by acknowledging God as the Creator who is in control of life by stating, “I fear the Lord, the God of heaven, who made the sea and the dry land” (Jon 1:9). [\[1\]](#_ftn1) More specifically, once Jonah disobeys his commission, God hurls a great wind upon the sea (1:4). [![Hosea Jonah Volume 31 182x300 - Theology of Jonah](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Hosea-Jonah-Volume-31-182x300.jpg "Theology of Jonah - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/41V6arP)Hosea-Jonah, Volume 31: Word Biblical Commentary God directs the mariners to cast lots and identify the culprit (1:7). God directs the wind to calm once Jonah is thrown overboard, and God directs the fish to swallow Jonah (1:15-17). God is in full control of all the resources of His creation. Douglas Stuart notes that through the tumultuous ups and downs of the first chapter, God “used his sovereignty to rescue a disobedient prophet.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Stuart is certainly correct. However, God not only rescued Jonah, He also rescued the mariners by using all of creation to accomplish His purposes. An important aspect of the theological messaging of God’s sovereign rescue was the participants’ experience. Alan Jo Hauser observes that Jonah’s experience throughout the first chapter is one of passivity, which is reflected in the meaning of the name, Jonah.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Furthermore, the term fear (יָרֵא) is used three times to describe the mariner’s experience, with the final usage reversing course and turning to worship.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Like so many modern responses to difficult circumstances, while the mariners frantically responded in fear and Jonah responded apathetically, God’s sovereign rescue was in process. The sovereign control of God over life circumstances continues as Jonah is vomited onto dry land (2:11). God then provides a second chance for Jonah, and Jonah delivers the five-word sermon (2:4). The circumstances orchestrated by God then provide the opportunity for the Ninevites to repent, which they do in force (2:5-8). At this point, God’s sovereign rescue of Jonah has become a platform for another rescue, the Assyrians. Once the people of Nineveh repent, then God relents. However, God is not finished. God has one more potential rescue to orchestrate. When the Ninevites repent, and God relents, Jonah is angry. The prophet knows that God is merciful, but when His mercy is extended to Jonah’s evil enemy, Jonah is resentful and wishes to die (4:1-3). God now appoints a plant to provide shade for Jonah (4:6). John Walton argues that the plant symbolizes the unmerited grace of God.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) God then appoints a worm to attack the plant and the plant withers, which takes away the comfortable shade of God’s grace from Jonah (2:7). Once again, under God’s sovereign control of life’s circumstances, He utilizes His creation to orchestrate a rescue plan. However, the rescue in chapter 4 is not a physical rescue from the belly of a fish, but a spiritual rescue from the darkening of Jonah’s heart. Finally, God’s sovereign control over life’s circumstances is not to be equated with a predetermined outcome that relinquishes responsibility from humanity. The decision to learn the lessons orchestrated by God were the choices of both Jonah and the Ninevites. Unfortunately, the book of Jonah ends with an unanswered question that hints at Jonah’s choice to remain angry. Furthermore, the Assyria people ultimately choose to reject God and return to their evil ways as recorded by the prophet Nahum.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) ## **God Is in Control of Salvation** Jonah confesses at the end of his prayer in chapter 2 that “[Salvation belongs](https://www.livestransforming.com/luther-salvation/) to the Lord!” (Jon 2:9). God was in control of delivering the mariners from the storm, Jonah from the belly of the fish, and Nineveh from calamity. In each case, God’s extension of mercy appears to be contingent upon the individuals. God appears to extend mercy and grace *because* the mariners cried out to God, Jonah prayed to God, and the Ninevites turned from their evil ways. In other words, God’s sovereign control of salvation appears to be conditioned upon the response of the individuals. However, if salvation is conditional, then God’s sovereign control of salvation is undermined. The individuals’ response determines the extent of God’s mercy and grace: humanity controls God. God’s control over salvation entails both God’s sovereignty and God’s relationality. As Daniel Timmer provides an important summary, God’s “sovereignty is not exercised arbitrarily, but responsibly and responsively, interacting with the moral, or immoral, actions of human beings.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The application of God’s sovereign relationality to God’s control of salvation is crucial for an appropriate understanding of the message of Jonah. If the reader concludes that God’s salvation is conditioned upon a human response, and that he must simply cry out to God like the sailors, pray a prayer like Jonah, or wear sackcloth and sit in ashes like the king of Nineveh in an attempt to control the salvation of God, the point is completely missed. God did not have to offer salvation to the participants. God’s extension of mercy and grace is not conditioned upon a human response but is determined by God’s sovereign relationality. God could have determined that not responding to sailors’ cries, Jonah’s prayer, and the Ninevites’ repentance was the most gracious and loving response that would have provided the best opportunity for the participants to be reconciled to their Creator. If that had been the case, God’s response in each situation would have been different: humanity does not control God. In short, God is in complete control of salvation through his sovereign relationality; a concept that eventually angered Jonah. Jonah rejoiced at the end of chapter 2 when God delivered him from certain death. However, when God delivers the Ninevites from certain destruction, “it displeased Jonah exceedingly and he was angry” (Jon 4:1). Jonah then complains to God that he fled from Tarshish because he assumed that God would deliver the Ninevites from destruction (Jon 4:2). The double standard is palpable. As Kevin Youngblood observes, Jonah did not understand the significant implications of his own words at the end of his prayer until after he completed his mission to Nineveh.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Accordingly, the message that arises from God’s activity in the book of Jonah is that His salvation extends beyond the covenant people of Israel to the evil Assyrians to the consternation of Jonah.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) God’s control of salvation means He alone chooses how the deliverance occurs, when the deliverance occurs, and, perhaps most importantly, who is offered deliverance. ## **God Is in Control of His Mission** The overarching theme that God is sovereign not only means that God is in control of life’s circumstances and the how, when, and who of salvation, but that God is also in control of His mission. The key biblical text for God’s mission is the prophet’s prayer in Jonah 4:2, “O Lord, is not this what I said when I was yet in my country? That is why I made haste to flee to Tarshish; for I knew that you are a gracious God and merciful, slow to anger and abounding in steadfast love, and relenting from disaster.” Douglas Stuart explains that Jonah’s prayer cited an ancient formula first found in Exodus 34:6, “The Lord, the Lord, a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness” (cf. Num 14:18; Pss 86:15; 103:8; 145:8; Nah 1:3; Neh 9:17).[\[10\]](#_ftn10) The language of Exodus 34:6 becomes a central confession throughout the entire Old Testament. For example, Jonah’s phrase, נחם על־הרעה, “relenting from disaster” is also found in Joel 2:13. The contextual backdrop of the Exodus 34 passage is the Israelites’ worship of the golden calf in Exodus 32. In response to Israel’s idolatry, God extends mercy and grace. The significance of the relationship between Jonan 4:2 and Exodus 34:6 is that, according to Gary Yates, the reference in Jonah is the first time the confession is applied to non-Israelite nation.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Thus, Yates explains that the parallels “demonstrate that Yahweh extends mercy to the nations in response to their repentance in the same way that he does toward Israel.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) The implication is that God’s character is consistent in all times to *all* people, which has significant missional ramifications. God is in control of His mission from the beginning of the Old Testament. Genesis begins with creation, moves through the judgment of the flood, and continues with the rebel nations being dispersed by God throughout the earth at Babel (Gen 11:8). According to Michal Heiser, the biblical worldview from the time of the Babel experience onward is “about Israel verse the disinherited nations, and Yahweh versus the corrupt, rebel *elohim* of those nations.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Accordingly, the revealing of God’s character of mercy and grace to the non-Israelites ought not to be a surprise in light of God’s covenantal promise to Abraham. God promises Abraham in Genesis 12:1-3 that all the families or tribes will be blessed through the nation of Israel fathered by Abraham. The entire Old Testament is the story of Yahweh reclaiming the disinherited non-Israelite nations. Thus, Youngblood appropriately observes that Yahweh uses Jonah’s escapades as an opportunity to reveal Himself to even the hated Assyrians as part of reclaiming the disinherited nations through God’s chosen people, the nation of Israel.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Isaiah reinforces God’s missional initiative by describing a time when Israel, Egypt, and Assyria all will be recognized as the people of God (Isa 19:23-24). Without question, God is in complete control of His mission and the Old Testament, and more specifically, Jonah 4:2 reveals the missionary heart of Yahweh, the sovereign God of the universe. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Douglas Stuart, *Hosea-Jonah*, vol 31 of *Word Biblical Commentary* (Dallas: Word, 1987), 480. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Alan Jon Hauser, “Jonah: In Pursuit of the Dove,” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 104, no. 1 (1985): 23. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) See further discussion regarding repetition and reversal in Phyllis Trible, *Rhetorical Criticism: Context, Method, and the Book of Jonah*, ed. Gene M. Tucker, Old Testament Series (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1994), 151. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) John H. Walton, “The Object Lesson of Jonah 4:5-7 and the Purpose of the Book of Jonah,” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 2 (1992): 57. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) See discussion of Nineveh’s relapse in Gary E. Yates, “The Problem of Repentance and Relapse as a Unifying Theme in the Book of the Twelve,” *Themelios* 41, no. 2 (2016): 259. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Daniel C. Timmer, *A Gracious and Compassionate God: Mission, Salvation and Spirituality in the Book of Jonah*, ed. D. A. Carson, vol. 26, *New Studies in Biblical Theology* (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2011), 112. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Kevin J. Youngblood, *Jonah: God’s Scandalous Mercy*, ed. Daniel I. Block, 2nd ed., Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 118–19. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) See Gary Yates, “The Literary Structure of the Book of Jonah,” Liberty University, video of lecture, 4:20–4:50, http://learn.liberty.edu/webapps/blackboard/content/listContent.jsp?course\_id=\_622614\_1&content\_id=\_ 39582205\_1. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Stuart, *Hosea-Jonah*, 503. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) See Gary Yates, “Jonah and God’s Heart for the Nations,” Liberty University, video of lecture, 3:00–3:30, https://learn.liberty.edu/webapps/blackboard/content/listContent.jsp?course\_id=\_622614\_1&content\_ id=\_39582225\_1. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Yates, “The Problem of Repentance,” 258. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Michael S. Heiser, *The Unseen Realm* (Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015), 115. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Youngblood, *Jonah*, 88. # Bibliography - Hauser, Alan Jon. “Jonah: In Pursuit of the Dove.” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 104, no. 1 (1985): 21–37. - Heiser, Michael S. *The Unseen Realm*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015. - Stuart, Douglas. *Hosea-Jonah*. Vol. 31 in *Word Biblical Commentary*. Dallas: Word, 1987. - Timmer, Daniel C. *A Gracious and Compassionate God: Mission, Salvation and Spirituality in the Book of Jonah*. Vol. 26 of *New Studies in Biblical Theology*. Edited by D. A. Carson. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2011. - Trible, Phyllis. *Rhetorical Criticism: Context, Method, and the Book of Jonah*. Edited by Gene M. Tucker. Old Testament Series. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1994. - Walton, John H. “The Object Lesson of Jonah 4:5-7 and the Purpose of the Book of Jonah.” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 2 (1992): 47–57. - Yates, Gary. “Jonah and God’s Heart for the Nations,” Liberty University, Video Lecture, 3:00–3:30, https://learn.liberty.edu/webapps/blackboard/content/listContent.jsp? course\_id= \_622614\_1&content\_ id=\_39582225\_1. - ——— . “The Literary Structure of the Book of Jonah.” Liberty University, Video Lecture, 4:20-4:50, http://learn.liberty.edu/webapps/blackboard/content/listContent.jsp? course\_id=\_622614\_1&content\_id=\_39582205\_1. - ——— . “The Problem of Repentance and Relapse as a Unifying Theme in the Book of the Twelve.” *Themelios* 41, no. 2 (2016): 248–62. - Youngblood, Kevin J. *Jonah: God’s Scandalous Mercy*. Edited by Daniel I. Block. 2nd ed. Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Exposition of Jonah 3](https://www.livestransforming.com/exposition-of-jonah-3/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Exposition of Jonah 3 ## **Introduction** Many pastors and teachers through the years have taught that the book of Jonah, and specifically chapter 3, represents powerful preaching, incredible missionary prowess, and extraordinary evangelistic results. However, the question of the efficacy of Jonah’s mission, the extent of the Ninevites’ redemption, and the appropriateness of God’s response remain disputed. Without a proper understanding of Jonah 3, the interpreter risks not only preaching an incorrect message and possibly communicating an invalid method of evangelism but also incorrectly thinking about God and His attributes. The message of Jonah 3 emphasizes God’s mercy and compassion extended to the Ninevites within God’s ongoing mission to reclaim the disinherited nations. The analysis begins by examining Jonah’s second calling from God and is followed by an analysis of his message to the Ninevites. The research finishes by investigating the response of the Ninevites to Jonah’s message, the King of Nineveh’s proclamation to the people, and God’s decision to relent. ## **The Calling (3:1-2)** Jonah begins again or, more to the point, Yahweh provides Jonah a new start with the same three imperatives declared in Jonah 1:2: get up (קוּם), go (הָלַךְ), and proclaim (קָרָא). Although the similarities are palpable, upon close investigation, the commission in chapter 3 is distinct. First, in some ways, the entire context has changed because the reader has developed a deeper understanding of the character of both Jonah and Yahweh. The defiant Jonah appears to have been humbled, and the rebellious Jonah appears to have lost his swagger, at least for the moment. Additionally, Yahweh shows a penchant for second chances and a steadfastness that seems, at first, to defy logic, coupled with a profound sense of mercy that transcends Jonah’s prior escapade. The second distinction is a significant modification in the prepositions used regarding Jonah’s proclamation. In Jonah 1:2 the prophet is to proclaim עַל Nineveh, and in Jonah 3:2 the prophet is to proclaim אֶל Nineveh. The NET Bible notes explain that the former is an adversative that often signifies a form of judgment (1 Kgs 13:4; Jer 49:29), and the latter is often more positive and denotes a form of deliverance (Deut 20:10; Isa 40:2).[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The shift in prepositions may highlight the evil that deserves judgement in chapter 1 and the potential for deliverance in chapter 3.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Perhaps the shift to the more positive preposition clarifies its original usage, which may have had overtones of deliverance. Certainly, Jonah argues that he knew all along that God’s mercy would win (Jon 4:2). The third distinction pertains to the purpose of God’s commission. In Jonah 1:2, Yahweh provides the reason for Jonah’s commission: the רָעָה of the Ninevites. F. Brown, S. Driver, and C. Briggs (BDB) provides three primary meanings for the term רָעָה: misery or distress, injury, and ethical evil.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The immediate context appears to suggest that Jonah is to preach a message of judgment due to the Ninevites’ evil ways. However, in light of the broader context, one cannot rule out the use of a double entendre to facilitate a touch of irony, whereby God mercifully desired Jonah to preach a message of deliverance to the Ninevites facing misery or distress. Yahweh provides a second chance to a rebellious prophet, which is unique to Jonah. The question remains as to why Yahweh would make such an exception. Kevin Youngblood provides two explanations. First, Jonah purposefully rebelled with the intention of forcing Yahweh to extend swift judgment and remove him from his duties.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) However, neither Yahweh’s judgment nor His mercy can be manipulated by man. Second, Yahweh provides the consummate model of mercy that He desires from His recalcitrant and judgmental prophet.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Yahweh models for Jonah the type of mercy He embodies for the pagan nations He promised Abraham that He would reclaim and bless (cf. Gen 12:1-3). ## **The Sermon (3:3-4)** This time Jonah followed Yahweh’s directives and got up and went to proclaim what is likely the shortest sermon ever recorded to the great city of Nineveh. The phrase לֵֽאלֹהִ֔ים עִיר־גְּדוֹלָה֙ is debated. Billy Smith and Franklin Page explain that some scholars express the phrase as a superlative, an exceedingly great city, while other scholars treat the phrase as a circumlocution for a large city.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Another possibility is to render the phrase literally, a great city to the gods (*elohim*). Some commentators discount a literal translation asserting the unlikelihood of a reference to Assyrian gods.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) However, according to Michael Heiser, the biblical worldview from Babel onward is “about Israel versus the disinherited nations, and Yahweh versus the corrupt, rebel *elohim* of those nations.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Furthermore, Genesis 10:11-12 not only refers to Assyria as one of the disinherited nations dispersed at Babel in the following chapter, but also may be referring to Nineveh as a great city, הַגְּדֹלָֽה הָעִ֥יר. The context of Jonah rests on God’s extravagant mercy extended to reclaim disinherited nations relinquished to the *elohim*. Accordingly, the literal translation seems appropriate; Jonah went according to the word of Yahweh, and Nineveh was a great city to the gods. The literal translation of the phrase לֵֽאלֹהִ֔ים עִיר־גְּדוֹלָה֙ may be further supported with the alternating use of the terms Yahweh and *elohim* within the chapter. First, Youngblood explains that Israel would recognize their God as Yahweh, while the Gentiles would be more familiar with the language of *elohim* as a designation for a deity or deities.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) For example, the word of Yahweh spoken to Jonah and referenced in verse 1 and 3 reflects Jonah’s Semitic background. However, when the context refers to the Ninevites’ perception of God in Jonah verses 8-10, the term *Elohim* is used. Second, the shift from Yahweh to *elohim* in a single verse in verse 3 supports the assignment of non-Israelite gods to the meaning of *elohim,* which provides further evidence of the possibility for a literal interpretation of לֵֽאלֹהִ֔ים עִיר־גְּדוֹלָה. Jonah followed the word of Yahweh and went to the city of Nineveh, which was a journey of three days. The meaning of the three-day journey in verse 3 is also debated. Leslie Allen notes that the ancient Greek historian, Diodorus Siculus, asserts that the circumference of Nineveh was 480 stades, which is about 55 miles.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) The idea is that Jonah could walk 55 miles in three days. Alternatively, Donald Wiseman suggests that the three-day journey refers to an “ancient oriental practice of hospitality.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The practice involves a total of three days where the first day the visitor arrives at the location, the second day the visitor accomplishes the purpose of the trip, and the final day the visitor departs. However, Charles Halton is convinced that the literal interpretations defy modern-day archaeological reconstructions; thus the three-day journey is a figure of speech intended to evoke a visceral response at the enormity of the city.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) More likely, Douglas Stuart is correct in avoiding measurements and simply asserting that it took three literal days to accomplish the tasks according to the word of Yahweh.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) During the three-day visit, Jonah communicates a short five-word sermon to the Ninevites. Jonah’s sermon is straightforward: “In another forty days Nineveh will be demolished” (Jon 1:4). Two issues arise from Jonah’s sermon. First, the symbolism of forty days may assist in the interpretation of the sermon. The original readers would likely have noticed two intertextual allusions. [Moses’s intercession](https://www.livestransforming.com/law-of-moses/) for Israel’s sin of idolatrous worship of the golden calf in Deuteronomy 9:18 lasted forty days. Additionally, in Genesis 7:4, the flood narrative describes rain lasting forty days and forty nights blotting out everything on the face of the earth. Youngblood notes that both passages symbolize potential judgment of large population groups as well as a reminder of the possibility of redemption.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Although forty days certainly has overtones of judgment and potential redemption, R. W. L. Moberly also recognizes that the idiom means an “indefinite long period of time.” [\[15\]](#_ftn15) If forty days means a long period of time, then the question remains as to how the meaning reconciles with the urgency of Jonah’s message and the immediacy of the Ninevite’s response. Phyllis Trible goes so far to suggest that the idiom is “incongruous with the idiom of Jonah’s prediction.”[\[16\]](#_ftn16) However, since the intertextual evidence supports both potential judgement and the possibility of redemption, it is not unreasonable for the literary intention of the forty days to represent both the possibility of imminent judgment and the long patience of Yahweh in His desire to reclaim the nation. Jonah and the original Jewish readers would likely have understood the connections between forty days and the concepts of judgement and redemption, and based on the remainder of the chapter, it appears the Ninevites also received the message. The second issue in Jonah’s sermon is the ambiguity of the meaning of the term הָפַךְ, which must have been quite alarming to the Ninevites. The word at the end of verse 4 is a Niphal participle feminine singular verb functioning as a predicative passive participle.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Allen, in line with Moberly, suggests the verb has overtones of a testing period, which may decrease the gravity of the situation.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) However, according to Daniel Timmer, in the Niphal stem, the meaning of the term, הָפַךְ, is to overturn, which may connote destruction or a change of heart.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Similar to the meaning of forty days in Jonah’s sermon, the ambiguity of the term הָפַךְ likely implies the possibility of two different results: destruction and hope. Jonah’s three-day journey combined with the ambiguity of both the forty days and the term הָפַךְ in Jonah’s sermon highlight the mercy and compassion of a deity committed to reclaiming the people of Nineveh. ## **The Response (3:5-6)** The Ninevites’ response to Jonah’s sermon was compelling and swift. Three verbs communicate the response of the people: believed (אָמַן), declared (קָרָא), and put on (לָבֵשׁ). According to Smith and Page, the verbs describe three aspects of the Ninevites’ reaction: (1) a shift in belief, (2) a shift in speech, and (3) a shift in behavior.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Furthermore, from a literary perspective the phrase “from their greatest to their smallest” represents both a merism and a pleonasm, which emphasizes the breadth of response and reaction of the people.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) However, the question remains as to whether the Ninevite response was an authentic religious conversion. The literal translation of the phrase, בֵּֽאלֹהִ֑ים … וַֽיַּאֲמִ֛ינוּ, is “and they believed in *Elohim*” (Jon 3:4). Bruce Waltke and M. O’Connor explain that the preposition ב is used a the direct object marker for a variety of verbs includes verbs of emotion such as believe and trust.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Accordingly, a reasonable translation of the phrase in verse 4 is simply “they believed *Elohim*,” as nothing in the grammar requires that the Ninevites experienced an authentic conversion. Supporting the grammar, the word *Elohim*, not Yahweh, is used to describe the Ninevites’ belief, which implies that Jonah was not specifically proclaiming Yahweh. Smith and Page assert that chapter 3 does not even hint at Jonah mentioning the God of Israel to the Ninevites. Further, nothing in the text indicates that the Ninevites relinquished their other gods, and as Douglas Stuart asserts, they remained the same “polytheistic, syncretistic, pantheists they had been all along.”[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Finally, the book of Nahum affirms that the Ninevites soon return to violence, which undermines the reality of an authentic conversion.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) In short, the Ninevites believed God would soon destroy them, but nothing within the context suggests a conversion to monotheism. Soon after the positive response of the Ninevite people, the King of Nineveh hears of Jonah’s message and takes it seriously. The identity of the king has been a significant source of deliberation. Due to the powerful provincial governors who flanked Assyria and weakened its power, Paul Lawrence asserts that the king of Assyria’s reign was limited to Nineveh, thus he is identified as its Nineveh.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Jay Lemanski proposes that, during Jonah’s ministry, Nineveh was an autonomous state, which had its own ruler.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Additionally, Timmer suggests the king may have relinquished the throne due to the risks associated with Jonah’s message and placed a substitute king on the throne in accordance with the practices of the ancient Near East.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) The substitute king would be killed as soon as the threat subsided. Finally, Paul Ferguson denies that Nineveh was an autonomous state and that the king ruled Assyria, and instead, he believes the king was a local governor ruling the province of Nineveh.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) The identification of the king is inconclusive. However, in agreement with Stuart, the most straightforward conclusion is that the king of Nineveh was one of the weak eight-century Assyrian kings, such as Assur-dan III, who reigned during a time of omens, riots, and instability that may have opened the hearts of the Ninevites.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) The specific response of the king of Nineveh was the wearing of sackcloth and sitting in ashes. Tucker observes the appearance of “ashes” (אֵ֫פֶר) and “sackcloth” (שַׂק) in other contexts and suggests they symbolize mourning (cf. Esther 4:1; 2 Sam 13:19; Jer 6:26).[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Ayelet Seidler clarifies the general concept of mourning by asserting that it included genuine remorse and a commitment to moral reform.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) Finally, the replacement of the king’s robe with sackcloth and the sitting in ashes, according to Youngblood, represent an abdication of authority and a “dismantling of human power structures.”[\[32\]](#_ftn32) Although no evidence exists to suggest that the Ninevites ultimately turned from their gods, that does not diminish the significance of Yahweh extending mercy and compassion to the pagan Ninevites in an effort to reclaim them, which may have led to the conversion of some of the people. ## **The Proclamation (3:7-8)** In partnership with the nobles, the king of Nineveh decrees that humans and animals be covered in sackcloth, fast, call out to God, and turn from evil and violence. The identification of the nobles and the reason for the decree present a challenge. Lawrence is likely correct when concluding that the nobles were the provincial governors surrounding Nineveh that needed acknowledged.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) However, the question remains as to why the king would need to issue a decree to a people who had already repented. Youngblood reasonably concludes that the initial repentance highlights that repentance was God’s initiative, but the king’s decree adds impact and provides a collective movement of the people.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) Another unique feature of verse 7-8 is the inclusion of animals in the process of repentance. Hennie Viviers explains that the inclusion of animals in ancient mourning rites is not uncommon.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) Timmer suggests the possibility that the people of Nineveh involved animals because, based on Neo-Assyrian astrological cycles, their involvement brought good luck.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) Furthermore, in verse 7, Trible identifies a merism in the phrase “the humans and the animals” and a synecdoche in the phrase “the herds and the flocks.”[\[37\]](#_ftn37) The merism divides the entire population into two parts, and the synecdoche provides animals that represent the whole, while both highlight the important role of creation. Finally, Youngblood also underscores the literary irony whereby God’s animal creation appears to trump the obedience and servitude of humanity.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) In light of the involvement of both animal and plant creation in the service of Yahweh throughout the book of Jonah, Youngblood’s conclusion is likely most relevant. [![Urban Legends of the Old Testament 182x300 - Exposition of Jonah 3](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Urban-Legends-of-the-Old-Testament-182x300.jpg "Exposition of Jonah 3 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BM5WZx)Urban Legends of the Old Testament: 40 Common Misconceptions The breadth of the repentance conveyed in verses 7-8 seems remarkable for such a pagan empire. Accordingly, some have questioned the historical veracity of the Ninevite repentance. Lemanski explains that, during the time of Jonah, Assyria experienced significant political instability, economic hardship, and plagues.[\[39\]](#_ftn39) Accordingly, it is possible that the Assyrians may have been open to Jonah’s message, as difficult circumstances can soften the hardest of hearts. Finally, the lexical nuances and literary wordplay of various forms of the terms “turn back” (שׁוב) and “evil” (רעע) accentuates God’s role in Nineveh’s repentance. The lemma רעע can mean both evil and calamity, and the lemma שׁוב can mean both turn away from evil and change one’s mind.[\[40\]](#_ftn40) Accordingly, David Croteau and Gary Yates point out that if the Ninevites turn (שׁוב) from their evil (רעע), then God will turn (שׁוב) from His destruction (רעע).[\[41\]](#_ftn41) It is God’s mercy and compassion for all the nations that prompts God to change His mind and turn from His destruction. ## **The Reversal (3:9-10)** The people of Nineveh were convinced that the possibility existed that God may change His mind, and, in fact, when God saw that the Ninevites turned from their evil ways, He did relent. God changing His mind raises questions regarding the relationship between divine sovereignty and contingency. If God is completely sovereign, then God would never change His mind, which calls God’s relationality and man’s responsibility into question. Alternatively, if God is not completely sovereign, then His omniscience comes into question. The term in question for God changing His mind, the lemma נחם, occurs in the Niphal stem both times in verses 9-10. BDB provides four options for the meaning of נחם in the Niphal, which include (1) being sorry or moved to compassion, (2) repenting or grieving, (3) being comforted, and (4) being relieved.[\[42\]](#_ftn42) Although BDB suggests that the term in Jonah 3:9-10 reflects the meaning of repenting or grieving, the more appropriate definition, as expanded on below, might be relationally “moved to compassion.” One attempt at justifying God changing His mind is to limit the scope of change. Robert Chisolm explains that God does not change His mind if He has decreed a certain outcome, but if the outcome is not decreed, then God waits for human response before deciding the course of action.[\[43\]](#_ftn43) Although Chisolm’s observation explains *when* God changes His mind, it does not reconcile divine sovereignty and contingency because, when God does not decree an action, the tension remains. The solution to the conundrum is wrapped in what might be called God’s sovereign relationality. Sovereignty without relationality undermines love, but relationality without sovereignty undermines power. God is both love and power and any bifurcation undermines God’s character. Timmer summarizes the concept in a reference to Jeremiah 18:1-12 by stating that God’s “sovereignty is not exercised arbitrarily, but responsibly and responsively, interacting with the moral, or immoral, actions of human beings.”[\[44\]](#_ftn44) To be clear, God’s sovereign relationality does not undermine omniscience because foreknowledge does not require predestination.[\[45\]](#_ftn45) Furthermore, God’s sovereign relationality does not undermine love because God remains responsive to His creation.[\[46\]](#_ftn46) God deploys His sovereign relationality to extend mercy and compassion not only to pursue the reclamation of Nineveh, but eventually to reclaim all the disinherited nations through Christ Jesus. ## **Theological Reflection** The first timeless theological principle is that God is ethically free. God has the freedom to judge evil, rebellious people and forgive them when they repent. However, God also has complete freedom to not judge evil, rebellious people and forgive them when they repent. Scripture appears to clearly communicate that when God creates a unilateral covenant, He does not change His mind. However, even this voluntary limitation of freedom is founded in God’s ethical freedom to limit Himself. Jonah desired to limit God’s freedom by manipulating and controlling God. However, when the Ninevites turned from their evil ways in response to a short, five-word sermon from a rebellious prophet, God, in His freedom, changed His mind and relented. The reason that God requires ethical freedom is that He must have the capability to modify His response in order to extend His essence of love. For example, God allowed Jonah to experience the pain, suffering, and judgment of being eaten by a fish because God loved Jonah; God desired that Jonah would learn to love his enemies. Accordingly, in love, God extended Jonah a second chance. Alternatively, God withheld judgment from the Ninevites because God loved the people of Assyria. In short, God’s extension and withholding of judgment changes, but God’s love does not. The second timeless theological principle is that God is conciliatory; He desires all nations to be reconciled to Him. Deuteronomy 32:8-9 explains that Yahweh disinherited the nations at Babel (Gen 11:1-9) and placed the nations under the authority of Yahweh’s divine council, the sons of God.[\[47\]](#_ftn47) The kingdom of Assyria and, more specifically, the city of Nineveh is listed in the table of nations in Genesis 10:11-12. Yahweh decided to begin anew with Abraham, the father of the nation of Israel chosen by God to reclaim the disinherited nations. God promised Abraham that all the nations of the earth would be blessed through him (Gen 12:1-3). The entire Old Testament revolves around God’s plan to reclaim the disinherited nations through Israel, the genealogical line of Abraham. The book of Jonah is a clear example of God’s desire for all nations, including the people of Nineveh, to be reconciled to Him. Unfortunately, Nineveh did not turn from their gods, and Nahum records that judgement was on the horizon. The Assyrians would have to wait for the ultimate reclamation event in Christ, where the disciples in Acts 2 are commissioned to carry on God’s initiative to reconcile all the nations to Himself. The third timeless theological principle is that one of God’s primary attributes is compassion. Paradoxically, it is God’s changeable attributes, because of God’s ethical freedom, that keep God’s unchangeable attributes, such as compassion, in the spotlight. God’s compassion shines on Israelites and non-Israelites alike, to the consternation of Jonah. God’s compassion even moves beyond humans and extends to all of creation including animals and plants. The breadth of God’s compassion toward humans is shown in the intertextual connections between Jonah 3:10 and Exodus 32:14. In Jonah, God relents regarding the impending doom about to face the non-Israelites, and in Exodus, Yahweh relents regarding the impending doom about to face the Israelites. The breadth of God’s compassion toward the rest of creation is also evident throughout the Old Testament. Joel 2:22 records Yahweh compassionately assuring the wild animals not to be afraid for there would be plenty of food. It is difficult to miss the same relational compassion for all creation in Jonah represented by the fish and the plant. Although not comprehensive, three theological principles pervade the book of Jonah: God is ethically free, an attribute that propels His love; God is conciliatory, an attribute that reconciles all the nations to Himself; God is compassionate, an attribute that extends to all creation. ## **Contemporary Application** The three theological principles can be applied and practiced in a contemporary setting. First, the principle that God is ethically free can be applied directly to everyday life. An ethically free God means that He is in control. One cannot control God because He is free, yet individuals are still responsible for their thoughts, emotions, and actions. Unfortunately, the worldview of much of contemporary society reacts against the application of the principle. Many Christians believe that if they pray enough, attend church enough, or behave well enough, they can manipulate God and appropriate blessings. Furthermore, much of society has been convinced by modern psychology that people are pre-conditioned by external forces, which undermine personal responsibility. Alternatively, relinquishing ultimate control to an ethically free God and taking responsibility for each choice is the only path to experience the love of God. Second, God is conciliatory and desires to reconcile all nations to Himself. Matthew 28:19-20 clearly exhorts believers to join God in the reclamation of the nations. Whether it is the pagan across the street or the pagan living in a land far away, every believer is called to take the message of the gospel to all the nations. Third, God is compassionate, an attribute that extends to all creation. America may be more divided now than at any other time since the Civil War. Now, more than ever, Christendom needs to extend a heavy dose of God’s compassion to all creation: Republican and Democrat, left and right, gay and straight, black and white, believers and nonbelievers, rich and poor, and moral and immoral. If God can extend compassion to one of the evilest kingdoms in history, surely, we can extend an olive branch to individuals who do not agree with our political or religious views. Finally, and more poignantly, if the Creator of the universe can extend compassion to such a flawed man as me, I ought to be able to extend compassion to the rest of God’s creation. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) *The NET Bible First Edition Notes* (Nashville: Biblical Studies Press, 2006), Translator’s Note 4. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) W. Dennis Tucker, *Jonah: A Handbook on the Hebrew Text*, rev. and expanded ed. (Waco: Baylor University, 2018), 65. According to Tucker, it is alternatively possible that אֶל possesses a dative of disadvantage mirroring Jonah 1:2 (cf. Num 32:14), but not when אֶל is paired with קָרָא. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) F. Brown, S. Driver, and C. Briggs, *The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon: With an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic* (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2012), 949. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Kevin J. Youngblood, *Jonah: God’s Scandalous Mercy*, ed. Daniel I. Block, 2nd ed., Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 125. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Billy K. Smith and Franklin S. Page, *Amos, Obadiah, Jonah*, vol. 19B, *The New American Commentary* (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995), 256–57. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) See Tucker, *Jonah*, 68. Tucker asserts that a literal translation is counterproductive to the plot. See a similar argument by Daniel C. Timmer, *A Gracious and Compassionate God: Mission, Salvation and Spirituality in the Book of Jonah*, ed. D. A. Carson, vol. 26, *New Studies in Biblical Theology* (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2011), 95. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Michael S. Heiser, *The Unseen Realm* (Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015), 115. Note that the construction לאלהים with the preposition occurs 79 times in the Old Testament. It contextually refers to a god or gods 18 times and exists in the plural 17 times. Although similar idioms exist, no other time in the Old Testament is the construction contextually rendered as a superlative. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Youngblood, *Jonah*, 144. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Leslie C. Allen, *The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah*, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1976), 221. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) D. J. Wiseman., “Jonah’s Nineveh,” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 30 (1979): 38. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Charles Halton, “How Big Was Nineveh?: Literal Versus Figurative Interpretation of City Size,” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 18, no. 2 (2008): 194, 206. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Douglas Stuart, *Hosea-Jonah*, vol 31 of *Word Biblical Commentary* (Dallas: Word, 1987), 487. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Youngblood, *Jonah*, 133–34. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) R. W. L. Moberly, “Preaching for a Response?: Jonah’s Message to the Ninevites Reconsidered,” *Vetus Testamentum* 53, no. 2 (2003): 159. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Phyllis Trible, “The Book of Jonah,” in *New Interpreter’s Bible* (Nashville: Abingdon, 1996), 7:512. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) See Robert B. Chisolm, *From Exegesis to Exposition: A Practical Guide to Using Biblical Hebrew* (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), 67. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Allen, *The Books of Joel*, 222. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Daniel C. Timmer, *A Gracious and Compassionate God: Mission, Salvation and Spirituality in the Book of Jonah*, ed. D. A. Carson, vol. 26, *New Studies in Biblical Theology* (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2011), 97. See also Brown, Driver, and Briggs, *The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew*, 245–46. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Smith and Page, *Amos*, 260. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Phyllis Trible, *Rhetorical Criticism: Context, Method, and the Book of Jonah*, ed. Gene M. Tucker, Old Testament Series (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1994), 181. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Bruce Waltke and M. O’Connor, *An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax* (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2013), 198–99. See parallel constructions using the preposition to mark the object of verbs of trust in Psalm 78:22 and Exodus 19:9. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Stuart, *Hosea-Jonah*, 497. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) See Gary E. Yates, “The Problem of Repentance and Relapse as a Unifying Theme in the Book of the Twelve,” *Themelios* 41, no. 2 (2016): 259. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Paul Lawrence, “Assyrian Nobles and the Book of Jonah,” *Tyndale Bulletin* 37 (1986): 130–31. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Jay Lemanski, “Jonah’s Nineveh,” *Concordia Journal* 18, no. 1 (January 1992): 46. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Timmer, *A Gracious and Compassionate*, 109–10. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Paul Ferguson, “Who Was the ‘King of Nineveh’ in Jonah 3:6,” *Tyndale Bulletin* 47, no. 2 (November 1996): 313. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Stuart, *Hosea-Jonah*, 486. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Tucker, *Jonah*, 74. See also Brown, Driver, and Briggs, *The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew*, 68, 974. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Ayelet Seidler, “Fasting, ‘Sackcloth,’ and ‘Ashes’: From Nineveh to Shushan,” *Vetus Testamentum* 69, no. 1 (2019): 134. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Youngblood, *Jonah*, 137. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Lawrence, “Assyrian Nobles,” 131. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Youngblood, *Jonah*, 138. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Hendrik Viviers, “The Psychology of Animal Companionship: Some Ancient and Modern Views,” *Hervormde Teologiese Studies* 70, no. 1 (2014): 2. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Timmer, *A Gracious and Compassionate*, 105. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Trible, *Rhetorical Criticism*, 185. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Youngblood, *Jonah*, 139. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) Lemanski, “Jonah’s Nineveh,” 47. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) See Brown, Driver, and Briggs, *The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew*, 948-50 and 996-1000. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) David A. Croteau and Gary E. Yates, *Urban Legends of the Old Testament: 40 Common Misconceptions* (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2019), 237. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Brown, Driver, and Briggs, *The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew*, 636–37. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Robert B. Chisolm, “Does God ‘Change His Mind,’” *Bibliotheca Sacra* 152, no. 608 (October 1995): 399. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Timmer, *A Gracious and Compassionate*, 112. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Heiser, *The Unseen Realm*, 65. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) See Smith and Page, *Amos*, 269 for further treatment. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) Heiser, *The Unseen Realm*, 112–14. For a discussion of the Hebrew text and manuscript support for “sons of God,” see Michael S. Heiser, “Deuteronomy 32:8 and the Sons of God,” *Bibliotheca Sacra* 158 (January-March 2001): 52–74. # Bibliography - Allen, Leslie C. *The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah*. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1976. - Brown, F., S. Driver, and C. Briggs. *The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon: With an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic*. Peabody: Hendrickson, 2012. - Chisolm, Robert B. “Does God ‘Change His Mind.’” *Bibliotheca Sacra* 152, no. 608 (October 1995): 389–99. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. *From Exegesis to Exposition: A Practical Guide to Using Biblical Hebrew*. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998. - Croteau, David A., and Gary E. Yates. *Urban Legends of the Old Testament: 40 Common Misconceptions*. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2019. - Ferguson, Paul. “Who Was the ‘King of Nineveh’ in Jonah 3:6.” *Tyndale Bulletin* 47, no. 2 (November 1996): 304–14. - Halton, Charles. “How Big Was Nineveh?: Literal Versus Figurative Interpretation of City Size.” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 18, no. 2 (2008): 193–207. - Heiser, Michael S. “Deuteronomy 32:8 and the Sons of God.” *Bibliotheca Sacra* 158 (January-March 2001): 52–74. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. *The Unseen Realm*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015. - Lawrence, Paul. “Assyrian Nobles and the Book of Jonah.” *Tyndale Bulletin* 37 (1986): 121–32. - Lemanski, Jay. “Jonah’s Nineveh.” *Concordia Journal* 18, no. 1 (January 1992): 40–49. - Moberly, R. W. L. “Preaching for a Response?: Jonah’s Message to the Ninevites Reconsidered.” *Vetus Testamentum* 53, no. 2 (2003): 156–68. - Seidler, Ayelet. “Fasting, ‘Sackcloth,’ and ‘Ashes’: From Nineveh to Shushan.” *Vetus Testamentum* 69, no. 1 (2019): 117–34. - Smith, Billy K., and Franklin S. Page. *Amos, Obadiah, Jonah*. Vol. 19B in *The New American Commentary*. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995. - Stuart, Douglas. *Hosea-Jonah*. Vol. 31 in *Word Biblical Commentary*. Dallas: Word, 1987. - Timmer, Daniel C. *A Gracious and Compassionate God: Mission, Salvation and Spirituality in the Book of Jonah*. Vol. 26 of *New Studies in Biblical Theology*. Edited by D. A. Carson. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2011. - Trible, Phyllis. *Rhetorical Criticism: Context, Method, and the Book of Jonah*. Edited by Gene M. Tucker. Old Testament Series. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1994. - ———. “The Book of Jonah.” In *New Interpreter’s Bible*. Vol. 7, 461–529. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996. - Tucker, W. Dennis. *Jonah: A Handbook on the Hebrew Text*. Rev. and Expanded ed. Waco: Baylor University, 2018. - Viviers, Hendrik. “The Psychology of Animal Companionship: Some Ancient and Modern Views.” *Hervormde Teologiese Studies* 70, no. 1 (2014): 1–8. - Waltke, Bruce, and M. O’Connor. *An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax*. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2013. - Wiseman, D. J. “Jonah’s Nineveh.” *Tyndale Bulletin* 30 (1979): 29–51. - Yates, Gary E. “The Problem of Repentance and Relapse as a Unifying Theme in the Book of the Twelve.” *Themelios* 41, no. 2 (2016): 248–62. - Youngblood, Kevin J. *Jonah: God’s Scandalous Mercy*. Edited by Daniel I. Block. 2nd ed. Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Becoming the Gospel: Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/becoming-the-gospel-book-review/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Becoming the Gospel: Book Review [![Becoming the Gospel Paul Participation and Mission 182x300 - Becoming the Gospel: Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Becoming-the-Gospel_-Paul-Participation-and-Mission-182x300.jpg "Becoming the Gospel: Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DE0gkU)Becoming the Gospel: Paul, Participation, and Mission: The Gospel and Our Culture Series (GOCS) Michael Gorman’s book, *Becoming the Gospel: Paul, Participation, and Mission,* completes the trilogy that follows two of his previous books: *Cruciformity* and *Inhabiting the Cruciform God*.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The first book focused on a cruciform existence shaped by faith, hope, and love, while the second book contends that Paul’s theology is a theology of theosis. The third installment responds to a critique leveled at *Inhabiting the Cruciform God* that contends that Gorman separates both being and act and participation and mission. Accordingly, the thesis of *Becoming the Gospel* is that “theosis – Spirit-enabled transformative participation in the life and character of God revealed in the crucified and resurrected Messiah Jesus – is the starting point of mission and is, in fact, its proper theological framework” (4). Although Gorman’s main thematic initiative is mission, it is a particular type of mission that is informed by a cruciform existence participating in Christ. The book’s theme text is 2 Corinthians 5:21 because of the connection between the Cross, the justice of God, and the *missio Dei* (8-9). *Gorman effectively proves that theosis is the starting point of mission and its theological framework is built upon a cruciform existence participating in Christ.* The following analysis first summarizes Gorman’s work and then provides an analysis of its strengths and weaknesses. ## **Summary and Main Themes** In chapter one, Gorman defines several important terms that become integral to the remainder of the book. *Missio Dei* is the process of bringing salvation to the world through preaching, participation in Christ means a full transformation in beliefs, character, and relationships, while new creation connotes a reaching back from the future’s eschatological fullness (22-25). For Gorman, participation is an umbrella term encompassing all aspects of salvation (25). Gorman argues for the centrality of participation in the New Testament before summarily stating that “to be *in* Christ is…to be *involved in* the world” (35). Put another way, participation in Christ means benefiting from the mission of God and also being involved with that mission (36). The Spirit is the empowering force behind believers both becoming and speaking the gospel for, as Gorman explains, “dogs bark by virtue of being dogs” (45). In chapter two, Gorman engages the topic of missional hermeneutics, which is to interpret the biblical texts from a missional perspective whereby God calls believers to participate in His mission by joining God in His work (52-53). A major claim of Gorman’s book is that believers are to become the gospel by participating in the mission of God through “proclamation, praxis, and persecution” (61). Finally, Gorman utilizes a text-based approach to explore participatory witness in various Pauline communities in the remainder of the book (62). In chapter three, Gorman investigates his first community, Thessalonica, through the lens of three missional virtues (63-64). Gorman examines faith, hope, and love in the book of 1 Thessalonians as exemplified in God, Jesus, the Spirit, [the Apostle Paul](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-apostle-pauls-perspective-on-jewish-law/), and the Thessalonians (63-105). Further, Gorman emphasizes the subjective genitive view of *pistis Christou* for it is the faithfulness of the Messiah that generates faith in people; thus, the Thessalonians faith is a derivative faith (81-82, 94). Finally, Gorman suggests that becoming like God is holiness; the Thessalonians are holy as they participate in God’s faithfulness, hope, and love (76, 102). In chapter four, Gorman investigates the community at Philippi, but specifically engages the master story within Philippians 2:6-11, which, as the Christological centerpiece, he affectionately labels a “surprisingly, and radically missional text” (140). For Gorman, Philippians is an extended commentary on the famous poem that functions to promote the adoption of the master story, which encourages faith, reveals love, and provides hope (121-124). Participating in the master story by experiencing the kenosis or self-emptying of Christ allows Christ’s story to become the story of the believer in God’s missional adventure (132, 140). In chapter five, Gorman addresses the underserved topic of peace. Gorman defines peace or *shalom* as healing and wholeness and the absence of chaos (142-146). Further, *shalom* is a divine gift that is both relational and covenantal (146). The divine gift is an eschatological reality breaking into the world through the incarnate Christ that manifests in ecclesial practice (148-159). To participate in God’s peace is to imitate God’s reconciliation of the world (165-166). As God reconciles believers to Himself, believers extend God’s reconciliation to others (167-169). In sum, believers become “agents of reconciliation;” they become “the gospel of peace” (179). In chapter six, Gorman reflects upon the concept of peace within the Ephesian community by addressing two interpretive issues: the inclusion of Gentiles and the potential promotion of a patriarchal structure (181-185). Regarding the former, Christ’s death reconciles all people to God and to one another (189-193). Regarding the latter, mutual submission is explicit in Ephesians 5 (183-186). Thus, both issues result in a peace that is inaugurated, but not fully realized, via the reality of a new creation that brings *shalom* to all (188-189). In sum, because of the new creation reality, “peacemakers have the DNA of God,” and, as they offer forgiveness and reconciliation to others, they become the gospel (199, 207). In chapter seven, similar to peace, which is a divine trait and an ecclesial practice, for Gorman, so is justice (257). Gorman utilizes 1 and 2 Corinthians to engage the relationship between justification and justice and their application to mission (212-221). Gorman suggests that viewing justification as either forensic or ethical is a false dichotomy (223). Justification has a more robust definition and includes “reconciliation, covenant participation and faithfulness, community, resurrection, and life” (228). Accordingly, Gorman contends that “justice is inherent in justification” (228). Gorman then supports the assertion through numerous examples within the Corinthian community (234-253). However, ultimately, becoming the righteousness of God means extending justice to others, which is the definition of missional theosis (246-253). In chapter eight, Gorman argues that theosis is the theme of the book of Romans, which is inherently missional (261). First, Gorman explains that theosis means taking on certain divine attributes, which include the attributes of righteousness and glory, with the latter encompassing two types: a relational status and an ontological state of being (270-273). Thus, conformity to Christ is both a present and future reality; it is both ontological and ethical (280-282). Ultimately, transformation is a key aspect of theosis, which is deployed into everyday life through the renewing of the mind (288-290). The result of the transformation is mission, which is the “church’s most powerful evangelistic ‘tool’ – a community that has become and is always becoming the gospel” (293). Finally, in chapter nine, the author provides a brief summary of the gospel and *missio Dei* and also places his book within the context of his trilogy (297-305). Without question, Gorman makes a compelling case that theosis is the starting point of mission and its theological framework is built upon a cruciform existence participating in Christ. ## **Critical Evaluation** The following evaluation of Gorman’s book first identifies several strengths followed by a brief discussion regarding a couple of weaknesses. Regarding strengths, first and foremost Gorman ought to be commended for locating the Pauline letters within a missional hermeneutic that highlights the relationship between participation and mission. In a scholarly environment often rife with efforts to delineate terms and bifurcate concepts, Gorman focuses on synthesis. For example, Gorman synthesizes participation as follows: “To participate in Christ is both to benefit from God’s mission of liberation and reconciliation and to bear witness to this divine mission – thus furthering it – by becoming a faithful embodiment of it” (36). Gorman then explores and expands God’s participation-empowered mission in sound exegesis of several of Paul’s letters. Certainly, synthesis is one of the book’s greatest strengths. Second, in an age where scholarship, at times, ignores application, Gorman delivers a message that is practical for individual believers and the church as a whole. One example occurs within the exegesis of 1 Thessalonians where Gorman applies the missional virtues of faith, hope, and love to God, the Apostle Paul, the Thessalonians, and ultimately to the church today. Another example of application relates to Gorman’s analysis of peace, which is not only given as a gift from God to believers through reconciliation, but also given as a gift to be extended to others in the form of forgiveness and reconciliation. Finally, at the end of several chapters, Gorman provides concrete examples of individuals and organizations becoming the gospel in everyday life. Without question, Gorman’s work is practical. Third, Gorman’s work is theologically groundbreaking. One example is the inseparability of justification and justice as teased out in his discussion of 1 and 2 Corinthians. Gorman moves the definition of justification beyond a vertical forensic understanding and into horizontal relational living by stating, “If justification is supposed to repair the human condition, then justification must address injustice, including violence” (225). Gorman’s robust perspective of justification moves the theological construct seamlessly into God’s missional activity. Similarly, Gorman highlights the inseparability of justification and glorification in his chapter addressing Romans. Admittedly, glorification is not fully realized, but the present, missional glory appropriated by participating in Christ reveals itself in missional love. Undoubtedly, Gorman’s book is theologically groundbreaking. A couple of weaknesses also exist. The first weakness is a lack of clarity around certain terms. For example, theosis is defined as the “Spirit-enabled transformative participation in the life and character of God” (4). Theosis also means “taking on certain divine attributes” such as justice and glory (268, 288). Theosis is also ontological and ethical (282). Granted, these concepts can all work together, but, at times, further clarification would assist because when a concept becomes everything, it often becomes nothing. Additionally, Gorman ought to be commended for his robust definition of justification as encompassing transformation, participation, and mission, but one wonders exactly how these relationships coexist (9). Similarly, Matthew Bates points out a certain “looseness” regarding the definition of the gospel.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Another weakness is that Gorman, at times, runs the risk of overstating his case. For example, for Gorman, the center of Pauline theology is participation (26). However, considering the breadth of Paul’s letters, a certain risk of reductionism exists anytime a scholar makes such a claim. Similarly, Brian Bunnell recognizes the potential overstatement of asserting that Phil 2:6-11 encompasses the entire master story of Paul’s thought.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Regardless of the weaknesses, Gorman has provided a robust theology of mission placed upon a strong theological foundation of participation. The author’s vigorous exegesis and practical application for contemporary believers and churches is commendable. Finally, Gorman’s book is accessible to laymen and scholars alike and highly recommended for anyone interested in missional hermeneutics. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Michael J. Gorman, *Becoming the Gospel: Paul, Participation, and Mission* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015), 2-3. Note that parenthetical numerals will be used to reference the book under investigation for the remainder of the critique. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Matthew W Bates, “Becoming the Gospel: Paul, Participation, and Mission,” *The Catholic Biblical Quarterly* 78, no. 4 (2016): 778. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Brian Bunnell, “Becoming the Gospel: Paul, Participation, and Mission,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 59, no. 4 (2016): 868. ## Bibliography - Bates, Matthew W. “Becoming the Gospel: Paul, Participation, and Mission.” *The Catholic Biblical Quarterly* 78, no. 4 (2016): 777–79. - Bunnell, Brian. “Becoming the Gospel: Paul, Participation, and Mission.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 59, no. 4 (2016): 866–69. - Gorman, Michael J. *Becoming the Gospel: Paul, Participation, and Mission*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Figurative Language of the Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/figurative-language-of-the-old-testament/) **Published:** January 11, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Figurative Language of the Old Testament The abundant use of figurative language within the Old Testament’s prophetic corpus requires a thoughtful interpretive approach. The following essay first expounds on the metaphorical language in prophetic rhetoric in the Old Testament and then distinguishes between figurative language’s form and function. Second, a foray into hermeneutical methodology provides a foundation for interpreting figurative language in the prophetic corpus. Third, a brief discussion regarding the distinction between figures of speech and apocalyptic symbols commences to mitigate the risk of confusion. Finally, an analysis of three prophetic texts, Micah 3:12, Isaiah 4:15-16, and Isaiah 42:14-16, completes the essay by utilizing the hermeneutical approach established to identify the form, function, and interpretation of the imagery provided in a given prophetic text. ## **Metaphorical Language** Figurative language looms large in all [Old Testament poetry](https://www.livestransforming.com/hays-interpretation-of-old-testament-law/), but it is particularly relevant within the prophetic literature of the major and minor prophets. In its most basic form, figurative language and figures of speech are comparison devices. More specifically, metaphor uses word imagery to point to or identify a subject, concept, or idea. Other literary devices or forms, such as metonymy, also land under the metaphor heading when similar or associated ideas replace the subject. A famous passage in Isaiah also highlights metaphorical language in the form of a simile: “But they who wait for the Lord shall renew their strength; they shall mount up with wings like eagles; they shall run and not be weary; they shall walk and not faint” (Isa 40:31, English Standard Version). The imagery of an eagle taking flight provides richness and interest. It may evoke an emotional or visceral response from the reader, which points to the power of the Old Testament’s prophetic messaging. Although language, in general, is informative, it also has the power to move beyond the dissemination of information. A text has propositional or locutionary meaning, but it also has an illocutionary and perlocutionary aspect. The illocutionary dimension calls for a response to the text, while the perlocutionary dimension points to the impact of the words on the reader. The Old Testament prophets deeply understand all three dimensions of language, not only in its figurative forms but also in its functional capabilities. Metaphorical language can paint a picture with words and spark interest. However, it also can function in a way that provides a deeper dimension of the text, which enhances understanding. Figurative language such as metaphor, metonymy, and hyperbole also can function in various other capacities. For example, figures of speech may enhance memorability, provide a euphemism, or enlarge or diminish an idea. The Old Testament prophets may be considered metaphorical language savants who prolifically use imagery to convey the message of Yahweh. ## **Hermeneutical Approach** Interpreters have suggested various hermeneutical approaches over the centuries. During the patristic and medieval times, ancient interpreters deployed various forms of literal, allegorical, tropological, and anagogical hermeneutics. Hermeneutical methodology has more recently revolved around the readers, the text, or the author. Historical-critical approaches have focused on the text or, more often, what exists behind the text. In contrast, post-modern perspectives have focused on the reader through various reader response initiatives to determine meaning. Alternatively, conservative scholars and evangelicals have located meaning in the original author’s intent. Andreas Köstenberger promotes using the hermeneutical triad, which utilizes a passage’s historical setting, literary context, and theological message grounded in authorial intent to determine meaning.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Broadly, utilizing the hermeneutical triad is the most reasonable approach for all Old Testament texts, including the figurative language within prophetic literature. In sum, original intent determines the meaning of the prophetic figurative language based on its historical, literary, and theological contexts. Once the interpreter establishes a hermeneutical methodology, a more detailed approach to analyzing and interpreting the Old Testament prophets’ figurative language may begin. First, two other hermeneutical questions often arise: whether a literal or metaphorical approach is appropriate and whether a text can have multiple meanings. Authorial intent answers both questions. [![Introduction to Biblical Interpretation 182x300 - Figurative Language of the Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Introduction-to-Biblical-Interpretation-182x300.jpg "Figurative Language of the Old Testament - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4iWU6wg)Introduction to Biblical Interpretation If the author intended the meaning to be metaphorical, then metaphor is appropriate, and if the author intended for multiple meanings of a given text, then multiple meanings are available. Second, William Klein, Craig Blomberg, and Robert Hubbard provide a concise hermeneutical approach to interpreting the Old Testament prophet’s figurative language: identify the type or form of the figurative language, determine the figurative meaning from the literal meaning, and, finally, determine the function of the figurative language.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The examples below will utilize both the broader hermeneutical triad and the more specific approach provided by Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard to engage the imagery-rich language of the prophetic corpus. ## **Figures of Speech and Apocalyptic Symbolism** A final interpretive element to consider before engaging specific examples of figurative language pertains to distinguishing between figures of speech and visionary or apocalyptic symbols. A clear-cut delineation between prophetic figures of speech and apocalyptic symbols only sometimes exists. At times, a blurring of language occurs. For example, Old Testament prophetic imagery sometimes uses symbolic language. Likewise, Old Testament apocalyptic symbolism often engages rich imagery similar to the figurative language used by the prophets. However, a few distinguishing features do exist. Andreas Köstenberger and Richard Patterson explain that apocalyptic symbolism generally includes a “visionary or revelatory means of communication” and a “dualism between earthly and heavenly realities” while simultaneously utilizing symbolic and figurative language.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) In short, figures of speech include a wide range of rich imagery utilized by the Old Testament prophets, while apocalyptic symbolism emphasizes an eschatological initiative within a supernatural worldview. ### **Micah 3:12** The first example of imagery-rich language from the prophetic corpus is found in a judgment speech in Micah 3. The prophet calls the rulers of Israel to attention in verse 9a and then levels several accusations against them in verses 9b-11. Micah then threatens the rulers by stating, “Therefore because of you, Zion shall be plowed as a field; Jerusalem shall become a heap of ruins and the mountain of the house a wooded height” (Mic 3:12). The literary context surrounding verse 12 provides clarity that the prophesied destruction was because of corruption associated with the Jewish leaders. The historical context sits in the late eighth to early seventh century BC during the reigns of Kings Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. In hindsight, Micah points the modern reader to the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon in 586 BC. Finally, Micah 3:12 also supports the thematic initiative of God’s judgment upon the sinful nations of Judah and Israel (cf. Mic 1:3-7), which provides the theological context for the verse. By laying a broad hermeneutical foundation, the more specific interpretive work of analyzing the three figures of speech in verse 12 may commence. The first step is to identify the form or type of figurative language. Micah uses a simile in the first phrase when he contends that Zion will be plowed like a field, and the prophet uses metaphorical language in the final two phrases when he claims that Jerusalem becomes a heap of ruins, and the temple mountain becomes a wooded height. The second step is to distill the figurative meaning from the literal meaning. The literal meaning of the first phrase points to farm machinery, but Micah intends to highlight the figurative meaning that the city will be pulverized like the soil after a farmer plows a field. In a sense, the literal interpretation of Jerusalem becoming a heap of ruins and a mound of overgrown weeds is what happened in 586 BC. However, in another sense, Micah’s point was to describe something other than Jerusalem’s future topography. Instead, Micah’s figurative meaning is that Jerusalem would eventually face destruction because of its leaders’ corruption, regardless of how the weeds would eventually grow on the mountain. The third step is identifying the function of the figure of speech in its context. In light of the literary, historical, and theological contexts, the figurative language used by Micah functions to warn his readers of the devastating effects of corruption, which ultimately transpired in 586 BC at the hands of the Babylonian Empire. ### **Isaiah 41:15-16** The second example of imagery-rich language from the prophetic corpus is found in a salvation oracle in Isaiah 41. The prophet announces the oracle in verse 8, reminds his audience of God’s past encounters in verse 9, promises salvation in verses 10 and 14, and prophesizes the destruction of enemies in verses 11-13 and 15-16. In the final two verses, Isaiah utilizes powerful, figurative language: “Behold, I make of you a threshing sledge, new, sharp, and having teeth; you shall thresh the mountains and crush them, and you shall make the hills like chaff; you shall winnow them, and the wind shall carry them away” (Isa 41:15-16a). The immediate literary context highlights that verses 15-16 are part of a larger salvation oracle rather than the desire of a capricious God to randomly destroy enemies. According to Gary Smith, the historical context pertains to an unidentified conqueror from the east noted in Isaiah 41:2-3 warring against the people of God (Isa 41:12).[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The idea that Yahweh controls the world, rather than the pagan gods of Israel’s enemies, provides the thematic thread that undergirds the theological context of the verses. Furthermore, verses 15-16a encompass various forms of figurative language. First, the prophet uses metaphor by comparing God’s people to a sledge and then personifies the sledge with sharp teeth reminiscent of a lion, tiger, or wild beast. The prophet then uses metonymy by replacing the word “enemies” with “mountains and hills,” which are beaten, crushed, and ground into dust. The prophet uses a simile when asserting that the hills will be like chaff. The prophet also uses metaphor when he explains that Israel will winnow or release the grain from the chaff. Finally, the prophet also possibly uses metonymy by replacing the word “Yahweh,” who will ultimately blow the pulverized nations into obscurity, with the word “wind.” The literal meaning of all the phrases points to harvesting wheat or other grain types using the agrarian language of threshing, crushing, chaffing, and winnowing. However, Isaiah’s figurative meaning is clear: Israel will destroy her enemy with Yahweh’s power. At this point, the function of the figurative language crystallizes. The literary, historical, and theological contexts all support the thematic initiative that God is more potent than all the other gods. Accordingly, figurative language encourages the Israelites not to fear (Isa 41:14) but to put their trust in the Holy One of Israel (Isa 41:16b). ### **Isaiah 42:14-16** The third example of imagery-rich language from the prophetic corpus comes from a more challenging passage: Isaiah 42:14-16. Although the interpretive issues are numerous, the figurative language is profound. The interpreter may classify the pericope as a salvation oracle in light of the powerful concluding promise that Yahweh will not forsake His people (Isa 42:16). The immediate literary context places the passage between singing to the Lord (Isa 42:10-14) and Israel’s inability to see and hear God’s message (Isa 42:18-25). It is difficult to identify the historical context in any specific sense; however, ancient Israel generally struggled to hear God. Theologically, God desires Israel to be His people and act like His people; accordingly, the prophecy ultimately provides hope to Israel. Regarding specific figurative language, in verse 14a, the prophet uses hyperbole when explaining that God has kept still or silent, for Yahweh is never completely silent. Further, metonymy likely exists where the term “silence” replaces the idea that Israel’s prayers were not answered to their liking. Isaiah uses a simile when he asserts that Yahweh cries like a woman in labor (Isa 42:14b). The prophet uses the language of laying waste and drying up metaphorically to describe a type of destruction (Isa 42:15). In verse 16a, replacing the idea of wayward people with the word “blind,” the writer uses metonymy. Furthermore ,the prophet uses metaphorical language to represent God’s loving kindness when stating that He will make “rough places into level ground” (Isa 42:16b). The literal meaning of pregnancy in verse 14 points to a figurative meaning that God is experiencing pain. However, the exact reason for the pain is not evident. The meaning of drying out in verse 15 may point to a literal drought but figuratively to destruction through warfare. The literal meaning of blindness in verse 16a figuratively evokes the sense that His people have lost their way and need a lighted path. In verse 16b, the literal meaning of path as a method of transportation points figuratively to a God who will guide His people by providing insight (light) and a productive environment for accomplishing His tasks (level ground). Finally, the function of the passage is clear even though, at times, the literary, historical, and theological contexts may be ambiguous. The function of the figurative language in verses 14-16 is to provide hope to those who feel emotionally lost or even wholly forsaken (Isa 16b). Regardless of the interpreter’s challenges, the message that God will never forsake His people shines through the prophetic text. ## **Conclusion** The plethora of forms used by the Old Testament prophets is quite impressive and includes hyperbole, personification, metonymy, metaphor, and simile, to name a few. However, without an analysis of function, the forms may be more ornamental than substantive. Accordingly, a hermeneutical approach to figurative language must not only engage the broader literary, historical, and theological contexts but also provide a specific interpretive methodology for literary devices utilized by the prophets. By first identifying the forms and then distilling the figurative meaning from the literal meaning of the text based on its broader context, the interpreter can then move toward identifying the function of the figurative language. Ultimately, the function of the literary devices provides insight into the author’s intent regarding why the figure was used and what the figure contributed to the meaning of the text. As applied to three Old Testament passages, the hermeneutical process provided a solid methodology for reasonably interpreting each prophetic text. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Andreas J Köstenberger, “Invitation to Biblical Interpretation & the Hermeneutical Triad: New Hermeneutical Lenses for a New Generation of Bible Interpreters,” *Criswell Theological Review* 10, no. 1 (2012): 3. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) William W. Klein, Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard Jr., *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation* (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004), 315. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Andreas J. Köstenberger and Richard D. Patterson, *Invitation to Biblical Interpretation: Exploring the Hermeneutical Triad of History, Literature, and Theology* (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2011), 520–21. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Gary Smith, *Isaiah 1-39*, vol. 15A, *The* *New* *American* *Commentary* (Nashville: Holman Reference, 2007), 125. # Bibliography - Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard Jr. *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004. - Köstenberger, Andreas J. “Invitation to Biblical Interpretation & the Hermeneutical Triad: New Hermeneutical Lenses for a New Generation of Bible Interpreters.” *Criswell Theological Review* 10, no. 1 (2012): 3–12. - Köstenberger, Andreas J., and Richard D. Patterson. *Invitation to Biblical Interpretation: Exploring the Hermeneutical Triad of History, Literature, and Theology*. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2011. - Smith, Gary. *Isaiah 1-39*. Vol. 15A. *The* *New* *American* *Commentary*. Nashville: Holman Reference, 2007. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Ecclesiastes 9:1-10: Exegetical Analysis](https://www.livestransforming.com/ecclesiastes-9-1-10-exegetical-analysis/) **Published:** January 11, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Ecclesiastes 9:1-10: Exegetical Analysis The book of Ecclesiastes has a long history of interpretation. On the one hand, it would be easy for some scholars to suggest that significant portions of the text are heretical. On the other hand, it might be tempting for conservative scholars to contort Qohelet’s words to align with orthodoxy. In light of these two risks, a historical, literary, theological, and thematic reading of Ecclesiastes 9:1-10 shows the coherence of a potentially unorthodox passage. First, the essay explores the book’s historical, literary, and theological contexts. Next, a brief exploration of genre analysis ensues, followed by a verse-by-verse commentary on Ecclesiastes 9:1-10. Finally, the essay concludes with a foray into a few intertextual connections alongside several critical biblical-theological implications. ## **Historical Context** Traditionally, interpreters have assigned authorship of the book of Ecclesiastes to Solomon; however, internal evidence suggests otherwise. The writer begins by stating, “The words of the Preacher, the son of David, king in Jerusalem” (Qoh 1:1, English Standard Version). The writer continues by stating, “I have acquired great wisdom, surpassing all who were over Jerusalem before me” (Qoh 1:16). [![The Book of Ecclesiastes 182x300 - Ecclesiastes 9:1-10: Exegetical Analysis](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Book-of-Ecclesiastes-182x300.jpg "Ecclesiastes 9:1-10: Exegetical Analysis - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gBrRBB)The Book of Ecclesiastes: New International Commentary on the Old Testament (NICOT) The only ruler before Solomon was David; thus, for Solomon to make such an assertion would seem odd. The question also arises as to why Solomon would refer to himself in the third person in the prologue and epilogue (1:1-11; 12:8-14).[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The dating of Ecclesiastes provides insight into authorship. Tremper Longman explains that critical scholars have asserted a late date, possibly around the third century BC, due to its language and style, and they have argued that Ecclesiastes contained contradictions that required a later redaction in the epilogue.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Although the necessity of a redactor is doubtful, a late date is reasonable. During the third century, Yahweh’s prophets seemed to have gone silent, and His promises seemed to have been in a state of uncertainty. Accordingly, various existential questions about life’s meaning may have been top of mind. More importantly, as Craig Bartholomew notes, an autonomous Greek epistemology under the [influence of Hellenism](https://www.livestransforming.com/hellenism-and-judaism/) during the third century likely infiltrated the cognitive environment in a way that may have encouraged the writing of the book of Ecclesiastes.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Assuming a third-century BC date, Solomonic authorship is out of the question. A brief excursion into the book’s literary structure furthers the discussion on authorship. The author writes the body of the text (1:12-12:7) in the first person and a framed narrative (1:1-11; 12:8-14) in the third person. Although a diachronic approach to authorship may conclude that redaction is necessary to correct Qohelet’s unorthodox and, some might say, heretical content, a synchronic approach provides other options. Considering the book’s content, the text’s unity comes to the fore. Bartholomew suggests the author is a frame-narrator who not only provides the prologue and epilogue in the third person but also transmits the story of an autobiographical account of a historical individual named Qohelet in the body of the book.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Bartholomew’s approach is not only reasonable in light of Ecclesiastes as a whole, but it also provides significant insight into reconciling what is, at times, Qohelet’s unorthodox message. ## **Literary Context** It is possible to correctly interpret Ecclesiastes 9:1-10 by placing it in the literary context of the passages that frame Qohelet’s speeches. The prologue consists of Ecclesiastes 1:1-11 and begins with a third-person reference to Qohelet, the Preacher, and it also introduces various thematic initiatives explored throughout the book. In Ecclesiastes 12:8-14, a brief epilogue reverts to the third person. It provides a summary and commentary on Qohelet’s speeches, which concludes with the most crucial verse in the book: “The end of the matter: all has been heard. Fear God and keep his commandments, for this is the whole duty of man” (Eccl 12:13). The prologue and epilogue sandwich Qohelet’s speeches; thus, the pericope under investigation must be interpreted in light of the framed narration. The Preacher’s speeches begin with an introduction in Ecclesiastes 1:12, “I the Preacher have been king over Israel in Jerusalem.” Then, the author bifurcates the speeches between an autobiographical narrative in 1:13-6:9 and a group of wisdom admonitions in 6:10-12:17. The former appears as reflections upon life. In contrast, the latter has more of a proverbial flavor. Ecclesiastes 9:1-10 lands within the second half of the speeches. Throughout the remainder of the essay, the literary context and, more specifically, the proverbial nature of Qohelet’s words placed within the frame narrator’s commentary will provide further insight into the passage’s meaning. ## **Theological Context** Scholars continue to debate the theological messaging of the book of Ecclesiastes. First and foremost, the interpreter must recognize that the author is asking the reader to join Qohelet on a journey that attempts to find meaning in life. On the one hand, it might be easy to assume that the tone of the Preacher’s message is pessimistic with his relentless use of *hebel* (e.g., Qoh 1:2, 14; 2:17; 12:8). Alternatively, the so-called *carpe diem* passages seem to point to a positive message (e.g., Qoh 3:12-13; 9:17-10). However, rather than being tyrannized by an either-or dichotomy, Bartholomew recognizes that the Preacher’s autonomous epistemology, which relies upon observation, experience, and reason, highlights his “struggle to live with and resolve the agonized tension between these two poles.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The existential struggle experienced by the Preacher leads to a seemingly hopeless existence. Longman summarizes the theological message of Qohelet’s autobiography in one short phrase: “Life is full of trouble, and then you die.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) In other words, the *carpe diem* passages encourage the reader to enjoy life while he can, for life is *hebel*, “The dead know nothing, and they have no more reward, for the memory of them is forgotten” (Qoh 9:5b). At this point, the literary structure provides insight because it is not Qohelet’s words, but, instead, the frame narrator’s words that provide normative theology. Similar to the suspicious teachings of Job’s three friends addressed at the book’s end, the frame narrator’s epilogue also provides insight. Michael Fox provides a relevant translation of Ecclesiastes 12:10 and 12:12 to highlight the point: “Qohelet sought to find fine words and to write the most honest words of truth,” but “my son, beware of these things,” and “fear God and keep his commandments.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Within the epilogue, the interpreter recognizes that Qohelet’s words, like the advice of Job’s friends, are both a foil and a teaching device. The frame narrator realizes some truth in Qohelet’s teachings but tells his son to beware of Qohelet’s autonomous epistemology and, instead, recognize the reality of a God who knows much more than the human eye can see, life can experience, and the mind can grasp. ## **Genre Analysis** Genre identification can significantly impact interpretation. The following analysis of Ecclesiastes’ genre presupposes a synchronic approach that considers the text as a whole in light of its literary structure and theological motifs. Thus, much of the groundwork for identification has been laid, but this is not to say that scholarly consensus exists about the genre of Ecclesiastes. Various genres have been espoused, including a reflection,[\[8\]](#_ftn8) critique,[\[9\]](#_ftn9) or, more generally, wisdom literature.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) However, based on the literary structure, the proverbial flavor of much of Qohelet’s content, the shifting from third person in the framed narration to the first person in Qohelet’s autobiographical speeches, and the overarching thematic initiative highlighting a journey toward finding meaning, it seems reasonable to conclude, alongside Longman, that the genre of the book of Ecclesiastes is a “framed wisdom autobiography.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Accordingly, the remainder of the essay interprets the text through the lens of a framed wisdom autobiographical genre. ## **Commentary on Ecclesiastes 9:1-10** Ecclesiastes 9:1-10 is situated within the wisdom admonitions of Qohelet and is quite pessimistic. The Preacher begins by stating, “But all this I laid to heart, examining it all, how the righteous and wise and their deeds are in the hand of God. Whether it is love or hate, man does not know; both are before him” (Qoh 9:1). From the start, Qohelet engages the retributive paradox where sometimes, in laymen’s terms, bad things happen to good people. Unfortunately, sometimes the righteous suffer, and the wicked prosper. Within context, love and hate refer to God rather than humans.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Accordingly, the deeds of the righteous are within the purview of God’s sovereignty, but it is questionable whether or not the righteous will experience the hate or wrath of God or the love or favor of God. God’s people desperately want to believe that Proverbs 3:33 is accurate and that the Lord will always curse the wicked and bless the righteous. Although Proverbs 3:33 points to a general principle, this sentiment is not always true. Qohelet recognizes that the righteous are not always blessed and the wicked are not always cursed, “It is the same for all, since the same event happens to the righteous and the wicked, to the good and the evil” (Qoh 9:2a). At this point, the Preacher lumps everyone into the same category by suggesting the clean and unclean, the one who sacrifices and the one who does not, the good and the sinner, the truth-teller and the liar are all similar. They all end up dead. As the epilogue suggests, the Preacher provides honest words of truth, but the listener must beware. Indeed, both the righteous and the wicked all die but beware of believing that doing good versus evil does not matter. For Qohelet, the retributive paradox is almost too much to handle. The Preacher decides that death is evil for everyone by stating, “This \[death\] is an evil in all that is done under the sun” (Qoh 9:3a). The Preacher is likely referring to evil that has a moral dimension with his use of the word רַע; thus, death is not only morally corrupt, but all humanity is morally corrupt, and their fate is all the same: death. It appears the Preacher also accuses God of immorality for bringing death into the patterns of the universe. The literary devices used in the next verse provide both color and meaning. It appears at first that the Preacher finally provides a respite of relief when he states, “But he who is joined with all the living has hope” (Qoh 9:4a). Unfortunately, the hope is fleeting as he continues his thought, “For a living dog is better than a dead lion” (Qoh 9:4b). The sarcasm is palpable. Longman explains that dogs, in the ancient Near Eastern culture, were despicable rather than modern friendly pets, and lions were considered noble beasts.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The Preacher’s suggestion that living like a despicable canine is better than being a dead, noble lion illuminates his false hope and provides little consolation. Next, Qohelet explains the reason why such little hope exists. The Preacher believes that, although those who are still alive realize they will eventually die, “the dead know nothing, and they have no more reward” (Qoh 9:5a). The sarcasm continues to mount as Qohelet suggests that those living are better off than the dead because at least they are aware that death is on the horizon. Furthermore, the Preacher assumes there is no life after death, no rewards in heaven, and no hope of resurrection when he asserts that the dead “have no more reward” (Qoh 9:5). The dead are forgotten, which adds insult to injury. Finally, the good and the bad, the love and the hate, and any other emotions perish upon death and for all eternity (Qoh 9:6). At this point, it would be tempting to assume that Qohelet is a heretic. However, the Preacher is precisely right. Everything the Preacher has said is correct for those living “under the sun” (Qoh 9:3a, 6b). Suppose life only exists under the sun, where an autonomous epistemology limits the individual to seeing only what is observed, believing what is experienced, and understanding what is reasoned. In that case, God appears immoral, everyone seems evil, and death appears to be the end. As the frame narrator explains, Qohelet provides much truth, but beware of that truth because life might be more than the truth that individuals can glean from observation, experience, and reason. The interpreter may now begin to perceive the gloomy reality experienced by so many people, to recognize the essential existential questions asked by the masses, and to understand the utter hopelessness of living with an under-the-sun perspective. Qohelet now presents a significant shift. Two *qal* imperatives begin verse 7 and are jarring. The Preacher commands that the listener go and eat with enjoyment. In response to the hopelessness of death, the Preacher urges his fellow traveler to find pleasure in eating and drinking. Furthermore, Qohelet appears to communicate that God has sanctioned such pleasurable activity. Longman recognizes that such a straightforward interpretation has caused problems, and some have gone to great lengths to avoid the impression that God is approving unlimited licentiousness or a form of ancient antinomianism.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Importantly, this is the fifth of the *carpe diem* passages (cf. 2:24-26; 3:13-14; 5:18-20; 8:15). Within context, the Preacher is not providing new information but continuing his journey as he attempts to resolve the tension between the two poles of *hebel* and *carpe diem*. Once again, Qohelet discovers and communicates some essential truths. God’s creation is good. Life is short. Death will come soon, so enjoy God’s creative efforts, but beware, says the frame narrator in the epilogue; there is more to life than what is under the sun. Qohelet continues his crusade for enjoyment through symbolic imagery, “Let your garments be always white. Let not oil be lacking on your head” (Qoh 9:8). Athalya Brenner provides insight into the symbolic meaning of white garments by explaining that they often represent both purity and festivity.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) The meaning of oil makes sense within a broader canonical context. Although oil is a protective agent against the dry heat of Palestine, Bartholomew notes that oil is also often associated with joy in the Old Testament (cf. Ps 23:5; Isa 61:3).[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Another *qal* imperative demands that the reader enjoys life through a relationship with the opposite sex (Qoh 9:9). Interestingly, the lemma אִשָּׁה, which is translated as “wife” in the ESV, lacks a definite article, causing some to translate the term as a “woman” (e.g., New Living Translation). Regardless, the point is not about which woman to enjoy but the necessity of pursuing joy under the sun. The more significant point lands within the following adjectival phrase that describes the scope of enjoyment: “All the days of your vain (*hebel*) life that he has given you under the sun” (Qoh 9:9, ESV). One might as well enjoy life because life is *hebel* under the sun. The literary repetition of “under the sun” provides a crucial interpretive clue. The phrase refers to human activities in the world; everything under the sun is *hebel* (Qoh 1:14). In other words, everything in this world, although created good by God, is ultimately meaningless; it lacks. God is not *hebel*; God’s purposes are not *hebel*, but everything under the sun lacks meaning. Everything is lacking except God. Qohelet’s journey of frustration is an exposé on the lack of meaning under the sun. The frame narrator suggests that the only viable option is to fear God, stand in awe of one’s Creator, and obey the One who lacks the lack (Qoh 12:13). In the final verse of the passage, the Preacher provides an exclamation point by reiterating that, in light of imminent death, one must live life to its fullest. It appears Qohelet has no conception of life after death since there is “no work or thought or knowledge or wisdom in Sheol” (Qoh 9:10). Accordingly, Longman suggests that the Preacher is providing a final appeal to his listener: “If you have a chance to do something, do it now, because who knows what the future will bring.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) In short, one cannot grasp life’s meaning with Qohelet’s under-the-sun perspective. ## **Intertextual Links and Thematic Correlation** Due to the genre of Ecclesiastes, Proverbs and Job provide the most reasonable Old Testament intertextual contexts. Regarding Proverbs, Leo Perdue suggests that Qohelet offers an alternative worldview to Proverbs and its “fixed connection between action and result.”[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Perdue goes too far in his analysis. As Raymond Van Leeuwen asserts, Proverbs provides a general connection between righteous behavior and a better life rather than guaranteeing consequences.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Accordingly, Ecclesiastes is more appropriately interpreted as an extension of a reality that Proverbs does not deny. Regarding Job, Longman recognizes that the shared structure between Job and Ecclesiastes requires similar readings since both books contain dubious teachings within the body, addressed toward the end of each book.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Finally, Bartholomew notes that another crucial intertextual issue is the relationship between wisdom and the law, especially in light of Ecclesiastes 12:13b.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) It might be tempting to assume that the reference to fearing God and keeping His commandments is either out of place or a later suspicious redaction; however, in light of the overarching literary structure and context, such conjecture is not necessary. Regarding New Testament intertextual connections, a critical allusion occurs in Romans 8:20, “For the creation was subjected to futility (μάταιος), not willingly, but because of him who subjected it.” The Septuagint translates *hebel* in Ecclesiastes 9:9 by utilizing the Greek term “μάταιος,” which is the same term the Apostle Paul uses in Romans 8:20 for the word “futility.” Paul appears to align with the message of Ecclesiastes by suggesting that life under the sun, apart from God, necessarily leaves all of creation in a futile, meaningless existence. Finally, the intertextual connections provide a foundation for several thematic correlations and biblical-theological implications evidenced within the entire canon of Scripture. First, the central theme of Ecclesiastes is that life is meaningless under the sun. It would be difficult to find any segment of the canon that would suggest otherwise. Without God, life has no life. Second, the retributive paradox motif provides an important thematic initiative that encourages readers of Scripture to recognize the limitations of humanity’s understanding and the need to rely on God. Third, within some of Qohelet’s potentially unsettling statements, the Preacher provides sage advice to his listener. Living in the present moment, enjoying the life God created, and recognizing that life is not always fair are motifs that are not only recognized throughout the canon but also concepts that modern readers must embrace. Finally, as the frame narrator would affirm, fearing God and obeying His commands weaves its way through Scripture from Genesis to Revelation and ought to wind its way through every believer’s life. ## **Conclusion** The historical, literary, and theological contexts of Ecclesiastes 9:1-10 lay the foundation for the interpretive process. First, the historical context points to an author who writes both the first-person autobiographical passages and the third-person prologue and epilogue. The literary context places Ecclesiastes 9:1-10 within the proverbial section of the frame narrator’s book-ended message. The theological context aligns with the historical and literary context and highlights that Qohelet’s message is both a foil and a teaching device. The listener needs to recognize the truth in the Preacher’s message and beware of an autonomous epistemology that cannot see beyond a reality limited to life “under the sun.” Accordingly, it is reasonable to conclude that the genre of Ecclesiastes is a framed wisdom autobiography. The coherent message of the passage emerges when reading the text of Ecclesiastes 9:1-10 in light of its historical, literary, and theological contexts and genre. Qohelet’s journey under the sun results in the inevitable meaninglessness necessitated by a life of lack, for as the epilogue suggests, one can only find meaning by standing in awe of the Creator. Finally, several of Ecclesiastes’ biblical motifs are evident throughout the Old and New Testament canon, such as experiencing meaninglessness without God, addressing why the righteous sometimes suffer, living in the present, enjoying God’s creation, fearing God, and obeying God’s commands. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) External evidence for authorship other than Solomon also exists. See Tremper Longman, *The Book of Ecclesiastes*, *The New International Commentary on the Old Testament* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 8, 15–20. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Longman, 9–11. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Craig G. Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes*, ed. Tremper Longman, *Baker Commentary on the Old Testament* *Wisdom* *and* *Psalms* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2014), 94–95. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Bartholomew, 70, 76, 79. Note that Longman aligns with Bartholomew’s approach, except that Qohelet, in his perspective, is fictional. See Bartholomew, 70, and Longman, 18. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Bartholomew, 93. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Longman, *The Book of Ecclesiastes*, 34. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Michael V. Fox, “Frame-Narrative and Composition in the Book of Qohelet,” *Hebrew Union College Annual* 48 (1977): 96. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) See Roland Edmund Murphy, *Ecclesiastes*, ed. David Allen Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, vol. 23A, *Word* *Biblical* *Commentary* (Zondervan Academic, 2018), xxxi. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) See Joseph Azize, “The Genre of Qohelet,” *DavarLogos* 2, no. 2 (2003): 123. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) See Thomas Krüger, *Qoheleth: A Commentary on the Book of Qoheleth*, ed. Klaus Baltzer (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004), 8. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Longman, *The Book of Ecclesiastes*, 17. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Murphy, *Ecclesiastes*, 23A:90. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Longman, *The Book of Ecclesiastes*, 228. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Longman, *The Book of Ecclesiastes*, 229. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Athalya Brenner, *Colour Terms in the Old Testament* (Sheffield: JSOT, 1982), 90. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes*, 304. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Longman, *The Book of Ecclesiastes*, 231. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Leo G. Perdue, *Wisdom & Creation: The Theology of Wisdom Literature* (Nashville: Abingdon, 1992), 116. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Raymond C Van Leeuwen, “Wealth and Poverty: System and Contradiction in Proverbs,” *Hebrew Studies* 33 (1992): 32–33. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Longman, *The Book of Ecclesiastes*, 37. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes*, 87. # Bibliography - Azize, Joseph. “The Genre of Qohelet.” *DavarLogos* 2, no. 2 (2003): 123–38. - Bartholomew, Craig G. *Ecclesiastes*. Edited by Tremper Longman. *Baker Commentary on the Old Testament Wisdom and Psalms*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2014. - Brenner, Athalya. *Colour Terms in the Old Testament*. Sheffield: JSOT, 1982. - Fox, Michael V. “Frame-Narrative and Composition in the Book of Qohelet.” *Hebrew Union College Annual* 48 (1977): 83–106. - Krüger, Thomas. *Qoheleth: A Commentary on the Book of Qoheleth*. Edited by Klaus Baltzer. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004. - Longman, Tremper. *The Book of Ecclesiastes*. *The New International Commentary on the Old Testament*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997. - Murphy, Roland Edmund. *Ecclesiastes*. Edited by David Allen Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker. Vol. 23A. *Word Biblical Commentary*. Zondervan Academic, 2018. - Perdue, Leo G. *Wisdom & Creation: The Theology of Wisdom Literature*. Nashville: Abingdon, 1992. - Van Leeuwen, Raymond C. “Wealth and Poverty: System and Contradiction in Proverbs.” *Hebrew Studies* 33 (1992): 25–36. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Biblical Inerrancy](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-inerrancy/) **Published:** October 31, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** What is biblical inerrancy and what is your position? of the Bible? This article explores an evangelical, yet undogmatic perspective of one of the most controversial topics of twentieth century theology. **Content:** # Biblical Inerrancy What is biblical inerrancy and what is your position? of the Bible? This article explores an evangelical, yet undogmatic perspective. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 24 182x300 - Biblical Inerrancy](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-24-182x300.jpg "Biblical Inerrancy - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3QUMdL6)Christian Theology The sensitivity of the topic of inerrancy in the latter half of the twentieth century is fascinating. The controversial Southern Baptist Pastor and research assistant with the American Bible Society, Robert Bratcher, supported limited inerrancy condemning a heightened view of inerrancy as heretical and idolatrous by stating that “only willful ignorance or intellectual dishonesty can account for the claim that the bible is inerrant and infallible” (MacArthur, 1997, 30). Drawing the ire of Southern Baptist fundamentalists who supported full inerrancy, Bratcher was asked to resign in 1981 not for lack of support from Bible Societies, but due to financial constraints placed on the American Bible Society by church donors vehemently opposing his views (Allen, 2010). Personally, I support the view of full inerrancy while remaining sympathetic to a cautious application of limited inerrancy and agreeing with Erickson (1998) that Harrison’s moderate harmonization is most adequate in addressing the phenomena of Scripture. An adequate definition of inerrancy is “the view that when all the facts become known, they will demonstrate that the Bible in its original autographs and correctly interpreted is entirely true and never false in all it affirms, whether that relates to doctrine or ethics or the social, physical, or life sciences” (Elwell, 2001, 156). The view of full inerrancy is supported by the Bible itself stating Scriptures are “inspired by God” (2 Tim. 3:16). Full inerrancy is also supported by the church throughout history including such [theological](https://www.livestransforming.com/theological-research/) stalwarts as Augustine, Luther, Calvin, and B. B. Warfield (Elwell, 2001). Finally, the epistemological argument, though less convincing, is valid because if full inerrancy is denied it would significantly increase the risk that Scripture would be unnecessarily questioned (Elwell, 2001). Limited inerrancy views the Bible as both inerrant and infallible regarding soteriological doctrine; however, “scientific and historical references reflect the understanding current at the time it was written” (Erickson, 1998, 248). Based on Erickson’s definition it appears a sympathetic view toward limited inerrancy is not unreasonable under certain circumstances. For example, Jesus states that a mustard seed is the “least of all seeds,” but the mustard seed is not actually the smallest seed (Matt. 13:32). However, the Talmud suggests that in the Jewish mind the mustard seed was the “smallest thing the eye could detect” (Fuller, 1968, 75-83). If in Jesus’ omniscience he would have referred to the actual smallest seed it would have detracted from the revelatory intent of the message (Fuller, 1968). In this regard, limited inerrancy can add value while in no way diminishing the truthfulness of Scripture. Finally, a moderate harmonization that attempts to reasonably reconcile apparent discrepancies based on current academic evidence without forcing unreasonable explanations appears to be most prudent (Erickson, 1998). In areas of Scripture where harmonization seems unattainable it can be assumed that either a portion of the data is lost and that discrepancies will be solved if and when comprehensive data is discovered (Erickson, 1998). Accordingly, the most adequate view of biblical inerrancy is that of full inerrancy while remaining sympathetic to a cautious application of limited inerrancy with a simultaneous application of moderate harmonization when addressing the phenomena of Scripture. **References** Bob Allen. Good News Bible’ translator Bob Bratcher dies. Associated Baptist Press. http://www.abpnews.com/content/view/5338/53 (accessed August 31, 2011). Elwell, W. A., ed. 2001. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. Erickson, M. J. 1998. (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. Fuller, D. P. 1968. Benjamin B. Warfield’s View of Faith and History. Bulletin of the Evangelical Theological Society, 11. MacArthur, J. 1997. Rediscovering Expository Preaching. Dallas: Word. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Characteristics of Words](https://www.livestransforming.com/characteristics-of-words/) **Published:** March 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # **Characteristics of Words** ### **Question** List the 5 characteristics of words. Which one was new to you? Which one do you think is most important? Why? Define “connotative” and “denotative” meanings. What are the steps for performing a word study? How important are word studies in understanding Scripture? Why is it important to do word studies in the original languages instead of in English alone? ### **Response** Words have several characteristics. William Klein, Craig Blomberg, and Robert Hubbard provide five characteristics of words, and the first characteristic is that words are arbitrary signs that combine sounds and letters to create meaning.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Second, words have a range of meaning or semantic range, which simply means that the same exact word can have several different meanings, and third, words reside within a semantic field, which means that many words have similar meanings.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard continue by explaining that the fourth characteristic of words is that their meaning changes over time, thus “new meanings develop through usage, and old ones become obsolete.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Finally, the meaning of words extends beyond the denotative or dictionary definition into a connotative meaning, which is the figurative meaning that many words possess.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The newest characteristic of words to me was the distinction between the denotative and connotative meaning. Within an individual’s native language, the difference between denotative and connotative meaning is second nature and often can be overlooked as an exploration of other languages commence. It appears the most important word characteristic may be a word’s semantic range, because without an understanding of the possible Greek or Hebrew meanings within the context of the original audience, it may be impossible to discover the meaning of a word. [![Grasping Gods Word Fourth Edition A Hands On Approach to Reading Interpreting and Applying the Bible 182x300 - Characteristics of Words](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Grasping-Gods-Word-Fourth-Edition-A-Hands-On-Approach-to-Reading-Interpreting-and-Applying-the-Bible-182x300.jpg "Characteristics of Words - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4c7LZKd)Grasping God’s Word, Fourth Edition: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible Performing a word study requires a minimum of three steps. Scott Duvall and Daniel Hays suggest that the first step is to carefully choose which words to study, and then secondly, determine the semantic range of the word or words selected.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The final step is to determine the meaning of the word within its original context.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Word studies are extraordinarily important due to word’s flexibility and nuance that can significantly impact the meaning of a particular phrase or verse. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of word studies in the original languages. In fact, historically, seminaries required Greek and Hebrew for students obtaining a Master of Divinity. A few of the many reasons why word studies in the original languages are important follow. First, concordance work using the English word is of little value because the underlying Greek and Hebrew words are translated into a variety of English words. Accordingly, when looking for other uses of the word, it is a must that the Greek or Hebrew lemma is searched. Second, identifying the grammatical nuances of a verb or noun is difficult and often impossible using the English language. For example, if the interpreter wants to find all the uses of a particular Greek genitive noun or a specific imperfect Hebrew verb, then the word in the original language needs parsed and only then can the researcher search for similar usages. Third, [textual criticism](https://www.livestransforming.com/textual-criticism-deuteronomy-328-9-and-genesis-4910/) is very difficult, if not impossible, without an understanding of the original languages. Fourth, often subtleties of the original language occur that are not identifiable in English. For example, no indefinite article exists in Hebrew or Greek, and the definite article in Greek may or may not connote definiteness, which can effect meaning.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) A classic example of the importance of articular versus anarthrous nouns is highlighted, according to evangelicals, by the incorrect interpretation of John 1:1 by Jehovah Witnesses, which undermines the deity of Christ.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Although the previous reasons are certainly not comprehensive, it is fair to say that doing word studies in the original languages is extraordinarily important to the modern interpreter. ### **Bibliography** Duvall, J. Scott, and J. Daniel Hays. *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004. Wallace, Daniel B. *The Basics of New Testament Syntax: An Intermediate Greek Grammar*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000. ### **References** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) William W. Klein, Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard, *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation* (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004), 241. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 242–43. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 244. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 246. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) J. Scott Duvall and J. Daniel Hays, *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 167–77. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 177–79. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Daniel B. Wallace, *The Basics of New Testament Syntax: An Intermediate Greek Grammar* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 94–128. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 119–20. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Exegesis Isaiah 40:1-11](https://www.livestransforming.com/exegesis-isaiah-401-11/) **Published:** November 16, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Exegesis Isaiah 40:1-11 **Introduction** The voices in Isaiah 40:1-11 have vexed scholars for centuries and the passage continues to contribute to significant scholarly output. However, scholars continue to underestimate the significance of the grammatical-syntactical impact on determining the context and meaning of the pericope. Without a proper understanding of the presence of the divine council, an essential element of exegesis contributing to a pivotal transition in the book of Isaiah remains a mystery. The following analysis shows that the divine council is once again in session in Isaiah 40:1-11. The investigation commences with an exploration of the participants in verses 1-5 and their association with Isaiah 6. Next, an examination of the voices in verses 6-8 feature individual participants in the divine council supported by a text-critical decision located in verse 6. Third, a brief discussion identifies the “herald of good news” located in verses 9-11, followed by a synopsis of God’s message communicated in the first 11 verses. **The Divine Council: Isaiah 40:1-5** Scholars have long recognized the grammatical nuances of Isaiah 40:1-5. In verse 1, a speaker commands someone to comfort “my people” (עַמִּ֑י), the people of Jerusalem, which suggests the speaker is Yahweh. However, the identity of the recipient(s) of the command is unknown. Frank Cross observes an “unusual series of active imperatives, plural.”\[1\] The plural imperatives referred to by Cross include two instances of נַחֲמ֥וּ and one instance of דַּבְּר֞וּ and קִרְא֣וּ. Furthermore, verse 1 and 3 supply additional plurals, אֱלֹהֵיכֶֽם and לֵאלֹהֵֽינוּ, which both occur with plural pronominal suffixes. The recipients of the commands have perplexed translators and scholars alike. The LXX provides the vocative plural masculine ἱερεῖς (O priests), while the Targums suggest the subjects are prophets.\[2\] Geoffrey Grogan appears to agree with the Targums, while Gary Smith suggests it is “not profitable to speculate.”\[3\] Regardless, Michael Heiser contends the plural suffixes and imperatives provide evidence that the commands are “issued to an unseen audience, and require actions that cannot be fulfilled by earthly addressees. [![03 19 182x300 - Exegesis Isaiah 40:1-11](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/03-19-182x300.png "Exegesis Isaiah 40:1-11 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4j8HYrc)The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible ”\[4\] Heiser presents additional evidence of divine council activity by noting the speaker changes in verse 3, suggesting an individual member of the assembly cries out in response to Yahweh and issues plural imperatives, consistent with verses 1 and 2, to a divine audience.\[5\] Further evidence for Heiser’s assertion exists in the relationship of Isaiah 40:1-11 and Isaiah 6. Isaiah of Jerusalem sees Yahweh with heavenly beings (שְׂרָפִ֨ים) standing with Him and praising the “Lord of hosts,” which suggests the presence of a divine council (Isa. 6:1-3 \[ESV\]). Additionally, Yahweh asks a question in Isaiah 6 to a plural audience, similar to the plurality in Isaiah 40:1-5, that also provides evidence of a divine council, “Whom shall I send, and who will go for us?” (Isa. 6:8; emphasis added). Cross notes that the parallel between Isaiah 6:1-8 and Isaiah 40:1-11 “is remarkable.”\[6\] The content of Isaiah 6 and its overlap with Isaiah 40 clearly supports the possibility of a divine council scene later in Isaiah. Accordingly, based on the plural imperatives and suffixes, the alternating speakers, and the conceptual relationship to Isaiah 6, the evidence supports a divine council assembling in Isaiah 40:1-5. **The Crying Voice: Isaiah 40:6-8** Although it appears evident that a divine council convenes in Isaiah 40:1-5, the identification of the voices in verses 6-8 remains unsolved. The commanding voice that begins verse 6a is certainly reminiscent of verse 3, suggesting a member of the divine council. However, in contrast to verses 1-5, the voice issues a command using a singular imperative (קְרָ֔א). The interpretive decision consists of identifying the questioner who responds to the command. The answer may rest in an important text-critical variant involving the Dead Sea Scrolls in verse 6. According to the BHS, the Masoretic Text renders the response, “and a voice said” or “and he said” (וְאָמַ֖ר), but the Qumran text (1QIsaa) renders the response in the first person, “and I said” (ואומרה). In other words, the Qumran text suggests the prophetic writer is responding to the command. Christopher Seitz explains that the first person reading has led scholars to identify the questioner as possibly Second Isaiah in a call narrative or Isaiah of Jerusalem; but then he ultimately uses the MT to conclude the voice is a member of the divine council.\[7\] However, echoes of Isaiah 6 may again shed light on the answer. Roy Melugin suggests Isaiah 6 is a call narrative where a prophet is “transported by vision into the realm of the heavenly council.”\[8\] However, Seitz recognizes a call narrative is not necessary in Isaiah 40 if the “backdrop of Isaiah 6 has been presupposed.”\[9\] In sum, based on the evidence from Qumran and the alignment with Isaiah 6, it appears the questioner in Isaiah 40:6 is a prophet transported into the presence of the divine council, not for a unique call, but as a progression of God’s council activity from Isaiah 6. The conclusion also seems to align with the verses that follow. **The Herald: Isaiah 40:9-11** The identification of the herald in verses 9-11 is the final controversy of the pericope. Certain scholars, such as John Watts and Gary Smith conclude the herald is Zion.\[10\] However, if the herald is Zion, then the divine council context rendered apparent in verses 1-8 diminishes. Hebrew grammar may assist in solving the problem. The word for herald used in Isaiah 40:9 (מְבַשֶּׂ֣רֶת) is a feminine singular participle, which appears to disqualify the prophet. However, Friedrich Gesenius notes that, at times, grammatically feminine forms refer to masculine nouns (e.g. קֹהֶ֣לֶת in Ecc. 1:1).\[11\] Furthermore, a lemma search in Isaiah for בשׂר returns four results, and two verses specifically pertain to a messenger sent to Zion, Isaiah 41:27 and 52:7. All instances of the word in 41:27 (מְבַשֵּׂ֥ר) and 52:7 (מְבַשֵּׂ֗ר and מַשְׁמִ֧יעַ) occur in the masculine singular form, which supports the possibility of a prophet or divine council member. Alternatively, Bruce Waltke suggests the feminine singular form may refer to collective noun (e.g. אֹרְחַ֣ת in Gen. 37:25).\[12\] Accordingly, the feminine singular form of מְבַשֶּׂ֣רֶת in 40:9 may refer to the divine council as a collective. Based on the evidence, Heiser suggests both alternatives, a prophet or divine council, are valid options for the herald, and even the possibility of a member of the divine council remains.\[13\] However, a prophet interacting within the divine council appears most reasonable in light of verses 6-8 and a renewed message of hope for Zion discussed below. **The Message of Isiah 40:1-11** In contrast to the somber judgement of Isaiah 6, Isaiah 40 provides an optimistic tone of comfort and deliverance. Watts recognizes that the Isaiah 40:1-11 is a new day for Israel marking the end of the exile with a turning point “prompted by the imminent coming of Yahweh to Zion.”\[14\] However, Watt’s broad message must not overlook the integration of the obvious divine council context that hearkens back to the Tower of Babel (See Gen. 10-11 and Deut. 32:8). Heiser explains that although two tribes of Judah were brought out of exile, the other ten tribes were “scattered among the disinherited nations.”\[15\] However, Isaiah 40:1-11 looks forward to the coming Messiah that “will result in redemption for all the tribes.”\[16\] In other words, Yahweh is progressing toward a time when John the Baptist will embody the voice calling in Isaiah 40:3, which paves the way for a Messiah to deliver all humanity. **Conclusion** The evidence appears to prove the divine council is once again in session in Isaiah 40:1-11. First, the plural imperatives and suffixes, the alternating speakers, and the [conceptual relationship](https://www.livestransforming.com/evangelism-relationships-and-community/) to Isaiah 6 support divine council activity in verses 1-5. Second, the Qumran variant and additional connections with Isaiah 6 suggest the questioner in verse 6 is a prophet transported into the presence of the divine council. Third, it appears, without certainty, a prophet interacts within the divine council as the herald in verses 9-11. Finally, the thrust of God’s message reflects back to divine council activity in Genesis 10-11 and, simultaneously, forward to pave the way for a Messiah to redeem all nations. **Bibliography** - Cross, Frank M. “The Council of Yahweh in Second Isaiah.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 12, no. 4 (October 1953): 274–77. - Gesenius, Friedrich Wilhelm. Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Edited by E. Kautzsch and Arthur Ernest Cowley. 2d English ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. - Grogan, Geoffrey W. Isaiah. The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Proverbs-Isaiah, edited by Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland, vol. 6. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008. - Heiser, Michael S. “The Divine Council in Late Canonical and Non-Canonical Second Temple Jewish Literature.” PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2010. - ———. The Unseen Realm. Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015. - Melugin, Roy F. The Formation of Isaiah 40-55. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1976. - Seitz, Christopher R. “The Divine Council: Temporal Transition and New Prophecy in the Book of Isaiah.” Journal of Biblical Literature 109, no. 2 (1990): 229–47. - Smith, Gary. Isaiah 40-66. The New American Commentary, vol. 15b. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2009. - Tan, Randall, and David A. deSilva, Logos Bible Software. In The Lexham Greek-English Interlinear Septuagint. Logos Bible Software, 2009. - Waltke, Bruce K., and M. O’Connor. An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990. - Watts, John D. W. Isaiah 34-66. Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 25. Rev. ed. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2005. \[1\] Frank M. Cross, “The Council of Yahweh in Second Isaiah,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 12, no. 4 (October 1953): 275. \[2\] Randall Tan and David A. deSilva, Logos Bible Software, The Lexham Greek-English Interlinear Septuagint (Logos Bible Software, 2009), Isa. 40:2. \[3\] Geoffrey W. Grogan, Isaiah, The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Proverbs-Isaiah, eds. Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland, rev. ed., vol. 6 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008), 720. See also, Gary Smith, Isaiah 40-66, The New American Commentary, vol. 15b (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2009), 93. \[4\] Michael S. Heiser, “The Divine Council in Late Canonical and Non-Canonical Second Temple Jewish Literature” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2010), 104. \[5\] Ibid. \[6\] Cross, “The Council of Yahweh in Second Isaiah,” 276. \[7\] Christopher R. Seitz, “The Divine Council: Temporal Transition and New Prophecy in the Book of Isaiah,” Journal of Biblical Literature 109, no. 2 (1990): 235–38, 245. \[8\] Roy F. Melugin, The Formation of Isaiah 40-55 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1976), 83. \[9\] Seitz, “The Divine Council: Temporal Transition and New Prophecy in the Book of Isaiah,” 241. \[10\] John D. W. Watts, Isaiah 34-66, Word Biblical Commentary, rev. ed., vol. 25 (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2005), 612. See also, Gary Smith, Isaiah 40-66, The New American Commentary, vol. 15b (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2009), 99. \[11\] Friedrich Wilhelm Gesenius, Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, ed. E. Kautzsch and Arthur Ernest Cowley, 2d English ed. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1910), 393. \[12\] Bruce K. Waltke and M. O’Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 102. \[13\] Heiser, The Divine Council in Late Canonical and Non-Canonical Second Temple Jewish Literature, 108–9. \[14\] Watts, Isaiah 34-66, 612. \[15\] Michael S. Heiser, The Unseen Realm (Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015), 272. \[16\] Ibid. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Gap Theory](https://www.livestransforming.com/gap-theory/) **Published:** November 16, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Gap Theory **Introduction** In the early twentieth century, a footnote in The Scofield Reference Bible made popular a theory of creation recognized as the “Restitution Theory” or the “Gap Theory.” The theory proposed a significant gap of time between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2. The question is whether the Gap Theory provides an adequate explanation of creation. A correct evaluation of the cosmogony of Genesis 1 has implications for an accurate theology and a proper [apologetic of the Christian](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-apologetics/) faith. The following analysis proves the Gap Theory to be untenable on three fronts. First, the theory deteriorates on grammatical-syntactical grounds. Next, relevant word studies undermine the approach. Finally, the literary structure of Genesis 1-2 frustrates the theory. **Grammatical-Syntactical** Although the Gap Theory has a history of attempting to reconcile the cosmogony of Genesis with science, supporters assert the theory is a matter of proper exegesis. Bruce Waltke explains that defenders of the Gap Theory assert that verse 1 in Genesis represents an organized universe, then verse 2 represents chaos, and then verse 3 reverts to organized, thus describing “three successive stages in the history of the earth.”\[1\] In other words, the organized universe of Genesis 1:1 juxtaposed with the chaos of verse 2 arguably provides evidence of a gap. However, the sequential nature of the theory is problematic for three reasons. First, Friedrich Gesenius explains that the Hebrew language represents the sequence of time with a “waw consecutive” construction, which is the conjunction waw attached to a verb.\[2\] However, Genesis 1:1 begins with a preposition attached to a noun, not a waw attached to a verb. Furthermore, Genesis 1:2 begins with the conjunction waw attached to the noun “earth” (ארץ), not a verb. Accordingly, the absence of a waw consecutive provides grammatical-syntactical evidence for non-sequential activity, which undermines the core of the Gap Theory. Second, since the waw consecutive is absent from Genesis 1:2, the waw must be a “waw conjunctive” or a “waw disjunctive.” Waltke prefers the waw conjunctive, which is a simple coordination that “does not introduce an independent sequential clause.” [![03 20 182x300 - Gap Theory](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/03-20-182x300.jpg "Gap Theory - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/43sPGbj)Unformed and Unfilled: A Critique of the Gap Theory \[3\] Alternatively, Weston Fields prefers the waw disjunctive, which adds explanatory information that breaks the sequence of the narrative.\[4\] Regardless, both support a syntactical structure of three dependent clauses in Genesis 1:2. Since the Gap Theory requires three independent clauses (events) sequentially strung together, the evidence of dependent clauses in verse 2 further frustrates the theory. Finally, two additional grammatical observations support the possibility that even Genesis 1:1 is a dependent clause. First, Victor Hamilton notes the vowel structure in the first word in Genesis 1:1 indicates the word בְּרֵאשִׁ֖ית is in the construct rather than the absolute state. In other words, instead of rendering the first phrase of Genesis “in the beginning” the first phrase would render “in the beginning of.”\[5\] Second, the word בְּרֵאשִׁ֖ית also lacks the definite article due to the shewa under the ב, which would render the phrase “when God began to create,” rather than “in the beginning, God created.” Although arguments exist against the rendering of Genesis 1:1 as a dependent clause, both the vowel structure and indefiniteness of בְּרֵאשִׁ֖ית suggest the possibility certainly exists. Accordingly, based on an analysis of the grammatical-syntactical relationship of Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, it appears that no justification exists for positing a long gap of time between the two verses. **Relevant Word Studies** Although the syntactical-grammatical evidence vigorously supports the non-sequential nature of Genesis 1:1-2, if the proponents of the Gap Theory can prove a sequence of events in the first two verses, then the Gap Theory may stand. Defenders of the theory use two relevant word studies to attempt to prove their case. First, Hamilton explains that Gap Theory proponents claim the verb “was” (הָיְתָ֥ה) in Genesis 1:2 is active rather than stative to support a sequential argument.\[6\] In other words, instead of rendering Genesis 1:2, “the earth was desolate,” it would render verse 2, “the earth became desolate.” A broad lemma search on the word (היה) suggests the word has the sense of “become” or “became” only about 10 percent of the time, but the possibility does exist. However, by using the Andersen-Forbes syntax database, one can mimic the grammatical structure of היה in Genesis 1:2 to analyze its use in more detail. The result of the analysis provided by Michael Heiser results in only one occurrence that mimics the grammatical structure of Genesis 1:2, which is a narrative in 2 Kings 5:1 that supports a translation of “was” not “became.”\[7\] Accordingly, no significant evidence exists to support the Gap Theory’s assertion that הָיְתָ֥ה should be translated “became.” Second, M. W. J. Phelan explains that proponents of the Gap Theory contend the state of the universe in Genesis 1:2, without form and void, resulted from a catastrophe due to the judgement of God.\[8\] The logic behind the assertion supports the idea that the destruction in Genesis 1:2 follows the activity in verse 1 sequentially. A broad concatenated lemma search for תֹּהוּ and בֹּהוּ provides only two results: Jeremiah 4:23 and Isaiah 34:11, which both appear to pertain to God’s judgement. Waltke acknowledges the structural relationship between Jeremiah 4 and Genesis 1, but also recognizes the non sequitur in applying the judgement that dismantles creation in Jeremiah 4:23 to a precreative state; the author then applies the same logic to Isaiah 34:11.\[9\] Furthermore, a broad lemma search on each term produces no additional results for בֹּהוּ and seventeen additional results for תֹּהוּ. Of the seventeen results, the contexts of the usages are often morally neutral. For example, Fields recognizes the language referring to the nation of Israel in Deuteronomy 32:10 has “nothing to do with judgment, or with creation.”\[10\] Consequently, to suggest that the words תֹּהוּ and בֹּהוּ necessarily mean a judgement of God that results in catastrophe significantly overstates the case. Accordingly, neither suggesting the word הָיְתָ֥ה means “became” nor the words תֹּהוּ and בֹּהוּ mean God’s judgement proves a sequence of events in the first two verses of Genesis. **Literary Structure** The literary structure of Genesis 1-2 also frustrates the Gap Theory. Waltke references D. F. Payne’s admission that science was a catalyst for the renewed interest in the Gap Theory.\[11\] However, the question remains whether Genesis must harmonize with science. The answer arrives in an analysis of Genesis’s literary genre. Waltke provides four options for the genre of the book, which include myth, science, history, and theology, all of which fail to satisfy completely.\[12\] However, a brief analysis of the framework of creation shed light on the genre in two ways. First, Waltke recognizes a chronological framework of the anthropomorphic language in Genesis where God announced, commanded, reported, named, and evaluated the days in an orderly fashion.\[13\] Second, Waltke observes the intentionality behind the thematic, not chronological, representation of the created days literarily as two triads, where the first triad forms creation and the second triad fills creation by inhabiting and ruling the first.\[14\] In other words, Waltke agrees with Henri Blocher that Genesis provides a “literary-artistic” genre with the purpose of communicating a theological message that grounds “covenant people’s worship and life in the Creator, who transformed chaos into cosmos, and their ethics in His created order.”\[15\] Accordingly, if the genre of Genesis is not science, then the Gap Theory potentially suffers from using the book to answer questions it never meant to answer. **Conclusion** Without question, the evidence proves the Gap Theory fails. First, the theory fails based on the grammatical usage of the non-sequential nature of waw and the syntactical structure that supports dependent clauses in Genesis 1:1-2. Next, the theory fails in light of word studies that suggest the proper interpretation of הָיְתָ֥ה is “was” not “became” and proves that תֹ֨הוּ֙ וָבֹ֔הוּ is often a morally neutral phrase that does not mean God’s judgement. Finally, the literary genre of Genesis as literary-artistic, rather than scientific, further frustrates the theory. **Bibliography** - Fields, Weston. Unformed and Unfilled: A Critique of the Gap Theory. Green Forest, AZ: Master Books, 2005. - Gesenius, Friedrich Wilhelm. Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Edited by E. Kautzsch and Arthur Ernest Cowley. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. - Hamilton, Victor P. The Book of Genesis, Chapters 1-17. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1995. - Heiser, Michael S. “Genesis1v2” (video). Accessed September 26, 2015. http://www.michaelsheiser.com/TheNakedBible/Genesis1v2.mov. - Phelan, M. W. J. The Genesis ‘Gap Theory’: Its Credibility and Consequences. Waterlooville, UK: Twoedged Sword, 2005. - Waltke, Bruce K. “Creation Account in Genesis 1:1-3: Part II: The Restitution Theory.” Bibliotheca Sacra 132, no. 527 (April 1975): 136–44. - ———. “The Literary Genre of Genesis, Chapter One.” Crux 27, no. 4 (December 1991): 2–10. - Waltke, Bruce K., and Cathi J. Fredricks. Genesis: A Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001. \[1\] Bruce K. Waltke, “Creation Account in Genesis 1:1-3: Part II: The Restitution Theory,” Bibliotheca Sacra 132, no. 527 (April 1975): 139. \[2\] Friedrich Wilhelm Gesenius, Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, ed. E. Kautzsch and Arthur Ernest Cowley, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1910), 132–35. \[3\] Waltke, “Creation Account in Genesis 1:1-3: Part II: The Restitution Theory,” 140.\[4\] Weston Fields, Unformed and Unfilled: A Critique of the Gap Theory (Green Forest, AZ: Master Books, 2005), 82. \[5\] Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis, Chapters 1-17, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1995), 104. \[6\] Ibid., 116. \[7\] Michael S. Heiser, “Genesis1v2” (video), accessed September 26, 2015, http://www.michaelsheiser.com/TheNakedBible/Genesis1v2.mov. \[8\] M. W. J. Phelan, The Genesis ‘Gap Theory’: Its Credibility and Consequences (Waterlooville, UK: Twoedged Sword, 2005), 61–62. \[9\] Waltke, “Creation Account in Genesis 1:1-3: Part II: The Restitution Theory,” 141–42. \[10\] Fields, Unformed and Unfilled: A Critique of the Gap Theory, 118. \[11\] Waltke, “Creation Account in Genesis 1:1-3: Part II: The Restitution Theory,” 138. \[12\] Bruce K. Waltke and Cathi J. Fredricks, Genesis: A Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001), 73–78. \[13\] Bruce K. Waltke, “The Literary Genre of Genesis, Chapter One,” Crux 27, no. 4 (December 1991): 5. \[14\] Ibid., 5–6. \[15\] Ibid., 9. See also Meredith G. Kline and Lee Irons, “The Framework View,” in David G. Hagopian, ed., The Genesis Debate: Three Views on the Days of Creation (Mission Viejo, CA: Crux, 2001). **Categories:** Research --- ### [Heaven, Hell, and Resurrection According to Paul](https://www.livestransforming.com/heaven-hell-and-resurrection-according-to-paul/) **Published:** June 30, 2014 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** The background of Paul’s idea of the life to come. **Content:** # Heaven, Hell, and Resurrection According to Paul The background of Paul’s idea of the life to come (more than bodily form issues). Does Paul give any details about heaven or hell? What role does the resurrection from the dead play in Paul’s view of the life to come? What role does the bodily resurrection of Christ play in the Christian’s hope of participation in the life to come? In general, Paul utilizes the word heaven to provide Christians with hope (Philippians 3:20 \[NASB\]). Paul also identifies heaven as a spiritual domain that coincides with the physical world.[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn1) In addition, Paul refers to the heavens as part of the cosmos that represents the spirit world (Ephesians 3:10; 6:12). Alternatively, according to Paul, hell is a real place of destruction where non-believers experience divine wrath. Furthermore, according to Paul, the eternal state of Christian existence is in a bodily form resurrected from death into the presence of God. Paul provides a number of details about heaven and hell. First, regarding heaven, Paul explains that heaven is Christ’s dwelling place (1 Thessalonians 1:10). Paul also asserts that God reveals His wisdom in the heavenly domain (Ephesians 3:10). Additionally, wicked supernatural beings exist in the heavenly realm (Ephesians 6:12). However, Peter O’Brien points out that this should not frighten believers because these evil powers are subjected to God and Christians have been transferred from this dark sphere (Colossians 1:13).[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn2) Next, Millard Erickson points out that experientially “heaven will far surpass anything experienced here.”[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn3) Paul supports Erickson’s assertion in a reference likely discussing the blessings of heaven by stating, “Things which eye has not seen and ear has not heard, and which have not entered the heart of man, all that God has prepared for those who love Him. For to us God revealed them through the Spirit; for the Spirit searches all things, even the depths of God” (1 Corinthians 2:9-10). Paul also claims that heaven is full of rewards (1 Corinthians 3:14-15). Harm Hollander appropriately clarifies that the reward Paul refers to is not salvific, but instead, “The reward seems to be something additional to salvation.”[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn4) Finally, Paul’s most comforting perspective of heaven for believers on earth is that Christians, even now, “share Christ’s life in the heavenly realms.”[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn5) Regarding hell, John Walvoord recognizes that Paul’s view encompasses a location where the “wicked will receive sudden destruction when the Day of the Lord overtakes them” (1 Thessalonians 5:3).[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn6) Furthermore, Paul suggests individuals destined to hell will experience divine wrath (1 Thessalonians 5:9). Finally, Paul explains that choosing eternal destruction results in an eternal separation from God’s presence (2 Thessalonians 1:9). Walvoord also addresses the issue of the duration of hell by noting that Paul uses the Greek word, aion, to describe the endless nature of eternal punishment and adamantly claims that limiting the definition of the word to anything less than “endless” within the context of Paul’s references to hell is a distortion of the Greek.[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn7) Prior to assessing the role of the resurrection in Paul’s view of the life to come, it is critical to determine whether Paul believed in the historical factuality of Jesus’s resurrection. Ronald Sider explains that theologians William Farmer, Karl Barth, and Rudolph Bultmann all, in their own ways, reject the notion of an actual resurrection of Christ.[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn8) However, Sider concludes that Paul’s words in his first letter to the Corinthians confirm the reality of an actual resurrection of Christ by stating, “He (Christ) was buried, and that He was raised on the third day…and that He appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. [![03 22 182x300 - Heaven, Hell, and Resurrection According to Paul](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/03-22-182x300.jpg "Heaven, Hell, and Resurrection According to Paul - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/42oB5ws)Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free After that He appeared to more than five hundred brethren” (1 Corinthians 15:4-6).[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn9) Accordingly, Paul believed in the historical factuality of Jesus’s death and resurrection. In fact, F. F. Bruce explains that Paul’s Pharisaic background provided a strong foundation for a belief in the resurrection from the dead.[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn10) Furthermore, Luke records Paul explaining to Governor Felix “that there shall certainly be a resurrection of both the righteous and the wicked” (Acts 24:15). Bruce also notes a shift in Paul’s emphasis, after the apostle’s recent brush with death, to an enhanced focus on dying prior to the Parousia.[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn11) Accordingly, Paul connects the importance of the resurrection to the immortality of the believer’s souls by stating, “He who raised the Lord Jesus to life will with Jesus raise us \[people still alive in the flesh\] too, and bring us to his presence” (2 Corinthians 4:14). In fact, Bruce continues, “Paul could not contemplate immortality apart from resurrection.”[\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn12) Paul further clarifies the relationship between immortality and resurrection by explaining that, at the time of physical death, Christians will rise in a spiritualized embodiment of life, which carries believers into the presence of the Lord.[\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn13) Gary Habermas and J. P. Moreland maintain that the resurrection of Christ supports the hope of believer participation in eternal life in two ways.[\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn14) First, Jesus’ resurrection “establishes Jesus’ authority.”[\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn15) In other words, [Paul explains](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-meaning-of-in-christ/) that death is subject to the authority of Christ by pointing out that since Jesus raised for the dead, “death no longer is master over Him,” and if death is no longer master over Christ, and believers are in Christ, then death is no longer a master over Christians (Romans 6:9). Second, Habermas and Moreland note that the resurrected Christ actually exemplifies life after death.[\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn16) More specifically, in Jesus’ resurrected spiritual body the eyewitnesses to Christ attest to a “living example of the afterlife.”[\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn17) Importantly, Christ’s resurrection not only provides supporting evidence for the reality of an afterlife, but Christ also exemplifies the traits of life after life for each Christian.[\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn18) It is difficult to overestimate the importance of Christ’s resurrection to the hope of all Christians past and present for, as Bruce astutely notes, “what was true of Him must be true of his people.”[\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn19) [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref1). Alister E. McGrath, Theology: The Basics (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004), 124. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref2). Peter T. O’Brien, The Letter to the Ephesians (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999), 467. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref3). Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 1239. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref4). Harm W. Hollander, “The Testing by Fire of the Builders’ Works: 1 Corinthians 3:10-15,” New Testament Studies 40 (1994): 103. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref5). O’Brien, The Letter to the Ephesians, 171. [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref6). William Crockett et al., Four Views on Hell, ed. William Crockett and Stanley N. Gundry (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 21. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref7). Ibid., 24. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref8). Ronald J. Sider, “St. Paul’s Understanding of the Nature and Significance of the Resurrection in 1 Corinthians 15:1-9,” Novum Testamentum 19, no. 1 (April 1977): 124, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 13, 2014). [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref9). Ibid., 140-41. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref10). F. F. Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1977), 300-1. [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref11). Ibid., 310. [\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref12). Ibid., 311. [\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref13). Ibid. [\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref14). Gary R. Habermas and J. P. Moreland, Beyond Death: Exploring the Evidence for Immortality (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2004), 261. [\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref15). Ibid. [\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref16). Ibid., 261. [\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref17). Ibid. [\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref18). Ibid., 262. [\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref19). Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free, 305. # Bibliography Bruce, F. F. Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1977. Crockett, William, John F. Walvoord, Zachary J. Hayes, and Clark H. Pinnock. Four Views on Hell. Edited by William Crockett and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996. Erickson, Millard J. Christian Theology. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007. Habermas, Gary R., and J. P. Moreland. Beyond Death: Exploring the Evidence for Immortality. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2004. Hollander, Harm W. “The Testing by Fire of the Builders’ Works: 1 Corinthians 3:10-15.” New Testament Studies 40 (1994): 89-104. McGrath, Alister E. Theology: The Basics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004. O’Brien, Peter T. The Letter to the Ephesians. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999. Sider, Ronald J. “St. Paul’s Understanding of the Nature and Significance of the Resurrection in 1 Corinthians 15:1-9.” Novum Testamentum 19, no. 1 (April 1977): 124-41. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [History of Confession](https://www.livestransforming.com/history-of-confession/) **Published:** November 1, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** How does the history of confession relate to periods of persecution and integrate into the early church's thought about the doctrines of salvation and the church? That is, if a baptized believer succumbed to persecution and gave up his/her faith, did the church believe salvation was lost as a result? Also, could the church include Christians who denied their faith? **Content:** # History of Confession # HISTORY OF CONFESSION How does the history of confession relate to periods of persecution and integrate into the early church’s thought about the doctrines of salvation and the church? That is, if a baptized believer succumbed to persecution and gave up his/her faith, did the church believe salvation was lost as a result? Also, could the church include Christians who denied their faith? [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 1 1 182x300 - History of Confession](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-1-1-182x300.png "History of Confession - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3FK405j)Church History, Volume One: From Christ to the Pre-Reformation: The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context According to Ferguson, the reign of Roman Emperor Decius (249-251) increased the persecution of Christians significantly. The Emperor issued an empire wide edict requiring individuals to make sacrifices to pagan gods. Due to recent tranquility in the region, the commitment of many Christians had waned, accordingly, a significant number of believers lapsed by abiding by the Emperor’s decree or obtaining a certificate of compliance.[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftn1) The persecution led to two church schisms. One schism, led by Felicissimus, championed the view of the confessors who permitted instantaneous reconciliation of the lapsi. The second schism was led by Novatian who denied any possibility of reconciliation for those who had lapsed.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftn2) Alternatively, a synod of bishops in 251 at Carthage approved the viewpoint of a relatively new convert and church leader, Bishop Cyprian of Carthage.[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftn3) Cyprian confronted the laxism of Felicissimus and the rigorism of Novatian by advocating a mediating position that neither supported immediate restoration nor irreversible reconciliation.[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftn4) Cyprian’s solution was based on a view that the lapsed had denied Christ, thus, they caused Christ to deny them salvation, and he supported this claim by quoting God speaking in Exodus saying, “he that sacrifices unto any gods, save unto the Lord only, shall be destroyed.”[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftn5) Cyprian furthers his opposition against the lapsi’s actions by rhetorically asking, “Did He not before ordain for those who deny Him eternal punishments,” and continues the indictment by saying to them, “you have immolated your salvation, your hope; there you have burnt up your faith in those deadly fires.”[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftn6) Additionally, Cyprian provided anecdotal evidence in an attempt to prove the loss of salvation through various experiential references including a lapsed individual vomiting after taking communion to prove the Eucharist does not ameliorate the ignoble, instead, the denial caused the Lord to withdraw.[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftn7) Broadening his application, Cyprian suggests those who attempted to obtain certificates will not elude the judgment of God either and neither will those who thought about the possibility of denial by rhetorically asking, “Does he think that [he is a Christian](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-meaning-of-in-christ/), who is either ashamed or afraid to be a Christian?”[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftn8) Finally, Cyprian relents by suggesting that proper prayer, true contrition, and persistent works of penance will once again bring salvation by referencing Isaiah’s claim that, “when you turn and lament, then shall you be saved.”[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftn9) Cyprian extended his salvific logic by practically applying it to a proposed method of reconciliation to the church. In summary, those who committed the sacrificial offense could only be placed back into communion at the time of death, those who procured certificates by methods other than sacrifice were required to be disciplined and also wait a period of time, and those who thought denial was a possibility were required to privately confess to the clergy.[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftn10) Cyprian’s policy established a church discipline policy that, similar to his view of restoring salvation, required public confession, “performance of works of penance,” and the “laying on of the hands of the bishop and clergy” and, in effect, placed individuals and even martyrs under the jurisdiction of the bishop.[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftn11) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftnref1). Everett Ferguson, Church History: Volume One: From Christ to Pre-Reformation: The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005), 161. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftnref2). Ibid., 164. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftnref3). Ibid. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftnref4). Ibid., 165. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftnref5). Cyprian Treatise III 7 [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftnref6). Cyprian Treatise III 8 [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftnref7). Ibid., 25-26. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftnref8). Ibid., 28. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftnref9). Ibid., 36. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftnref10). Ferguson, Church History: Volume One: From Christ to Pre-Reformation: The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context, 165. [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Discussion_Board_2_Persecution%20Theology-FINAL.docx#_ftnref11). Ibid., 166. # BIBLIOGRAPHY Ferguson, Everett. Church History: Volume One: From Christ to Pre-Reformation: The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005. Roberts, Alexander, and James Donaldson, eds. Ante-Nicene Fathers Volume 5: Hippolytus, Cyprian, Caius, Novatian, Appendix. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1999. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Biblical Canon](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-canon/) **Published:** December 4, 2010 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Biblical Canon [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 23 1 182x300 - Biblical Canon](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-23-1-182x300.png "Biblical Canon - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/426DD0T)The New Testament: Its Background and Message ***What is a good definition of the biblical canon and what is the basic criteria and chronology of the formation of the New Testament canon. Why did early Christians feel a need to establish an authoritative list of Scripture? What element in the criteria is most important? Which element is least important? What are the reasons why these particular elements are most important. How can you respond to a person who claimed that the canon of the Bible should still be open? Read this post to find out the answers to these questions.*** The word canon as derived from the Greek language meant “measuring reed” (Carson, 2005, 726). The definition of “canon” predominant in theological studies today is, “the closed collection of documents that constitute authoritative Scripture” (Carson, 2005, 726). Orthodoxy, apostolicity and universality were three fundamental components directing church leaders in antiquity to determine which books deserved canonical status (Lea, 2003). According to Carson (2005) whether the document conformed to orthodoxy was assessed by aligning the document with truth recognized in churches as normative. Church Fathers frequently referred to apostolicity as documents written by the apostles or those associated directly with individuals identified as apostles. Finally, the geographical range the document traveled and the prevalent acceptance by churches came to be known as universality (Carson, 2005). Scholars may commence their formation analysis of the New Testament canon with The Canon of Marcion. However, Carson (2005) appears to present ample evidence of canonization originating prior to A.D. 140. Although unequivocal evidence of the Old Testament delivery of a prototype for a New Testament canon does not exist, a closed Old Testament canon may have been furthered at the Council of Jamnia, by Jewish historian Josephus with references to a tripartite division of the Old Testament, and numerous references in New Testament manuscripts to the Old Testament as canonized Scripture (Carson, 2005). The first list considered a closed canon was delivered by Marcion and excluded the Old Testament and three gospels (Carson, 2005). In A.D. 170 The Muratorian Canon, according to Lea (2003), included the majority of New Testament writings as canonical. However, it “excluded James, Hebrews and the Petrine epistles, and expressed doubt about the Revelation of John” (Lea, 2003, 73). The Marcion and Muratorian canon both encouraged Christians to establish an authoritative list of Scripture (Carson, 2005). Furthermore, Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 260-340) documented a tripartite classification of recognized, disputed and heretical books that display early universal acceptance of much of the New Testament (Carson, 2005). Finally, in A.D. 367, The Festal Letter of Athanasius, “accepted all twenty-seven New Testament writings” (Lea, 2003, 73). Carson (2005) noted that subsequent to The Festal Letter of Athanasius, the sixtieth canon of the Council of Laodicea (c. 363) included all books except Revelation, and The Third Council of Carthage (c. 397) recognized all currently canonized New Testament books. No significant deviations occurred subsequent to The Third Council of Carthage (Carson, 2005). In agreement with Lea, I believe the most important element of canonicity is inspiration (Lea, 2003). Although human guidelines of orthodoxy, apostolicity and universality may assist in determining inspiration they cannot replace the precept that, “All Scripture is inspired by God” (2 Timothy 3:16, New American Standard \[NAS\]). Further, in accordance with Carson, I believe universality is less important than other criteria used in the canonization process (Carson, 2005). “But know this first of all, that no prophecy of Scripture is a matter of one’s own interpretation, for no prophecy was ever made by an act of human will, but men moved by the [Holy Spirit](https://www.livestransforming.com/holy-spirit-in-revelation/) spoke from God” (2 Peter 1:20-21, NAS). The word “made” is translated as “carried, borne” which is an indication that human will and interpretation was not the origination of Scripture or the canon (Ryrie, 1995, 1986). Thus, I believe the impact of universal acceptance and widespread interpretive usage is less important than other forms of criteria. As mentioned earlier, the Church Fathers often refer to the importance of direct or indirect contact emphasizing the role of apostolicity as a criterion for canonization (Carson, 2005). Unfortunately, after many centuries neither direct nor indirect physical association with Jesus or the Early Church currently exists; accordingly, the detrimental risks of opening the canon would be significant. **References** Carson, D.A., & Moo, D. J. (2005). An Introduction to the New Testament (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Lea, T. D. (2003). The New Testament its Background and Message (2nd ed.). Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. Ryrie, Charles Caldwell. (1995). Ryrie Study Bible (Expanded ed.). Chicago, IL: Moody Press. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Synoptic Problem](https://www.livestransforming.com/synoptic-problem/) **Published:** October 31, 2009 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** This research will provide a brief overview of the Synoptic Problem, a history of the investigation into the relationship between the Synoptic Gospels, a summarization of the similarities and differences of the Synoptics, proposed solutions to the Synoptic Problem emphasizing the dependent and independent hypotheses as well as a further exploration and defense of the Augustinian Proposal. **Content:** # Synoptic Problem # THE SYNOPTIC PROBLEM # A THEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL SOLUTION # # INTRODUCTION For centuries even the most adept biblical scholars have struggled with the idiosyncratic variations between the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke known as the Synoptic Problem which have, at best, encouraged the pursuit of godly scholarship and, at worst, eroded the confidence of seminarians in the character of their Creator. An overview of the Synoptic Problem, its history, and an explanation of proposed solutions will demonstrate that the Augustinian Proposal is the most reasonable solution to the Synoptic Problem. The forthcoming study will provide a brief overview of the Synoptic Problem, a history of the investigation into the relationship between the Synoptic Gospels, a summarization of the similarities and differences of the Synoptics, proposed solutions to the Synoptic Problem emphasizing the dependent and independent hypotheses as well as a further exploration and defense of the Augustinian Proposal. # SYNOPTIC PROBLEM OVERVIEW Even a cursory examination of the Gospels according to Matthew, Mark and Luke quickly reveals distinct similarities and apparent inexplicable differences.[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn1) The attempt to reconcile these similarities and differences has emerged as the foundation for the Synoptic Problem, and originally generated the innocuous “question of whether and how” the Synoptic Gospels may be literarily dependent.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn2) The Synoptic Problem quickly morphed into “the study of the similarities and differences of the Synoptic Gospels in an attempt to explain their literary relationship” assuming the fundamental hypothesis that a literary relationship had been corroborated.[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn3) Consequently, a myriad of fascinating hypotheses have been proposed in an attempt to prove literary dependence between the Synoptic Gospels,[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn4) culminating in a plethora of research which has potentially surpassed any other biblical issue in [modern scholarship](https://www.livestransforming.com/modern-pauline-bible-scholarship/).[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn5) The scholarly pursuit of reconciling the Synoptic Gospels may have begun with a curious comment by a bishop of Hierapolis.[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn6) # SYNOPTIC PROBLEM HISTORY Church Father Eusebius provides the oldest explanation on how the Gospels were produced referring to the irretrievable records of the bishop, Papius (ca. 75-140), who explained that Mark became the interpreter of Peter’s memory.[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn7) The prolific work of Origen (ca. 185-253) continued the analysis by advocating an interpretation that neither guessed nor imposed meaning on the text; instead, it encouraged the interpreter to actively participate with the Holy Spirit by requesting revelation as Scripture was read while ignoring the order of composition.[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn8) A few centuries later, Augustine’s (ca. 354-430) On the Harmony of the Evangelists was written to address the false accusation that the Gospels lacked agreement.[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn9) The comprehensive Augustinian work systematically confronted canonical reliability by utilizing Greek manuscripts and Latin translations, blending the actual words of the Gospels which anticipated Griesbach, and similar to Origen, purporting a Holy Spirit led composition.[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn10) Augustine’s analysis abruptly ended the debate regarding the Synoptic Problem for over one thousand years.[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn11) Attention to the gospel’s similarities and differences gained momentum once again during the Protestant Reformation as Martin Luther (1483-1546) adhered to Augustine’s harmonistic approach[\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn12) and John Calvin (1509-1564) diverged.[\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn13) Calvin stripped away the spiritual interpretation of Origen and Augustine and claimed the Evangelists wrote the literal truth.[\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn14) Calvin’s claim would soon have catastrophic ramifications.[\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn15) During the seventeenth century a Dutch philosopher, Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677), who is “widely regarded as the father of modern historical criticism of the Bible” took Calvin’s claim forward another step by determining that “one cannot be sure of the theological meaning of any passage of the Bible until one has first answered certain historical questions,” and then proceeded to identify an infinitely expanding list of necessary questions to be answered regarding the physical history of the Bible and its writers in order for meaningful interpretation to be established[\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn16) with the destructive intent to “disembowel the Bible” and “render it useless as a weapon in the arsenal of traditional monarchist politics and state religion.”[\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn17) The influence of Spinoza spread through Germany and, in particular, into the work of G.E. Lessing (1729-1781)[\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn18) who, as an influential German philosopher and poet,[\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn19) conceived what is considered by some, the most powerful idea ever conjectured “in the entire history of the Synoptic Problem”—a hypothetical Ur-gospel written by the Nazarenes in Aramaic.[\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn20) The proposition of an Ur-gospel led to the re-interpretation of Church Fathers, historians, and Augustine, and culminated in becoming the foundation for “almost every subsequent development in the history of the Synoptic Problem.”[\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn21) Accordingly, a brief summary of the general similarities and differences of the Synoptic Gospels will be investigated prior to further exploration of the continued development and proposed solutions for Synoptic Problem. # SYNOPTIC GOSPEL’S SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES The similarities among the Synoptic Gospels can be classified into three general categories including agreement in wording, agreement in order, and agreement in parenthetical material.[\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn22) Agreement in wording can be observed, for example, in all three Gospel accounts of the healing of the leper,[\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn23) the questioning of Jesus regarding the resurrection by the Sadducees,[\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn24) and the calling of Levi as a disciple.[\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn25) However, even within similar passages many differences coexist including word order, usage, syntax, and style as well as additions, omissions, and even the language utilized. [\[26\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn26) Furthermore, the similarity between the historical ordering of events in the Synoptics is impressive including, for instance, Jesus’ baptism, temptation, Galilean ministry, Jerusalem journey, arrest, trial, crucifixion and resurrection.[\[27\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn27) Again, however, the differences are also evident including, for example, the location of Jesus when healing of Bartimaeus, the cohesive Sermon on the Mount presentation in Matthew versus the dispersion of sayings throughout Mark and Luke, and the disparate narrative locations of the Evangelists, including the example of Jesus calling his disciples prior to the Capernaum preaching in Mark but after the discourse in Luke.[\[28\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn28) Finally, the existence of identical parenthetical material within the Synoptics is considered by Stein as “one of the most persuasive arguments for literary interdependence” as he points out the usage of indistinguishable editorial comments such as “let the reader understand” and “he said to the paralytic” as inexplicable by an oral tradition.[\[29\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn29) Additionally, even more significant differences exist, including entire sections of unique content added to certain Gospels and omitted from others, as in the conspicuous differences of Jesus’ birth in Matthew and Luke alongside the complete omission of the narrative by Mark.[\[30\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn30) The perplexing similarities and differences have spawned innumerable hypotheses during the last half millennium to be traversed in an endeavor to reconcile the potentially irreconcilable. # SYNOPTIC PROBLEM’S PROPOSED SOLUTIONS According to Carson, two broad categories of dependence and interdependence have been utilized to classify proposed solutions to the Synoptic Problem. The dependent hypotheses include common dependence on one original gospel, oral sources, and gradually developing written fragments. The interdependent hypotheses receiving scholarly support include the Augustinian Proposal, “Two-Gospel” Hypothesis, and “Two-Source” Hypothesis. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 21 182x300 - Synoptic Problem](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-21-182x300.jpg "Synoptic Problem - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4l8pTvl)An Introduction to the New Testament ## Dependent Hypotheses [\[31\]](#_ftn31) As mentioned earlier, the hypothesis of common dependence on one original gospel, an Ur-Gospel, originated from G. E. Lessing who significantly influenced almost all subsequent developments of Synoptic Problem solutions.[\[32\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn32) Lessing’s proposal suggested the Evangelists used various revisions of a Greek translation of an Aramaic Gospel to complete their compositions, unfortunately, “no trace of such an Ur-gospel exists.”[\[33\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn33) However, in 1794 J. G. Eichhorn furthered the imaginative proposal of Lessing by arguing for a complex plurality of sources to support the Gospel texts all based on a single, currently non-existent, Aramaic gospel.[\[34\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn34) The hypothesis of common dependence on oral sources, in essence, builds on the Lessing and Eichhorn hypothesis with J. G. Herder proposing the formulation of an orally fixed original gospel in Aramaic prior to being documented by Mark who eventually published it in Greek while an extended version was simultaneously being published in Aramaic.[\[35\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn35) Although Herder effectively established the ideological origin of Marcan priority which would soon gain popularity,[\[36\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn36) and J. K. L. Gieseler in 1818 attempted to continue to develop Herder’s hypothesis,[\[37\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn37) others continued to believe Herder’s hypothesis was as unstable as the merely hypothetical Ur-gospel upon which it was based.[\[38\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn38) Finally, in 1832 the hypothesis of common dependence on gradually developing written fragments ironically emerged from a German theologian and philosopher, F. D. E. Schleiermacher[\[39\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn39) who had unfortunately dismissed the Old Testament as “superfluous authority for (Christian) Dogmatics.”[\[40\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn40) Based on a reinterpretation of the Church Fathers regarding a statement from Papias, Schleiermacher assumed a collection of Jesus’ sayings existed[\[41\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn41) upon which the Synoptics were written.[\[42\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn42) However, the fragmentary hypothesis has not garnered significant support due to its inability to explain the vast agreement in the order of the Synoptics[\[43\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn43) and the inability to scientifically prove a fragmentary sayings-source ever actually existed.[\[44\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn44) Regardless, the aggregation of the dependent hypotheses effectively delivered the building blocks of a primitive Gospel, an argument for Marcan priority, and a sayings-source, which, in consolidation, provide the unsubstantiated proof necessary to support some of the independent hypotheses toward which modern scholarship has gravitated.[\[45\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn45) ## Independent Hypotheses The Augustinian Proposal was the independent hypothesis considered generally accepted until the nineteenth century.[\[46\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn46) The Proposal is based on Augustine’s De Consensu Evangelistarum, a four volume set commencing with an apologetic and continuing into a discussion of each of the Gospels with the purpose of harmonization, utilizing Matthew as the outline for Jesus’ life.[\[47\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn47) Ultimately, Augustine determined Mark borrowed from the first gospel, Matthew, and Luke borrowed from both Matthew and Mark[\[48\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn48) and professed the Gospels were written under the direction of the Holy Spirit.[\[49\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn49) However, at times Augustine’s explanations of harmonization were unconvincing to modern scholars.[\[50\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn50) J. J. Griesbach, in agreement with Lessing’s conviction of the Gospel’s literary dependence,[\[51\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn51) published a synopsis of Matthew, Mark and Luke, from which the term “Synoptic Gospels” was coined.[\[52\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn52) Griesbach doubted the possibility of “harmonizing even the closely related but conflicting chronologies” of the Synoptics which opened the floodgates to Lessing’s Ur-gospel and simultaneously spurred his independent Two-Gospel Hypothesis.[\[53\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn53) The Two-Gospel hypothesis held to the Augustinian view that none of the Evangelists were ignorant of the other, but unlike Augustine, Mark was dependent on both Matthew and Luke.[\[54\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn54) The hypothesis gained significant scholarly support from Germany by explaining the peculiar agreements among the Synoptics, but critics immediately noticed its inability to adequately explain the necessity of Mark or reconcile the apparently irreconcilable chronological differences in Matthew and Luke.[\[55\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn55) The highly acclaimed “Two-Source” Hypothesis debuted inconspicuously within the work of C. H. Weisse in 1838.[\[56\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn56) The hypothesis merged Lessing’s imaginative concept of an Ur-Gospel with Herder’s conjecture of Marcan priority.[\[57\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn57) The result was an Ur-Marcus utilizing the non-existent sayings-source of Schleiermacher, renamed Q, to support the foundation upon which the Synoptic Gospels were built. [\[58\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn58) In 1863, H. J. Holtzmann expanded the thesis[\[59\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn59) and was the first to unconvincingly regard the Marcan hypothesis as “scientifically established in connection with an Ur-gospel, on the one hand, and Papias’ Logia, on the other.”[\[60\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn60) Later, Austin Farrer, doubtful about the authenticity, dropped Q from the analysis.[\[61\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn61) However, B. H. Streeter in 1924 further advocated a written Q source[\[62\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn62) positing the existence of two additional potentially non-existent sources, namely, “L” and “M”[\[63\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn63) which, combined with Streeter’s “masterful rhetoric, succeeded in convincing generations of English-speaking scholars in Great Britain and North America that they should agree with their German colleagues and accept, as an ‘assured result of modern biblical science,’ the priority of Mark and Q.”[\[64\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn64) Unfortunately, according to Farmer, the historical problem that must be addressed was “how to account for the triumph of this hypothesis in the absence of any conclusive demonstration of its validity, and in spite of serious scientific objections which can be and have been raised against it.”[\[65\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn65) And although the elusiveness of a proven solution to the Synoptic Problem endures, defending a hypothesis which may support the resolution of the labyrinth of issues surrounding the Synoptic Problem has been the mainstay of academia for centuries and continues today. SYNOPTIC PROBLEM SOLUTION AND DEFENSE Early in the fifth century Augustine completed his influential work, On the Harmony of the Evangelists,[\[66\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn66) which is considered both a “historical construct” by explaining the human dimension of the compositions and “a theological construct” in light of the activity of God inherent within the composition process.[\[67\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn67) Augustine’s comprehensive and seminal work addressed the Synoptic Problem by dividing the differences between the Gospels into two general categories which included variations in the order of events and variations in the descriptions of the same event.[\[68\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn68) Six basic principles were presented to explain the variations in the order of events.[\[69\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn69) First, the Evangelists knew the order of the events regardless what was written, wrote chronologically based on what they remembered and how they were prompted by the Holy Spirit, and utilized the order of events from other Gospels.[\[70\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn70) Additionally, the Evangelists frequently omitted certain content in order to eliminate unnecessary repetition, did not modify the composition they remembered from the promptings of the Holy Spirit, and finally, the Evangelist’s variation in order was due to a recollection of one while another proceeded based on historical progress.[\[71\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn71) Four additional principles to explain the variations in the descriptions of the same events were documented by Augustine.[\[72\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn72) First, the variations at times were simply a flaw in the text or a careless copyist of one of the Gospels, were sometimes simply perceived due to an “unfamiliar cultural idiom,” were, at other times, a product of the Gospel writers using different words to express the same idea, or were intentionally produced by a Gospel writer to communicate a mystical meaning.[\[73\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn73) Finally, Augustine submitted corollary suggestions to readers in order to further enhance their scholarship.[\[74\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn74) The polemical edges of the Synoptic Problem hinge on the precepts of literary dependence, whereby certain scholars have determined the Synoptic Gospels must have arisen in complete independence of each other[\[75\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn75) in order to comply with the mandate that Scripture was Holy Spirit directed[\[76\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn76) and “inspired by God.”[\[77\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn77) Others, however, conclude a comprehensive list of historical questions be unequivocally answered through explanations of literary dependence or meaningful interpretation is impossible.[\[78\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn78) Augustine, however, wisely avoids the precarious edges by espousing that none of “the Evangelists did his work in ignorance of that of his predecessor or predecessors”[\[79\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn79) while simultaneously purporting the “Gospels were written by men through the agency of the Holy Spirit.”[\[80\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn80) And although modern scholars question certain Augustinian explanations which attempt to solve the Synoptic Problem, no alternative explanations have proved valid without risking reliance on uncorroborated speculation or undermining the inspiration of Scripture by God. Augustine’s masterful solution to the Synoptic Problem rests in its ability to sagaciously combine the theological and historical constructs through the use of thoughtful and insightful principles to harmonize the gospels, rather than extending the process of bifurcation through a relentless pursuit of indeterminable priorities or currently non-existent sources. # CONCLUSION Attempts to reconcile the apparent discrepancies between the Gospels began with a few comments from Papias which have been reinterpreted through history and extended into to the prolific work of Origen and seminal work of Augustine. Over a thousand years later, the Protestant Reformation ushered in a separation between the theological and historical constructs each striving to discover its independent space. During the seventeenth century, Spinoza, the father of modern historical Biblical criticism, allowed unanswered historical questions to take center stage and precipitated a myriad of proposed solutions to the inexplicable similarities and differences which comprise the Synoptic Problem. The more prominent proposals comprised of dependent hypotheses including Lessing’s Ur-Gospel, Herder’s fixed oral gospel, and Schleiermacher’s sayings-source, and independent hypotheses including the Augustinian Proposal, Griesbach’s “Two-Gospel” Hypothesis and Weisse’s popular “Two-Source” Hypothesis. Although all solutions appear to have merit, no hypothesis has been scientifically proven and the solutions are based primarily on unsubstantiated and potentially non-existent material. An investigation of the history and proposed solutions of the Synoptic Problem provided absolutely no historically proven solution outside the scope of a Spirit led theological construct. However, enough evidence is provided to conclude that a Synoptic composition by the Holy Spirit without a historical construct of human intervention is beyond imagination. Accordingly, it appears Augustine’s solution which integrates both historical and theological constructs is the most reasonable solution to the Synoptic Problem based on the current body of substantiated scholarly knowledge. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref1). Robert H. Stein, The Synoptic Problem: An Introduction (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1987), 16. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref2). Eta Linnemann, Is There a Synoptic Problem: Rethinking the Literary Dependence of the First Three Gospels (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1992), 44. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref3). Mark Goodacre, The Synoptic Problem: A Way Through the Maze (London: Continuum, 2001), 16. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref4). Linnemann, Is There a Synoptic Problem, 44-46. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref5). Stein, The Synoptic Problem, 16. [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref6). David Laird Dungan, A History of the Synoptic Problem: The Canon, the Text, the Composition, and the Interpretation of the Gospels (New York, NY: Doubleday, 1999), 18. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref7). Ibid., 18-20. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref8). Ibid., 86-87. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref9). Ibid., 112. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref10). Ibid., 140-41. [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref11). Ibid. [\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref12). Ibid., 179. [\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref13). Ibid., 182. [\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref14). Ibid., 183-84. [\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref15). Ibid. [\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref16). Ibid., 172. [\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref17). Ibid., 258-59. [\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref18). Ibid., 258. [\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref19). Linnemann, Is There a Synoptic Problem, 26. [\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref20). William R. Farmer, The Synoptic Problem (Dillsboro, NC: Western North Carolina, 1976), 4. [\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref21). Ibid., 5. [\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref22). Stein, The Synoptic Problem, 29-44. [\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref23). Thomas D. Lea and David Alan Black, The New Testament its Background and Message, 2nd ed. (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003), 114. [\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref24). Stein, The Synoptic Problem, 30-31. [\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref25). Dennis Bratcher, “The Gospels and the Synoptic Problem: The Literary Relationship of Matthew, Mark, and Luke,” Retrieved from http://www.cresourcei.org/synoptic.html. [\[26\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref26). Ibid. [\[27\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref27). Lea and Black, The New Testament its Background and Message, 113-14. [\[28\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref28). Bratcher, “The Gospels and the Synoptic Problem: The Literary Relationship of Matthew, Mark, and Luke,” Retrieved from http://www.cresourcei.org/synoptic.html. [\[29\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref29). Stein, The Synoptic Problem, 37-43. [\[30\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref30). Bratcher, The Gospels and the Synoptic Problem: The Literary Relationship of Matthew, Mark, and Luke,” Retrieved from http://www.cresourcei.org/synoptic.html. [\[31\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref31). D.A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005), 88-101. [\[32\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref32). Farmer, The Synoptic Problem, 5. [\[33\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref33). Stein, The Synoptic Problem, 45-46. [\[34\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref34). Farmer, The Synoptic Problem, 9-11. [\[35\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref35). Ibid., 30-33. [\[36\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref36). Ibid., 33. [\[37\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref37). Stein, The Synoptic Problem, 43. [\[38\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref38). Linnemann, Is There a Synoptic Problem, 30. [\[39\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref39). Farmer, The Synoptic Problem, 15. [\[40\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref40). Dungan, A History of the Synoptic Problem, 337. [\[41\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref41). Farmer, The Synoptic Problem, 15. [\[42\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref42). Stein, The Synoptic Problem, 45. [\[43\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref43). Ibid. [\[44\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref44). Linnemann, Is There a Synoptic Problem, 32. [\[45\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref45). Farmer, The Synoptic Problem, 15. [\[46\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref46). Carson and Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 93. [\[47\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref47). Stein, The Synoptic Problem, 17-19. [\[48\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref48). Carson and Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 93. [\[49\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref49). Stein, The Synoptic Problem, 18. [\[50\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref50). Ibid. [\[51\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref51). Linnemann, Is There a Synoptic Problem, 27-28. [\[52\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref52). Stein, The Synoptic Problem, 5. [\[53\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref53). Ibid., 7-8. [\[54\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref54). Ibid. [\[55\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref55). Ibid., 8. [\[56\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref56). Ibid., 17. [\[57\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref57). Ibid., 22-25. [\[58\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref58). Ibid. [\[59\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref59). Ibid., 103. [\[60\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref60). Ibid., 24-25. [\[61\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref61). Ibid., 21. [\[62\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref62). Ibid., 103. [\[63\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref63). Carson and Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 94. [\[64\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref64). Dungan, A History of the Synoptic Problem, 332. [\[65\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref65). Stein, The Synoptic Problem, 48-49. [\[66\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref66). Dungan, A History of the Synoptic Problem, 112. [\[67\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref67). Ibid., 116. [\[68\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref68). Ibid., 123. [\[69\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref69). Ibid. [\[70\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref70). Ibid., 123-126. [\[71\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref71). Ibid., 125-128. [\[72\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref72). Ibid., 132. [\[73\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref73). Ibid., 132-133. [\[74\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref74). Ibid., 128-35. [\[75\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref75). Linnemann, Is There a Synoptic Problem, 209-10. [\[76\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref76). 2 Peter 1:21 (New American Standard Version). [\[77\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref77). 2 Timothy 3:16 (New American Standard Version). [\[78\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref78). Dungan, A History of the Synoptic Problem, 172. [\[79\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref79). Stein, The Synoptic Problem, 7-8. [\[80\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Synoptic%20Problem/Synoptic%20Paper%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref80). Ibid., 18. # BIBLIOGRAPHY Bratcher, Dennis. “The Gospels and the Synoptic Problem: The Literary Relationship of Matthew, Mark, and Luke.” Retrieved from http://www.cresourcei.org/synoptic.html. Carson, D.A., and Douglas J. Moo. An Introduction to the New Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004. David Laird Dungan. A History of the Synoptic Problem: The Canon, the Text, the Composition, and the Interpretation of the Gospels. New York, NY: Doubleday, 1999. Farmer, William R. The Synoptic Problem. Dillsboro, NC: Western North Carolina, 1976. Goodacre, Mark. The Synoptic Problem: A Way Through the Maze. London: Continuum, 2001. Lea, Thomas D., and David Alan Black. The New Testament its Background and Message. 2nd ed. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 2003. Linnemann, Eta. Is There a Synoptic Problem: Rethinking the Literary Dependence of the First Three Gospels. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1992. Stein, Robert H. The Synoptic Problem: An Introduction. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1987. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Galatians 3.19-29: Participation In Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/galatians-3-19-29-participation-in-christ/) **Published:** January 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Galatians 3.19-29: Participation In Christ The debate between the relationship between the Old Testament and the gospel message began with the arrival of Christ and continued into the New Testament writings and beyond. However, the Apostle Paul emphatically asserts that the law and promise are not contradictory. Without a clear understanding of the relationship between the covenants, believers risk misunderstanding both the Hebrew Scriptures and the gospel message. In the letter to the Galatians, and specifically in Galatians 3:19-29, Paul asserts that the law points to a Messianic age where believers are transferred into a new realm through their participation in Christ. The research begins by addressing the law’s purpose in God’s salvation history, followed by an analysis of the law’s involvement in the believer’s transference into a new cosmic reality that incorporates the individual into Christ. ## **The Law: Galatians 3:19-22** ### Galatians 3:19: The Law’s Purpose If believers are justified by faith and not the law (Gal 2:16), and the righteous will live by faith and not the law (Gal 3:11), then what was the purpose of the law? Paul explains the law was an added element to an already existing promise to Abraham (Gen 12:1-3) that existed “because of transgressions” (Gal 3:19). [\[1\]](#_ftn1) The meaning of the phrase is debated. First, Richard Longenecker defends a cognitive interpretation whereby the law increased awareness of sin.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Second, James Dunn suggests that Paul meant the purpose of the law was to provide a way to deal with transgressions through the sacrificial system.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Third, David Lull asserts that the phrase under investigation meant to restrain sin.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Finally, Thomas Schreiner espouses a causative function by which the law functions to increase, rather than restrain, transgressions.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Contextual evidence removes the need to limit the semantic breadth of Paul’s phrase. It appears the law served multiple purposes. At times, the law positively increased awareness, restrained sin, and meaningfully dealt with transgressions (See Rom 3:20; 4:15). At other times, the law increased sin through man’s attempt to legalistically or nomistically manipulate God, which promoted pride, or the law proved the impossibility of keeping the whole law, all of which ultimately pointed to the necessity of a Messiah (See Gal 3:10; Rom 5:20). ### Galatians 3:20: The Law’s Intermediary The law was established via an intermediary with the involvement of angels and was in effect until the coming of Christ. Historical and cultural background information assists in understanding the nature of the mediation, which remains debated. Longenecker explains that in the history of ancient Judaism, the term mediator often pertained to Moses, who brought the law to Israel from Mount Sinai.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) According to F. F. Bruce, although administration of the law from angels to Moses is difficult to identify prior to Paul’s letter, it was a well-known Jewish tradition and points to the inferiority of the law to the promise administered directly from God to Abraham.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Additional difficulties occur when Paul compares the plurality of an intermediary with the oneness of God. However, Schreiner brings clarity by explaining that the transmission of the law required multiple parties, God, angels, Moses, and the recipients, but God’s covenant with Abraham, reminiscent of the Shema, is superior to the law as it came directly from the one and only God.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Thus, the nature of the law points to a superior Messianic age. ### Galatians 3:21-22: The Law’s Contradiction Now that Paul has identified the purpose of the law and its inferiority with respect to the promise, he anticipates the troublemakers’ next question: Does the law contradict the promise of the Spirit received through faith that fulfills the covenant with Abraham? Paul’s use of rhetorical devices to further his argument supports Hans Dieter Betz’s assertion that the genre of Paul’s writing is an apologetic letter using forensic rhetoric.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) However, Longenecker correctly broadens Betz’s forensic perspective by recognizing that Paul’s letter combines Hellenistic, Greco-Roman, and Jewish methods of analysis and persuasion to support his apology.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) For example, Paul’s use of means-end argumentation in verse 21, whereby the law is not the means of righteousness, highlights the genre’s impact on the meaning of Paul’s letter. Accordingly, Schreiner concludes that the result of Paul’s argument is that the law and promise do not contradict each other, but “play different roles.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The role of the law, which points to the Messiah, differs from the role of the promise, which is to give life in a new sphere. A life that, according to Scripture, is under the dominion of sin until driven to the promise ἐκ πίστεως ʼΙησοῦ Χριστῦ. The elasticity of the genitive case provides a long-standing syntactical challenge. If the subjective genitive is preferred, then Christ is the subject and Christ’s faithfulness is in view, but if the objective genitive is preferred, then Christ is the object of the believer’s faith. However, as long as the interpretive preference does not undermine the reality of the alternative, the decision is not critical as both Christ’s faithfulness and the believer’s faith are foundational to Paul’s message. In summary, the law does not contradict the promise, but points to the consummation of the covenantal promise in a new Messianic age. ## **The Transfer: Galatians 3:23-25** ### Galatians 3:23: Captivity Paul now shifts his emphasis from all humanity, who is under sin, to the Jews in particular. The Jews were part of all humanity under the dominion of sin, but were also uniquely bound to the Torah. The salvation-historical aspects of Paul’s message now take center stage. Notably, the subjection to the law that came before the faith (πρὸ . . . τὴν πίστιν) cannot mean before the existence of faith as Abraham’s faith preceded the law. Instead, as Longenecker explains, the articular noun identifies a particular faith, a faith that represents the faithfulness of Christ and the believer’s faith in Christ.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Foreshadowing verses 26-29, Paul is referring to a faith inaugurated by Christ where, as Bruce explains, believers are transferred from an old realm under the custodian of the law to a new realm with the coming of Christ.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) ### Galatians 3:24: Guardian Paul now explains what he means by the Jews were held captive or detained under the law prior to the faith by using the analogy of a pedagogue or guardian. The meaning of the word παιδαγωγός is critical to understanding Paul’s intentions. The *New International Dictionary of the New Testament Theology* (NIDNTT) suggests that in classical literature the word has a educative and custodial aspect, while the Old Testament emphasizes a custodial and disciplinary role especially regarding obedience to the Torah, and the New Testament often focuses on chastening, education, and restoration related to pleasing God.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Within the literary and historical context of Galatians, Longenecker seems to adequately summarize the pedagogical concept by highlighting the law’s supervisory role and temporary nature, while noting the inferior status of the individual under guardianship.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) The final phrase reiterates the ultimate purpose of the law, that believers “might be justified by faith” (Gal 3:24). A diachronic and synchronic study of δικαιόω suggests a relatively broad semantic range. The NIDNTT and *Theological Dictionary of the New Testament* (TDNT) attest to the forensic, ethical, and participatory nuances of the verb, all of which must be considered relevant to the passage as the declarative nature is unmistakable, the participatory nature is affirmed in the literary context of verses 26-29, and the ethical implications must not be denied (Gal 5:13-26).[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Finally, according to Bruce, the inclusive first-person plural now contextually requires the exegete to acknowledge that justification by faith “obliterates the partition” between Jews and Gentiles, and all have the opportunity to transfer into the new realm of Christ. ### Galatians 3:25: Faith Paul now summarizes the preceding argument and concludes that the new age of faith has been inaugurated by Christ and believers are no longer under the old age of the guardianship of the law. More specifically, as Longenecker points out, Paul contends, against his opponents, that a new cosmic reality exists where neither circumcision nor any other Jewish custom is a pre-requisite to life.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Instead, a new realm is launched, a new freedom is available, and a new identity is established in Christ Jesus. ## **The Participation: Galatians 3:26-29** ### Galatians 3:26: Sons in Christ [![In Christ in Paul 182x300 - Galatians 3.19-29: Participation In Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/In-Christ-in-Paul-182x300.jpg "Galatians 3.19-29: Participation In Christ - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fGdnPC)In Christ in Paul: Explorations in Paul’s Theology of Union and Participation Paul now moves into the participatory aspects of his soteriology, which, unlike the law, inclusively bridges the divide between the Abrahamic covenant and both Jews and Gentiles. Two exegetical issues need to be addressed. The first issue is the syntactical nature of the phrase έν Χριστῷ ʼΙησοῦ in verse 26. Constantine Campbell claims that believers are sons of God through faith in Christ, where Christ is the object of belief.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) In other words, a dative of means is likely in view where faith is the means by which believers become children of God. More likely, Bruce argues that Paul normally communicates faith in Christ with the objective genitive, not the dative, thus participation is in view; believers are incorporated into Christ, who is God’s Son, thus believers are adopted as sons of God.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) The second issue is the relationship between forensic righteousness and participation. A participatory view acknowledges a mystical reality in Pauline theology. However, Longenecker argues that if absorption is avoided, and thus identities remain distinct, theosis is not a necessary result.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Furthermore, the complete avoidance of mysticism risks undermining a believer’s pneumatic relationship. Accordingly, forensic righteousness and participatory communion with Christ may be distinctive but cannot be bifurcated. ### Galatians 3:27: Baptized in Christ Paul’s only reference to baptism in his letter to the Galatians solidifies the participatory nature of Paul’s message. Campbell recognizes that the context of being baptized εἰς Χριστὸν implies an involvement in Christ’s death and resurrection (cf. Gal 6:3-5), and putting on Christ denotes an incorporation of the believer into Christ.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) The participatory nature of the new cosmic reality also has ethical ramifications represented by the figurative language of wearing a garment. Bruce summarizes Paul’s indicative/imperative overtones in verse 27 by stating that believers are called to “be what you are.”[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Finally, the efficacy of the rite of baptism needs addressed. If the [works of the law](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-perspective-on-works-of-the-law/), including the external rite of circumcision, cannot justify, then neither can the external rite of baptism. Justification is by faith alone via participation in Christ. ### Galatians 3:28-29: One in Christ Although alluded to earlier, Paul now overtly, emphatically, and revolutionarily breaks down all divisions and partitions between believers and affirms a oneness that exists in the new “in Christ” reality. The three couplets highlight the comprehensiveness of Paul’s thought regarding unity. Specifically, Longenecker notes that Paul addresses all human relationships: racial, cultural, and sexual.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Importantly, the unity Paul espouses is not intended to mean uniformity. Distinct personalities and functionalities continue to exist as God’s Spirit works in and through His diverse creation. However, if restrictions or hierarchies are to exist, then, according to Bruce, the exegete must consider these constraints in light of verse 28.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) The final phrase of verse 28 identifies the authority for oneness, which exists in the new cosmic reality where believers reside έν Χριστῷ ʼΙησοῦ. Finally, in verse 29, Paul links the believer’s identity in Christ with Abraham, thus placing a final period at the end of his sentence against the Judaizers. Bruce logically explains that if Christ is a descendant of Abraham, and believers are incorporated into Christ by faith, then believers are also Abraham’s offspring with the same rights and privileges of an heir.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) ## **Conclusion** In a few verses, Paul covers much ground including the law’s purpose in God’s salvation history and the law’s involvement in the believer’s transference into a new cosmic reality that incorporates the individual into Christ. More specifically, in Galatians 3:19-29, Paul asserts that the law points to a Messianic age where believers are transferred into a new realm through their participation in Christ. The significance of Paul’s message is hard to overestimate. It is foundational to the gospel message. Finally, additional research is suggested regarding how Paul’s passage can be reconciled with four modern Pauline interpretive perspectives: (1) the Lutheran Paul, (2) the new perspective, (3) the apocalyptic Paul, and (4) the particpationist perspective. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Richard N. Longenecker, *Galatians*, vol. 41 of *Word Biblical Commentary*, ed. Ralph P. Martin (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1990), 138. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) James D. G. Dunn, *The Theology of Paul the Apostle* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1998), 139. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) David John Lull, “The Law Was Our Pedagogue: A Study in Galatians 3:19-25,” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 105, no. 3 (September 1986): 481–82. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Thomas R. Schreiner, *Galatians*, Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament, ed. Clinton E. Arnold (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010), 240. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Longenecker, *Galatians*, 140–41. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) F. F. Bruce, *The Epistle to the Galatians*, The New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1982), 176–77. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Schreiner, *Galatians*, 242–43. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Hans Dieter Betz, “Literary Composition and Function of Paul’s Letter to the Galatians,” *New Testament Studies* 21, no. 3 (April 1975): 377–78. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Longenecker, *Galatians*, cxix. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Schreiner, *Galatians*, 244. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Longenecker, *Galatians*, 146. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Bruce, *The Epistle*, 181. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) *New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology*, s.v. “παιδεύω,” ed. Verlyn D. Verbrugge, abr. ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 426–27. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Longenecker, *Galatians*, 148. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) NIDNTT, “δικαιόω,”, 143–44. See also *Theological Dictionary of the New Testament*, s.v. “δικαιόω,” ed. Gerhard Kittel, Geoffrey W. Bromiley, and Gerhard Friedrich (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964), 211–18. The argument that the multiple nuance of the verb lands in an illegitimate totality transfer fails as the meanings are not contradictory but complementary. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Longenecker, *Galatians*, 149. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Constantine R. Campbell, *Paul and Union with Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 112. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Bruce, *The Epistle*, 184. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Longenecker, *Galatians*, 154. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Campbell, *Paul and Union*, 207–8. See also Bruce, *The Epistle*, 186. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Bruce, *The Epistle*, 186. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Longenecker, *Galatians*, 157. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Bruce, *The Epistle*, 190. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Ibid., 190–91. ## Bibliography - Betz, Hans Dieter. “Literary Composition and Function of Paul’s Letter to the Galatians.” *New Testament Studies* 21, no. 3 (April 1975): 353–79. - Bruce, F. F. *The Epistle to the Galatians*. The New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1982. - Campbell, Constantine R. *Paul and Union with Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. - Dunn, James D. G. *The Theology of Paul the Apostle*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1998. - Kittel, Gerhard, Geoffrey W. Bromiley, and Gerhard Friedrich., eds. *New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology*. Vol. 2. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964. - Longenecker, Richard N. *Galatians*. Vol. 41 in *Word Biblical Commentary*. Edited by Ralph P. Martin. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1990. - Lull, David John. “The Law Was Our Pedagogue: A Study in Galatians 3:19-25.” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 105, no. 3 (September 1986): 481–98. - Schreiner, Thomas R. *Galatians*. Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Edited by Clinton E. Arnold. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010. - Verbrugge, Verlyn D., ed. *New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology*. Abr. ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Exodus: Ancient Near East Context](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-ancient-near-east-context/) **Published:** January 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Exodus: Ancient Near East Context Within any study of [biblical interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-interpretation/), meaning is found within context. Without context, words, phrases, chapters, books, and canons are impossible to understand. In the modern world, any attempt to understand Christianity in America apart from the broader societal context of science, technology, entertainment, and capitalism is an effort in futility. Similarly, efforts to understand God’s chosen people of Israel in the Old Testament is difficult, and, at times, impossible without a grasp of the broader social context. The question at hand is exactly how an interpreter of the Old Testament appropriately integrates the broader context of the ancient Near Eastern society, and its undeniable biblical parallels, in the hermeneutic endeavor. Without an integrative approach, the interpreter not only risks misunderstanding, but also risks communicating fallacious content. The discipline of analyzing the relationship between the Old Testament and its broader cultural milieu is called cognitive environment criticism. Deploying cognitive environment criticism to a book of the Old Testament, such as Exodus, by adopting a logical comparative methodology, engaging relevant archaeology and geography, exploring comparative literature, and applying the methodology to a specific passage of Scripture, such as the Covenant Code, allows for an enhanced understanding of Yahweh, the ancient Israelites, and the content of Scripture. The following research begins by discussing the nature and significance of biblical parallels to the ancient Near East, providing a comparative methodology for analysis, and applying the methodology to the concept of creation. Next, a geographical and archaeological overview of the book of Exodus ensues, which pays particular attention to the broader context of the ancient Near East. Third, a comparative literary analysis provides an overview of the ancient Near Eastern texts that pertain to the book of Exodus. Finally, after a very brief cultural and iconographic overview of the book of Exodus, the comparative methodology is then applied to the Covenant Code. Finally, the research ends with a discussion regarding how to integrate the ancient Near Eastern background information into a Bible study. ## **Comparative Methodology** ### Methodological Introduction From Friedrich Delitzsch’s Babel-Bibel lectures that accused the biblical writers of crass plagiarism to the name calling of Thomas Thompson, who applies the fundamentalist label to anyone who believes that the historicity of the Old Testament, the debate regarding the relationship between the Bible and ancient Near Eastern literature continues to rage. Accordingly, the question remains as to how to explain the profound similarities between the Old Testament and pagan mythology. Without a clear understanding of the relationship, the foundations of Christianity may sink into the quagmire of the delightful best-selling fiction on par with Homer, Dickens, or Tolkien. Based on the conviction that meaning only exists within context, the relationship between the Old Testament and the ancient Near Eastern literature rests on the Israelites’ cognitive contextual framework of transcendence. Accordingly, the analysis begins by exploring the nature, significance, benefits, and challenges of the biblical parallels followed by a brief explanation of comparative methodology used to assess the comparability of the Old Testament to ancient Near Eastern texts. The research concludes by applying the comparative methodology to an analysis of the similarities and dissimilarities between Genesis 1-2 and both the Enuma Elish and the ancient Egyptian creation accounts. ### Biblical Parallels The nature of biblical parallels may best be described as diverse. John Walton suggests the nature of the biblical parallels to the ancient Near East fall into three buckets: parallels that focus on individual features, parallels that focus on preserving a literary tradition often from a polemical perspective, and parallels that focus on worldview.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) An example of individual features may include the papyrus basket used to protect both Moses and Horus, or birds sent out in parallel flood narratives. The literary tradition may be upheld through parallel creation accounts or treaty formations. Finally, although numerous distinctions exist, a parallel regarding worldviews may include, for example, aspects of ancient cosmic geography. [![Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology 182x300 - Exodus: Ancient Near East Context](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Ancient-Near-Eastern-Themes-in-Biblical-Theology-182x300.jpg "Exodus: Ancient Near East Context - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gYHB1B)Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology The nature of the biblical parallels goes beyond Walton’s categories that focus primarily on content. Although completely separating content and form is impossible, Angel Manuel Rodríguez provides a nuanced perspective of the similarities by focusing on the linguistic, stylistic, and institutional parallels.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Certain linguistic parallels are unavoidable in a Northwest Semitic language that would be similar to Ugaritic, Canaanite, Phoenician, and Moabite literary sources. Stylistic parallels also exist such as formulaic devices for certain type of literature such as a lament. Finally, kingship and covenant are two examples of social institutions that are found in both biblical and ancient Near Eastern sources.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The significance of biblical parallels should not be underestimated. Walton explains that cultural study, or the more focused comparative study, reconstructs the culture and beliefs of the ancient Near East to assist in understanding the content of Scripture.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) More specifically, by interpreting Scripture in light of the original ancient culture, it decreases the risk of superimposing a cultural bias.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) In summary, the significance of biblical parallels is to enhance understanding of the biblical text and inform exegesis. The notion of understanding provides an umbrella for engaging the benefits of biblical parallels. Walton identifies three categories of understanding that cultural studies may benefit: literary genre, religious practice, and theology.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) First, regarding literary genre, dependency is not presupposed. Instead, when the literature of the Bible is juxtaposed with the literature of the ancient Near East, the potential payoff is an enhanced understanding of both. As Walton explains, the exercise attempts to recover certain aspects of the cognitive environment to illuminate the perspective of the Israelites.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Second, cultural studies not only inform belief, but also praxis. Investigating the cultic and ritual activities of the ancient Near East enhances one’s understanding of the Israelites’ religious practice. Importantly, both similarities and differences must be studied to provide maximum benefit. Third, an awareness of the theological similarities and differences between the ancient Near East and Scripture provides the potential benefit of correctly perceiving the Israelites’ view of Yahweh. Finally, once the original author’s intent is determined through a proper interpretation of ancient literature, practice, and belief, the expositor can construct a principalizing bridge and appropriately apply the concepts to the modern listener. Although the benefits of studying biblical parallels are significant, the challenges are, on occasion, quite substantial. The most obvious challenge for the evangelical theologian is the scholarly assumption that the biblical data is dependent upon pagan mythology, but the problem of presumptions cuts both ways. As Roberto Ouro explains, on the one hand, scholars have, at times, biblicized the ancient Near Eastern texts without adequate biblical support, and, on the other hand, scholars have mythologized the biblical account with even less evidence.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In a classic essay, S. Talmon highlights four challenges to studying biblical parallels: (1) proximity, (2) intertextuality, (3) societal function, and (4) atomism.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The first challenge to comparative study is properly aligning the dates under study rather than anachronistically applying geographical and chronological parallels. The second challenge is to properly apply the ancient Near Eastern cultural data to the biblical data after considering the Bible’s intertextual relationships. The third challenge is to develop an understanding of the Israelites’ societal structure before applying parallels. The fourth challenge is to apply the parallels holistically, rather than atomistically. In other words, the parallels must be interpreted in light of the broader ancient Near East and biblical context. The challenges provided by Salmon provide a solid foundation. However, Walton builds on his foundation by identifying additional obstacles that may be grouped into three broad categories: similarities and differences, borrowing, and genre.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) The first challenge is to consider both the similarities and differences, while recognizing that similarities may simply suggest a common culture, rather than borrowing, and differences may occur at a deeper level. The second challenge is to identify the source of any borrowing and acknowledge the possibility of significant transformation in the final transmission. The third challenge is to properly identify the genre of both the ancient Near Eastern and biblical texts. If the genres are distinct, then the significance of the similarities may be diminished. Finally, Samuel Sandmel recognizes the challenge of parallelomania when studying biblical parallels, where scholars overdo the similarities, and then establish conclusions based on unstable evidence.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) However, the most significant challenge to the discipline of biblical studies may be, as Noel Weeks concludes, human nature, where conclusions are presupposed prior to the investigation.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) ### Cognitive Contextual Method The pattern of comparative methodology followed throughout this research may be considered a cognitive contextual approach built upon an eclectic utilization of models. Walton identifies five potential models to engage cognitive environment criticism: borrowing, polemics, counter-texts, echoes, and diffusion.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The first four assume direct access to the spectrum of ancient literature, whereas diffusion assumes the Israelites obtained information informally while existing in the cultural river. The planned methodology is built upon four foundational assumptions. First, the biblical writers had limited formal or informal access to the ancient literature. To suggest that the biblical writers had continuous and direct access to all the cognate literature seems overdone, but alternatively, to assume the biblical writers were on a cultural island seems restrictive. Second, the biblical writers used various models to interact with the ancient cognitive environment. At times, the author may directly borrow from a source, at other times the purpose may be more polemical or counter textual. Sometimes the biblical author would use echoes or allusions to communicate the message, just as Old Testament writers used biblical intertextuality. At other times, the author may also use concepts from the cultural river or milieu. In other words, a holistic or thematic approach is evident where, as Jeffrey Niehaus explains, “a shared theological structure of ideas existed in the ancient Near East, a structure that finds its most complete and true form in the Old and New Testaments.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Third, the Old Testament has a dual authorship that includes both mankind and God. Accordingly, it is not unreasonable to assert a unity of Scripture where contextual threads pervade the canon. Fourth, the Old Testament rests on a contextually supported cognitive framework, and as Sandmel explains, passages may appear similar in isolation, but “when seen in context reflect difference rather than similarity.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) In other words, in alignment with John Oswalt, the entire canon is built upon a cognitive contextual framework of transcendence, while the rest of the ancient Near East resides upon a cognitive contextual framework of continuity.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Accordingly, assessing the comparability of Scripture and the literature from ancient Near Eastern texts always engages the broader context of the Israelites’ cognitive distinctiveness. The approach is not novel and would likely be considered evangelical, and it does diverge with many notable liberal scholars. As John Currid points out, many modern scholars engage the parallels between the Bible and ancient Near Eastern literature with cynicism and assume the content of Scripture is on par with literary fiction.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) ### Methodology Applied When applying the comparative methodology with the creation accounts of Genesis 1-2, it is difficult to ignore the famous Mesopotamian creation myth, Enuma Elish. The basic story of the myth is familiar. Creation is a clash of cosmic proportions between order and chaos. A divine assembly of gods, which included the gods Apsu and Tiamat, were birthed out of the watery chaos. Apsu and Tiamat procreate and birth many other gods who represented various parts of nature. Ultimately, a battle ensues between the gods, and Marduk killed Tiamat and splits her body into two parts. Marduk creates the heaven out of one part and creates the earth out of the other part. Finally, Marduk creates humanity. At first the similarities seem obscure. However, Currid summarizes several parallels between the Enuma Elish and the creation account in Genesis. First, regarding similarities, the order of creation between the two episodes coincide.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Furthermore, divine spirit and cosmic matter interact, and a dark chaos exists in the Enuma Elish, while an empty darkness exists in Genesis 1:2.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Finally, in both cases, the creative process included light, firmament, dry land, luminaires, man, and finally, a rest period.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Although similarities exist, they may be considered superficial. The reason is that if any story of creation were to arise in an ancient civilization, it would, by definition, have to include the creation of certain entities that were in already existence, such as light and man, or it would hardly fit the genre. Furthermore, Ouro highlights several significant differences. In the Enuma Elish, Marduk is considered the organizer not a creator, cosmogony is expressed as theogony, and creation arises out of chaos.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Alternatively, in the biblical account, Yahweh is considered the organizer *and* the creator by divine *fiat*, no theogony occurs, and the environment is described as an absence of life, not chaos.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Although various comparative models may appropriately be used to describe the reason and purpose behind the parallels, such as a polemic or a counter-text, the context of the cognitive worldview of the Israelites most appropriately describes the relationship. Oswalt explains that the Genesis account presumes creation *ex nihilo* by the will of a preexistent, eternal God independent from the work performed.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) In other words, the Israelites’ cognitive context built upon God’s transcendence trumps the potential problematic parallels. The Egyptian creation accounts also have significant parallels to the creation account in Genesis. The Egyptian accounts occur in several disparate sources such as the Pyramid Texts, the Memphite Theology from the Shabaka Stone, The Book of the Dead, and various hymns such as the Hymn of Ptah. Currid provides a list of parallels, which include a reference to a potter’s wheel for creative acts, creation by verbal *fiat* of everything, and the creation of light, luminaries, fish, birds, land animals, and mankind.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Like the Enuma Elish, the distinctions between the Egyptian creation accounts and the biblical creation account are significant. According to Currid, in the Egyptian Memphite Theology, the god Ptah has created the world from primordial water that was personified as the god Nun.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Alternatively, the biblical account contends that God is the creator of all creation *ex nihilo*, which is a stark contrast to the polytheistic Egyptian accounts. Furthermore, Ouro explains that one of the primary differences between the biblical and the Egyptian accounts concerns the purpose of humanity.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) In Egyptian cosmology, people were created to provide for the gods’ needs.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Alternatively, in the biblical account, God created man in His image and entrusted mankind with the ability to make choices and care for His creation. Finally, Currid explains, unlike the biblical account, the gods in Egyptian literature were completely immanent, lacked omnipotence, and reflected humanity.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Again, many comparative models may be deployed. For example, it is possible that parallels were used as a polemic to defend God’s complete, monotheistic, sovereignty over creation. It is also possible that some of the content used by the biblical writers reflected the ancient cultural milieu allowing for a holistic or thematic methodology explained, at least partially, by diffusion. However, regardless of the motivations or reasons behind the techniques used to communicate the message, meaning can only exist within context. The biblical writers wrote their words from within a cognitive context or worldview of a sovereign, omnipotent, relational, transcendent God that countered the worldview of continuity at every turn. ### Methodological Conclusion Far from sitting down by a fire with Dickens’ fictional account of David Copperfield for mere pleasure, the Bible’s relationship to the ancient Near East finds its significance in the enhancement of understanding of the biblical text, which illuminates exegesis for the benefit of the student and scholar alike. However, challenges of biblical parallels range from the assertion of dependency to the cultural bias built deep within human nature. As can be seen in the comparative analysis between Genesis 1-2 and a sampling of the ancient Near Eastern creation accounts, the cognitive context is foundational to meaning and bridges the divide between Scripture and pagan mythology. The relationship between the Old Testament and the ancient Near Eastern literature rests on the Israelites’ cognitive contextual framework of transcendence. Personally, the biblical parallels to ancient context have, at times, been disturbing. A question deep within the recesses of the mind would trigger doubt. A doubt that seems to be pervasive in modern American society, “Is it a hoax?” However, in its final analysis, logic prevails. The God of the universe knew exactly what He was doing by entering the cultural milieu of His people and reframing the cognitive context to align with His ultimate reality. Building upon the basic constructs of comparative methodology, the following research applies the cognitive contextual framework of transcendence to the book of Exodus. ## **Archaeology and Geography** ### Archaeological and Geographical Introduction The archaeological data relevant to the book of Exodus spans from the discovery and excavation of various large ancient tels to small Egyptian gems called scarabs. Furthermore, the historical geography relevant to Exodus provides insight into some of the most hotly debated issues of modern scholarship. The question is what specific finds of archaeology and geographical scenery provide glimpses into the ancient world of the book of Exodus. Without identifying the pertinent archaeology and geography, the layman and scholar stand to miss the patterns of evidence that illuminate history. An overview of the book of Exodus’s most prominent archaeological and geographical data not only enhances understanding of the text, but the data also provides evidence to support its historicity. First, a brief archaeological overview explores several archaeological tels, various artifacts, and a few relevant inscriptions from the ancient Near East that illuminate an understanding of the book of Exodus while simultaneously providing evidence for its historicity. Next, a brief geographical survey commences that follows the movement of the ancient Israelites from Rameses to Mount Sinai during the most notable event in the history of the Jewish people – the Exodus. The geographical data also elucidates meaning and reinforces the historicity of the event. ### Archaeological Overview A blurred line exists between archaeology proper, which focuses on the discovery of tels and their associated artifacts and remains, and the broader scope of the archaeological discipline that incorporates art and inscriptions. First, several tels that are relevant to the book of Exodus provide an entrée into archaeology. Second, a number of artifacts such as paintings, murals, shrines, tombs, and figures will broaden the scope of the archaeological evaluation. Third, a few inscriptions, papyri, and scarabs will further expand the archaeological analysis, while simultaneously saving several of the more comprehensive texts for the comparative literary overview covered in the next section. Regarding tels, the first excavations relevant to the book of Exodus are Tel Mashkhuta, Tel el-Rataba, and Tel el-Daba. Exodus 1:11-12 states, “Therefore, they \[the Egyptians\] set taskmasters over them \[the Israelites\] to afflict them with heavy burdens. They built for Pharaoh store cities, Pithom and Raamses. But the more they were oppressed, the more they multiplied and the more they spread abroad.”[\[29\]](#_ftn29) The question of the location of the cities, Pithom and Raamses, have been debated for years. Hershel Shanks explains that Tel Mashkhuta had been associated with the city of Pithom for generations, but recently it has been proven that the remains and artifacts of the tel are no earlier than the Persian Period.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Accordingly, Tel Mashkhuta could not have been associated with the city the Israelites built hundreds of years earlier. Hans Goedicke asserts that, more likely, Pithom is associated with Tel el-Rataba because artifacts, such as pottery, from that site reflect Syro-Palestinian culture that date to the Middle Bronze Age II (1700-1500 BC).[\[31\]](#_ftn31) Furthermore, Tel el-Daba is a very large excavation in the Nile delta region of Egypt. Hershel Shanks notes that the lower portion of the tel exposed a major Canaanite settlement with remains that date back to the Middle Bronze Age II and likely is the location of the city or, more aptly, the megalopolis known as Raamses.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) The next set of sites to investigate include Tel Hebua and Tel el-Borg. Exodus 13:17 states, “When Pharaoh let the people go, God did not lead them by way of the land of the Philistines.” The redirection eliminates the possibility of a northern escape by the Israelites. However, the possibility of danger remained. James Hoffmeier explains that Tel Hebua is located approximately three miles east of the Suez Canal and includes a huge fortress over eight hundred yards long, which would have been a trap for the Israelites.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) South of Tel Hebua was another site named Tel el-Borg. The remains found at Tel el-Borg came from the Ramesside period and included a fort with walls that were twelve feet thick.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) Again, the Israelites would have desired to carefully avoid the fortifications for fear of attack. Exodus 14:2 continues the explanation of the escape route by telling the Israelites to go back to Pi-hahiroth, which was between Migdol and the Reed Sea. Hoffmeier points out that another fort, Migdol of Men-maat-re, was located about five miles immediately south of Tel el-Borg.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) In sum, the discovery of the tels in northern Sinai with fortifications and the possibility of Migdol being located near Tel el-Borg suggests the general location of the crossing of the Reed Sea. Next, the excavation of Tel Timai provides interesting support for the existence of brick and brick making in northern Egypt. Exodus 5:6-8 explains that Pharaoh issued the following command, “You shall no longer give the people straw to make brick. . . . But the number of bricks that they made in the past you shall impose on them, you shall by no means reduce it, for they are idle. Therefore, they \[the Israelites\] cry, ‘Let us go and offer sacrifice to our God.’” Tel Timai is an excavation site in the Nile Delta in northern Egypt. Several archaeologists analyzed the chemistry and composition of the brick at the tel and recreated the bricks with local mud and straw chaff producing 2,000 bricks in two days similar to the output managed by Egyptian overseers.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) The point of the investigation is not only that ancient bricks were used at the site, but, by using the source material in northern Egypt, it was possible to recreate the situation of the ancient Israelites supporting its potential historicity within the region. Second, a number of artifacts such as paintings, murals, shrines, tombs, and figures broaden the scope of the archaeological evaluation. Archaeological evidence may provide insight into the difficult topic of YHWH hardening Pharaoh’s heart. According to Price and House, a painting on the coffin of the Pharaoh of the Twenty-First Dynasty named Tanakhtenettahat exemplifies the funerary art that characterizes the theology of the afterlife where the dead had to face a trial.[\[37\]](#_ftn37) A similar archaeological find exists in mural form in the scroll of the Egyptian Book of the Dead, both of which depict a “weighing of the heart” scene.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) In the ancient world, the heart was the seat of cognitions and emotions. When an individual died, the assessment occurred by weighing the heart against the standard of truth by using a scale. If the heart was too heavy with sin, then the scales would tip to destruction, but, if the heart was light, then the individual would experience eternal life. In Exodus 4:21, the Lord says to Moses, “I will harden \[make heavy\] his \[Pharaoh’s\] heart.” Pharaoh represented salvation in Egypt, so, according to G. K. Beale, God’s hardening of Pharaoh’s heart is a polemic against his salvific powers “and the belief that Pharaoh’s heart was the all-controlling factor both in history and society.”[\[39\]](#_ftn39) Accordingly, Pharaoh’s power to stop the plagues was negated and destruction ensued. Archaeology also provides structures comparable not only to the tabernacle, but also to the Ark of the Covenant that was often placed within the tabernacle. Alan Millard points out that portable shrines with gold-plated wooden frames had been created by Egyptian craftsman since about 2500 BC.[\[40\]](#_ftn40) More specifically, Price and House explain that within the innermost portion of the tomb of King Tutankhamen in the Valley of the Kings at Luxor was a small gold-plated shrine protected by a cherub-like figure.[\[41\]](#_ftn41) The tomb appears to parallel the chronology and the structure of the tabernacle in the biblical account, which also houses the Ark of the Covenant in its inner-most portion. Finally, according to Elie Borowski, cherubim figures commonly appeared in ancient Near Eastern cultures for protection as documented in the palace in northern Syria of the governor of Hadatu at the archaeological site of Arslan Tash.[\[42\]](#_ftn42) Numerous other examples exist, but it is clear that the structural concept of the biblical tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant were not unique to the ancient Near East. Third, inscriptions, papyri, and scarabs further expand the archaeological analysis. Although one would think that extensive remains would exist to support the events of the Exodus, two important factors explain the dearth of archaeological data. Randall Price and H. Wayne House point out that the Egyptian propaganda machine would never have documented a national defeat, and the extreme conditions of the desert environment would have likely disintegrated any remaining evidence.[\[43\]](#_ftn43) Accordingly, archaeological support for the date of the Exodus event is lacking. However, without digging too deeply into the debate, an artifact that applies to the date of the event is the Merneptah Stele. The stele, which is dated no later than 1250 BC, is the only inscription during the New Kingdom period that refers to Israel.[\[44\]](#_ftn44) Accordingly, the late date proponents assume the Exodus event occurred around the same time. However, the early date proponents assume the Merneptah Stele referred to Israel as a nation after the conquest; thus, the Exodus event had to occur during an earlier period such as the fifteenth century BC. Two important archaeological finds are the Brooklyn Papyrus 35.1446 and the Rekhmire Tomb Painting. First, according to Titus Kennedy, the papyrus is dated to the seventeenth century, likely discovered in Thebes, and lists nine servants with Hebrew names.[\[45\]](#_ftn45) Exodus 1:11 refers to Egyptian taskmasters afflicting Israelite slaves prior to the Exodus. The list provides evidence that the Israelites were in Egypt at an early date, which aligns with verse 11. Also, John Harmon explains that the Rekhmire tomb painting characterizes immigrants or, more specifically, prisoners of war producing bricks.[\[46\]](#_ftn46) Similar to the Brooklyn Papyrus, the tomb provides evidence of the existence of Israelite people in Egypt prior to the Exodus. An early date has become the scholarly consensus for evangelicals. However, Ralph Hawkins suggests that new archaeological evidence from a site called Mount Ebal in the ancient Canaanite area supports a later date for the Exodus.[\[47\]](#_ftn47) Two Egyptian style scarabs were found at Mount Ebal. The pattern and style of the first scarab parallels a motif that is exclusive to the 19th Dynasty, while the second scarab pattern and style along with the pottery found at the site dates to the second half of the thirteenth century BC.[\[48\]](#_ftn48) The idea is that the Israelites would have entered Canaan and brought remnants of Egypt to the promised land after escaping from the Egyptians. In sum, if the inhabitants of the site were Israelites, and the artifacts represent an Egyptian heritage, then the archaeology may, according to Hawkins, “accord well with a 13th century BC Exodus.”[\[49\]](#_ftn49) The archaeological evidence notwithstanding, scholarly consensus does not currently exist regarding the date of the Exodus. The famous story of Moses and Aaron dueling with the Egyptian magicians’ staffs may have an archaeological backdrop. Price and House explain that the text inscribed on the walls of the pyramid of King Unas at Saqqara in Egypt was written with Egyptian characters in a Semitic dialect and referenced the idea of a “mother snake.”[\[50\]](#_ftn50) The theory is that sometime between the twenty-fourth and thirtieth century BC, Canaanite priests provided magical spells to the Egyptians to protect mummies from poisonous snakes that scared the Egyptians.[\[51\]](#_ftn51) The Egyptians believed their culture was superior to not only the Canaanites, but to all their neighbors. Accordingly, the dueling staffs prove that YHWH is superior to all. Although little direct archeological evidence exists for the Exodus event, indirect evidence may exist via the Papyrus Leiden 344. The Egyptian plagues occur in Exodus 7:14-12:36 and mark a time of rebellion and lament by the Egyptian people. Kennedy explains that the poem, the Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage: The Ipuwer Papyrus, is a lament that describes a time when Egypt was experiencing death and destruction and would have occurred sometime prior to the thirteenth century.[\[52\]](#_ftn52) Price and House provide excerpts of the papyrus, which states, “The river is blood. If you drink of it, you lose your humanity, and thirst for water…behold, plague sweeps the land, blood is everywhere.”[\[53\]](#_ftn53) It is difficult to miss the connection between the papyrus and the water to blood plague in the book of Exodus and the large-scale death that may have accompanied many of the plagues. The death of the firstborn may also be referred to in front of the archaeological majesty of the Great Sphinx of Giza. Kennedy explains that the Sphinx Dream Stele was an official text of Pharaoh Thutmose IV, who reigned during the fifteenth century BC, that documented a dream.[\[54\]](#_ftn54) However, the relevance of the stele is not so much in the dream as in the pharaoh’s ascension to the throne. Kennedy continues by explaining that scholars believe that the text demonstrates that Thutmose IV was not the natural heir, but his older, firstborn brother, Amenhotep, mysteriously died, which allowed him to become pharaoh.[\[55\]](#_ftn55) Exodus 12:29 tells the story of the tenth plague the struck down the firstborn sons, which would have included Pharaoh’s firstborn son. The Sphinx Dream Stele may provide evidence that supports the historicity of the tenth plague. Although modern scholars would desire much more evidence, the archaeological clues provided by the enormous progress in the last couple of centuries continues to contribute to an understanding of Scripture and the historicity of the biblical data. ### Geographical Overview Although the book of Exodus records Moses growing up in Egypt, fleeing to Midian after killing an Egyptian, and then returning to Egypt under God’s providential care, the focus of the geographical analysis by most scholars is on the route of the Exodus event. According to Exodus 12:37-38, the Exodus begins in Rameses with about 600,000 men along with their families and livestock who plan to journey to Succoth. According to Thomas Brisco, the city of Rameses was the capital and government center of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt, which included palaces and residences for officials serving the pharaoh.[\[56\]](#_ftn56) Carl Rasmussen explains that Succoth is likely located within the region of Wadi Tumilat at Tell el-Maskhuta, which is northwest of the Red Sea.[\[57\]](#_ftn57) Furthermore, James Hoffmeier highlights the fact that, according to various Egyptian inscriptions, Succoth was a military zone; thus the Israelites likely traversed the east side of the Wadi Tumilat to avoid military confrontation, which would support a central or southern direction toward Sinai.[\[58\]](#_ftn58) After Succoth, the Israelites camped at Etham at the edge of the wilderness and as the people drew closer to the sea prior to crossing, the Lord said to Moses, “Tell the people of Israel to turn back and encamp in front of Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, in front of Baal-zephon; you shall encamp facing it, by the sea” (Exod 13:20; 14:2). Unfortunately, Rasmussen notes that the locations are problematic, but Pi-hahiroth could be a low area west of the Bitter Lake, and Etham and Migdol could be one of several Egyptian forts north of the Bitter Lake alongside the modern Suez Canal.[\[59\]](#_ftn59) Hoffmeier explains that attempts to locate these geographical toponyms have spawned three theories regarding the direction of Israelites after crossing the Red Sea or Sea of Reeds: the northern, central, and southern theories.[\[60\]](#_ftn60) Finally, the traditional location for the crossing of the sea is at the north end of the Gulf of Suez possibly around one of the lakes.[\[61\]](#_ftn61) According to Exodus 15:22-23, after the miraculous crossing of the sea, the Israelites spent three days in the wilderness of Shur. The direction of the remaining journey until their arrival in Kadesh-barnea is debated by scholars. First, the route could have taken a northern trajectory. Brisco explains that the northern section of the Sinai Peninsula consisted of sandy coastal plains alongside deserts in the west that bordered several lakes and a large lagoon to the extreme north.[\[62\]](#_ftn62) Exodus 17:8-16 refers to an Israelite encounter with the Amalekites at Rephidim. The Amalekites who, according to Brisco, are seminomadic people who inhabited northern Sinai provide evidence for the northern theory.[\[63\]](#_ftn63) However, Hoffmeier asserts that no archaeological evidence exists for Baal-zephon in northern Sinai during the second millennium, and since the northern coastal highway included a significant military presence, the northern theory needs abandoned.[\[64\]](#_ftn64) Second, the central theory suggests the Israelites migrated through the middle of the Sinai Peninsula either before moving toward Kadesh-barnea or prior to heading to Mount Sinai located in Arabia, a location near Midian where Moses had fled. The geography of the central plateau, according to Brisco, was primarily covered in limestone and sandstone with a line of low mountains on the north and a barren wilderness through its center.[\[65\]](#_ftn65) Exodus 19:18 describes the mountain as trembling, which may connote an earthquake. Historical evidence of volcanic activity along the western Arabian coast provides some limited evidence for the central theory. Third, the southern theory, which is the most prevalent, assumes the Israelites moved down the southwest side of the Sinai Peninsula and that Mount Sinai was located at the traditional location at Jebel Musa. Brisco describes the geography of the southern granite mountain range of the Sinai Peninsula as elevating above eight thousand feet and consisting of deep valleys full of streams, the largest being the Wadi Feiran.[\[66\]](#_ftn66) Three reasons support the southern route of the Israelites. Exodus 13:17 explains that God prohibited the Israelites from traveling by way of the land of the Philistines, which suggests the Israelites avoided the northern coast. Second, Deuteronomy 1:2 states that the journey from the mountain to Kadesh-barnea takes eleven days, which fits well with the location of Mount Sinai in the south. Third, according to Brisco, several sites mentioned in Scripture from Mount Sinai to Kadesh-barnea suggest a southern location.[\[67\]](#_ftn67) Unfortunately, many place names and regions remain unidentified due to the discontinuity of the population and the lack of artifacts due to the climate, terrain, and nomadic nature of the Israelites. However, geographical analysis continues to provide insight and direction that illuminates the story of the Bible and supports the historicity of the book of Exodus. ### Archaeological and Geographical Conclusion Although retracing the footsteps of the ancient Israelites in photographs may be the closest most students and scholars come to the on-site archaeological and geographical immersion experienced by the skilled professional, the ramifications of the data are no less critical. The diverse archaeological artifacts that include tels, temple walls, coffins, pyramids, stelae, scarabs, papyri, and tombs combine to provide a tapestry of archaeological evidence for the book of Exodus. Furthermore, the variegated geographical features from camping outside fortified cities along lakes and rivers to the inhabitation of the Sinai Peninsula, which included sandy coastal plains, barren wildernesses within the central plateau, and pink granite mountain ranges in the south, provide color to the already vivid story. Without question, the brief overview of the book of Exodus’s most prominent archaeological and geographical data has not only enhanced an understanding of the book, but it has also provided evidence to support the historicity of its events. From a personal perspective, teaching the historical aspects of the biblical text can be risky in front of listeners attempting to stay awake long enough for the practical application. However, when the archaeological and geographical data not only illuminate the mind’s understanding, but also solidifies the individual’s belief in the events, history comes to life and so does the listener. ## **Comparative Literary Analysis** ### Comparative Literary Introduction T The number of literary parallels between the ancient Near Eastern literature and the book of Exodus likely eclipses the parallels within many of the other Old Testament books combined. The comparative literature that encompasses the book of Exodus features some of the most celebrated stories and events in the Old Testament including the tale of baby Moses, the account of Moses’s exile, the famous parting of the sea, and the giving of the law. The question is what specific literature in the ancient Near East parallels these important events. Without identifying the pertinent literature, the interpreter risks missing culturally relevant contextual clues that could illuminate the meaning of Scripture. A brief comparative literary analysis of the book of Exodus reveals that many of the dominant stories and themes are reflected within the ancient Near Eastern literary environment. Importantly, the purpose of this overview is not to provide analysis of the similarities and differences or to opine upon how the Israelites engaged the content but rather to identify comparative literature. First, a brief overview of the methodology and scope used to select the comparative literature occurs, which explains how the parallels were chosen. Next, a comparative analysis ensues juxtaposing some of the most prominent stories and events in the book of Exodus with the germane ancient Near Eastern literature. ### Methodology and Scope In order to provide a brief comparative literary analysis between the book of Exodus and the ancient Near Eastern literature, a proper selection methodology is required due to the extensive nature of the parallels. The methodology used aggregated the potential parallels from all assigned textbooks and two other important sources that specifically provided a broad framework of relevant ancient Near Eastern content. The first source was James Pritchard’s *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*, which includes potential parallels from all the surrounding nations of the ancient Near East.[\[68\]](#_ftn68) The second source was a more recent article entitled “Egyptian Texts relating to the Exodus: Discussion of Exodus Parallels in Egyptology Literature” by Brad Sparks.[\[69\]](#_ftn69) Sparks identifies thirty parallels from fifty-six scholars from 1844 to the twenty-first century in the professional literature.[\[70\]](#_ftn70) Texts from all the sources were recorded in a spreadsheet with the applicable nation, biblical verses, sources, and motifs when available. The scope has two parameters. First, to limit the scope and avoid parallelomania, the literary overview extends preference to parallels that were included in multiple sources and focus on the dominant topics and events of the book of Exodus. Second, the scope excludes parallels documented in the research provided in the paper “Historical Geography and Archaeology: Exodus” that integrates shorter textual references. Instead, the research focuses on more comprehensive literary pieces. Accordingly, the comparative literary analysis explores eight literary parallels between the book of Exodus and the ancient Near Eastern literature. ### Comparative Literary Overview One of the most popular and memorable parallels to the book of Exodus is *The Legend of Sargon*. The story tells of the birth and rise to power of the founder of the Akkadian Empire and early ruler in Mesopotamia around 2300 BC who successfully ruled for more than fifty years.[\[71\]](#_ftn71) According to the legend, Sargon, who became a mighty king, was born in secret and then set in a basket of rushes and sealed with bitumen before being placed into the river by his mother.[\[72\]](#_ftn72) A man named Akki finds Sargon, draws him from the river, and rears the boy into manhood at which time it is told that the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar loved Sargon, and he became a successful ruler.[\[73\]](#_ftn73) The parallels to the story of Moses are unmistakable. The birth story of Moses tells of a woman who hid her son in secret and eventually placed him in a basket made with bulrushes and bitumen and placed him in a river (Exod 2:2-3). Instead of being rescued by a man, the baby Moses is rescued by the daughter of the Pharaoh, and Moses eventually becomes the leader of the Israelites (Exod 2:5-10). The most obvious parallels include the secrecy of the birth, the abandonment of the baby, the basket and river, the rescue, the favor of individuals of eminence, and the ultimate position of leadership by the baby. The abandoned child motif also exists within other ancient Near Eastern kingdoms. Donald Redford identifies thirty-two different ancient Near Eastern references to the literary motif of the exposed child.[\[74\]](#_ftn74) Specifically, the relevance of the Myth of Horus is that it, according to John Currid, has been in the Egyptian literature for a significant period of time, and although the most extensive recording of the story is during the first century AD, the primary elements of the story appear as early as the Egyptian Pyramid Texts.[\[75\]](#_ftn75) Redford summarizes the story as follows: The goddess Isis births a son named Horus who is hidden in a “nest” among the papyrus to protect the boy from the evil god, Seth. Ultimately, Horus grows up a hero and drives the god Seth out of Egypt.[\[76\]](#_ftn76) Although the parallels are not as obvious within the story of the gods as in *The Legend of Sargon*, the basic elements still exist. Like Moses, Horus is in danger, hidden in papyrus, and grows to become an important leader. An additional parallel not mentioned in *The Legend of Sargon* is that a villain pursued the child and attempted to murder him like the Pharaoh’s commands in Exodus 1:15-22. A literary work from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom called the Stories of Sinuhe is considered a piece of classic literature. The parallels between Sinuhe and the Old Testament extend beyond the book of Exodus. However, the connection to Exodus pertains to Moses’s early adulthood. Victor Matthew and Don Benjamin retell the story: Sinuhe was a man working as an official for Pharaoh Amenemhet I (1991-1962 BC) and took care of his daughter, Neferu. The Pharaoh dies and Sinuhe feels that his life is in danger, so he flees Egypt and moves to Syria-Palestine. Ultimately, Senwosret, the newly appointed pharaoh, emerges and invites Sinuhe back to his homeland.[\[77\]](#_ftn77) Consensus does not exist regarding the connection. However, Sparks notes that some believe that Sinuhe foreshadows the story of Moses’s exile, some believe that Sinuhe was a recurring theme within the ancient Near east, and others believe the resemblances are coincidental.[\[78\]](#_ftn78) However, Currid provides several clear parallels between the stories to support a definite connection, which include both Sinuhe and Moses initially living in a royal court, then facing a threat that prompts both to flee, followed by victory in exile before experiencing a successful return.[\[79\]](#_ftn79) The “Destruction of Mankind” (Destruction), the story of humanity plotting against the sun god Ra who then reacts to deliver divine punishment to mankind, is a portion of a larger work called *The Book of the Heavenly Cow*. Several striking parallels exist between Destruction and the book of Exodus. First, Currid observes that Ra comes to terms with mankind’s potential rebellion by stating, “I am that I am, I will not let them take action.”[\[80\]](#_ftn80) Similarly, Exodus 3:14 states, “God said to Moses, ‘I am who I am.’ And he said, ‘Say this to the people of Israel: ‘I am has sent me to you.’” Not only is there a sovereign connotation to both references, but according to Currid, a morphological and phonetic parallel also exists.[\[81\]](#_ftn81) Moreover, Sparks explains that many Egyptologists identify the theme of Destruction as a “primeval revolt” or “rebellion of mankind” that is prevalent in more than a dozen Egyptian texts and resembles an Exodus-like motif.[\[82\]](#_ftn82) Specifically, the challenge against Ra as represented by the Pharaoh of Egypt is launched by the Hebrews in the northern part of Egypt via “their escape and ensuing armed pursuit.”[\[83\]](#_ftn83) The divine name revelation and the primeval rebellion motif both provide opportunities for an enhanced understanding of the Exodus. Another striking parallel comes from the “Poems about Baal and Anath” from Ugaritic literature. In the golden calf episode, Moses is angry and breaks the tablets just before he took the calf and “burned it with fire and ground it to powder and scattered it on the water and made the people of Israel drink it” (Exod 32:19-20). The relevant Ugaritic poem tells of the goddess Anath annihilating the god Mot: With a fire she burns him, With millstones she grinds him, In a field she sows him.[\[84\]](#_ftn84) The parallels between the destruction of the golden calf by Moses and the destruction of Mot by Anath include burning, grinding, and scattering. Thomas Dozeman explains that the parallels move beyond verbal repetition and into the realm of life and death. Specifically, Mot is the god of death in Ugaritic literature, and thus when the goddess Anath destroys Mot by burning, grinding, and scattering, she is annihilating death.[\[85\]](#_ftn85) Similarly, Dozeman continues, the golden calf represented the reign of death over life; thus, when Moses destroys the golden calf, he is annihilating a representation of death and preparing the way for the new covenant.[\[86\]](#_ftn86) It would likely be a crime to omit from a comparative literary analysis of the book of Exodus the parallels between the Hittite suzerain-vassal treaties and the content and format of the biblical covenants. Although the ancient Near Eastern accounts do not completely mirror the biblical accounts, Roy Gane provides a summary of the common components of the treaty form: (1) prologue, (2) past relationship, (3) stipulations, (4) the witnesses, (5) the blessings and curses, and (6) the recording provisions.[\[87\]](#_ftn87) Furthermore, William Barrick succinctly highlights the parallels between the Mosaic covenant and the ancient Near Eastern treaty form as follows: (1) history (Exod 19:1-4), (2) preamble (Exod 19:5-6), (3) terms (Exod 20:3-23:19), (4) blessings and curses (Exod 23:20-23), and (5) recording provisions (Exod 24:4-7).[\[88\]](#_ftn88) More specifically, the treaty between Hattusilis and Ramses II parallels Exodus 19 and, according to Cleon Rogers, the components of the parallels include the date, a geographical setting, and the mediator of the covenant.[\[89\]](#_ftn89) More importantly than the content and structure of the treaties is that, according to Gane, the treaties highlight the relational dynamics of Scripture represented by the ancient Near Eastern rulers (suzerains), represented by Yahweh, and subordinates (vassals), represented by the Israelites, who pay tribute to the suzerains.[\[90\]](#_ftn90) Although ancient Near Eastern vassals were required to pay tribute in a form of money, the Israelite vassals paid tribute to Yahweh as suzerain in the form of sacrificial offerings.[\[91\]](#_ftn91) Without question, the pinnacle of the book of Exodus is the mighty parting of water to free the Israelite slaves from the pursuit of the Egyptians. The Westcar Papyrus contains at least five tales from the Hyksos period from around 1630-1523 BC that tell stories set within the period of the Old Kingdom.[\[92\]](#_ftn92) Currid suggests that the parting of the Sea of Reeds may have been inspired by an ancient Egyptian tale from the Westcar Papyrus.[\[93\]](#_ftn93) The story is about a magician named Djadjaemankh who helps recover a turquoise pendant that had dropped into the water on a boat ride.[\[94\]](#_ftn94) The magician says his magic words and then he “placed one side of the lake’s water upon the other, and he found the pendant” and brought it back to its owner before he said a few more magic words and “returned the water of the lake to their place.”[\[95\]](#_ftn95) The popular parallel is Yahweh telling Moses to stretch out his staff over the sea to let the Israelites pass through the waters (Exod 14:15-16). The similarities between the two accounts include the involvement of a spiritual leader, the magician and Yahweh, and the supernatural division of a large body of water for the purpose of the salvation of something of value, a turquoise pendant and the Israelite people. Currid highlights the important distinction that the Egyptian account is meant to be read as fiction, and the biblical writers intended to record historical fact.[\[96\]](#_ftn96) The final literary parallel arises from the Code of Hammurabi, which is a law code named after the King of the Babylonian Dynasty. The Hammurabi code from around 1700 BC predates the comparable Covenant Code recorded in Exodus 21-23. Joel Hamm, Bryan Babcock, and Justin Strong furnish three structural characteristics that highlight the similarities between the Covenant Code in Exodus and the legal code from ancient Mesopotamia: (1) third person writings, (2) casuistic laws, and (3) similar topics.[\[97\]](#_ftn97) To be sure, Gane explains that other law codes also parallel the Covenant Code including the Ur-Nammu and Lipit-Ishtar written in Sumerian, the Laws of Eshnunna written in Akkadian, and the Hittite Laws.[\[98\]](#_ftn98) All the law codes were used by kings to exhibit their judicial wisdom and substantiate their legitimacy. For example, in §206, the Hammurabi Code states, “If a seignior has struck another seignior in a brawl and has inflicted an injury…he shall also pay for the physician.”[\[99\]](#_ftn99) Similarly, Exodus 21:18-19 states that when a man strikes another man “he shall pay for the loss of his time, and shall have him thoroughly healed.” The parallels between the Covenant Code and many of the ancient Near Eastern law codes are palpable and often nearly word-for-word. ### Comparative Literary Conclusion An immersion into the cultural context of the ancient Near East is reminiscent of the masterpieces of Degas who applied impressionistic realism to the complex nature of the human psyche. Similarly, the ancient literature provides an impression of realism with texture, color, and structure that illuminates the historical reality of both the content and message of the Old Testament. From the story of baby Moses to the fearful, young runaway, and from the memorable parting of the sea to the stunning deliverance of the laws, the biblical accounts engage the cultural milieu while maintaining unprecedented veracity. Accordingly, the brief comparative literary analysis of the book of Exodus has revealed that many of the dominant stories and themes of the book are exquisitely reflected within the literary environment of the ancient Near East. Personally, the parallels continue to open new doors of possibility to understand Yahweh’s message to His people and simultaneously provide ample opportunity to integrate relevant content into both the study and teaching of Scripture. ## **Cognitive Environment Criticism** ### Cognitive Environment Criticism Introduction The biblical law codes, and specifically the Covenant Code within the book of Exodus, present a conundrum to many modern Christians who attempt to understand the relevance of what appear to be obscure and often disturbing rules of morality. However, the questions surrounding the biblical law surpasses mere relevance, and asks how the obvious parallels between the ancient Near Eastern laws of the pagans relate to the meaning and understanding of the legal information written in the Covenant Code. Without a proper understanding of the relationship between the two types of literature, the interpreter risks assuming the Bible is plagiaristic. However, a cognitive contextual methodology deployed within the discipline of cognitive environment criticism reveals that the Covenant Code is built upon the unique worldview of transcendence within an ancient Near Eastern society. First, a brief cultural overview of the book of Exodus is followed by an introductory excursion into the iconographic messaging of the outstretched arm motif in the book of Exodus. Next, similarities and differences between the Covenant Code and the ancient law codes ensues prior to applying the cognitive contextual methodology to the passage in Exodus. A final section briefly discusses a plan for integration into a Bible study setting. ### Cultural Overview The setting of the book of Exodus is Lower Egypt and Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula during the Late Bronze Age. Accordingly, the brief cultural overview is limited in both the location and period of the setting of the book. According to Joel LeMon, the New Kingdom began with a reunited Egypt under the reign of Pharaoh Ahmose upon conquering the Hyksos around 1550 BC, which initiated a massive program of imperial expansion creating many vassal states.[\[100\]](#_ftn100) The Egyptians worshipped the sun god Re who became intimately associated with the kingship of the pharaoh and, around 1370 BC, the Egyptian society was disrupted by the Hittites who attempted to overthrow Egypt.[\[101\]](#_ftn101) In light of the pharaoh’s presumed divine powers, Thomas Brisco explains that ruler had autonomous authority over Egyptian life as the mediator of the god.[\[102\]](#_ftn102) Regardless of an early or late date of the Exodus event, the Israelites, under control of the pharaoh in Egyptian land, would have likely lived in a rural setting alongside peasant farmers close to one of the villages along the Nile river.[\[103\]](#_ftn103) Small residential houses and larger palaces were built with mud bricks, which would likely explain the servitude of the Israelites during their captivity prior to their journey toward the Red Sea.[\[104\]](#_ftn104) During the Ramesside Period from around 1295-1069 BC, Ramesses I reestablished hereditary kingship and Seti I initiated a massive restoration program and, after the Battle of Qadesh in 1274 BC against the Hittites, Egypt experienced a renewed prosperity.[\[105\]](#_ftn105) Depending on the dating of the Exodus event, it is possible that the slavery associated with the Israelites would have supported the building projects associated with the restoration, but the late date is less than certain. Furthermore, syncretism was prevalent prior to the Third Intermediate Period along with the gradual decline of Egyptian power.[\[106\]](#_ftn106) Finally, regardless of the dating of the Exodus, Egyptians divided the year into three seasons that related to the weather patterns and flooding of the Nile that limited agricultural work, which provided opportunity for the employment of slave labor for the king’s building projects.[\[107\]](#_ftn107) ### Iconographic Overview ![Figure SEQ Figure ARABIC 1. Painted wall of 300x232 - Exodus: Ancient Near East Context](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-SEQ-Figure-ARABIC-1.-Painted-wall-of-300x232.png "Exodus: Ancient Near East Context - Lives Transforming")**Figure SEQ Figure ARABIC 1. Painted wall of** A brief iconographic overview of the book of Exodus first requires the definition of the term. Daniel Bodi explains that iconography refers to visual representations, which may include reliefs, statues, and amulets to name a few.[\[108\]](#_ftn108) A comprehensive review of the ancient Near Eastern iconography is beyond this study for the ancient visual artifacts related to the book of Exodus are vast. From Aaron’s rod to the style and material of the Ark of the Covenant, Leland Ryken, James Wilhoit, and Tremper Longman acknowledge the significant breadth of iconographic imagery related to Exodus.[\[109\]](#_ftn109) Accordingly, the following analysis will be limited to a representative sample of relevant iconography utilizing the imagery of an important phrase that is often used to describe Yahweh within the book of Exodus, “the outstretched arm” or “strong arm.” Brent Strawn asserts that the imagery tradition of the phrase takes two trajectories: the conquering arm of pharaoh and the life-giving deity.[\[110\]](#_ftn110) ![Figure SEQ Figure ARABIC 2. Temple relief at 300x231 - Exodus: Ancient Near East Context](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-SEQ-Figure-ARABIC-2.-Temple-relief-at-300x231.png "Exodus: Ancient Near East Context - Lives Transforming")**Figure SEQ Figure ARABIC 2. Temple relief at** First, regarding the conquering arm of pharaoh, it is found very early in Egyptian iconography. According to Strawn, the imagery goes back to a tomb painting in Hierakonpolis around 3400 BC (fig. 1) and, in the New Kingdom period, the imagery is abundant and includes a depiction of the outstretched arm of Ramesses the Great around 1250 BC from a temple relief at Tell el-Retaba (fig. 2).[\[111\]](#_ftn111) The question is whether the imagery actually evokes the idea of Yahweh’s outstretched arm. Strawn notes that the outstretched arm of pharaoh connotes military action and power.[\[112\]](#_ftn112) In Exodus 6:6, Yahweh tells Moses to explain to the Israelites that Yahweh “will redeem you with an outstretched arm.” Accordingly, it is not unreasonable to conclude that the imagery can be applied to Yahweh who wreaked havoc on the Egyptians during the Exodus event. However, certain differences between the usages of the phrase as it applies to pharaoh calls for additional investigation. ![Figure 3. Limestone relief at Amarna 300x293 - Exodus: Ancient Near East Context](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-3.-Limestone-relief-at-Amarna-300x293.jpg "Exodus: Ancient Near East Context - Lives Transforming")**Figure 3. Limestone relief at Amarna.** The pharaoh Amenhotep IV (1352-1336 BC) not only changed his name to Akhenaten, but also changed the capital to modern day el-Arman and the religion to the worship of the sun god Aten.[\[113\]](#_ftn113) Along with these changes also came a new artistic style that influenced the iconographic landscape. According to Strawn, the outstretched arm motif, ubiquitous within imagery during the time, included the sun god’s rays, which represented creation and redemption as a life-giving deity exemplified by a limestone relief (fig. 3) and a limestone stele (fig. 4) from Armana.[\[114\]](#_ftn114) ![Figure 4. Limestone stele at Amarna 300x211 - Exodus: Ancient Near East Context](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-4.-Limestone-stele-at-Amarna-300x211.jpg "Exodus: Ancient Near East Context - Lives Transforming")**Figure 4. Limestone stele at Amarna.** The redemption motif is evident in Exodus 13:8-9 when Moses tells the Israelites that it is because of the “strong hand of the Lord” that they have been rescued and brought out of Egypt (cf. Exod 13:16).[\[115\]](#_ftn115) Importantly, the images from Akhenaten’s era contain images of deities, not just kings, who bring life and blessing to the people. Although the iconographic data supporting the book of Exodus is much broader than the “outstreched arm,” the theme’s visual imagery within the ancient Near East, which includes paintings, reliefs, and stelae, provides a represenative overview of the importance of iconography when studying the pericopes of Exodus, the book of Exodus, and Scripture in general. ### The Similarities The first step in using a comparative methodology when performing cognitive environment criticism is to identify the parallels between the literature. Specifically, the parallels between the ancient Near Eastern literature and the Bible. The selected section of the book of Exodus under study is the Covenant Code, which is documented in chapters 20:23-23:19. The parallels between the ancient Near Eastern literature and the Covenant Code are extensive. However, according to Pamela Barmash the relevant parallels primarily exist in Mesopotamian and Hittite Laws, which include the Sumerian Laws of Ur-Namma and Lipit-Ishtar, the Akkadian Laws of Eshnunna and Hammurabi, and possibly the later Middle Assyrian Laws.[\[116\]](#_ftn116) The ancient Near Eastern collections took the form of royal inscriptions, which not only exalted the king, but also justified his authority to his human subjects as well as the gods.[\[117\]](#_ftn117) Although further analysis of the relationship occurs in the exploration of the comparative methodology, it is sufficient for now to note that the specific relationship between the ancient law codes and the biblical law codes is disputed. On the one hand, critical scholars assert that the relationship is found in an oral tradition, and others, such as David Wright, suggest the Covenant Code is directly dependent upon the Laws of Hammurabi.[\[118\]](#_ftn118) On the other hand, some scholars assume the biblical author was trained in a scribal tradition, and others, such as John Walton, believe the relationship occurs due to the nature of the ancient cultural river.[\[119\]](#_ftn119) The similarities between the ancient Near Eastern legal codes and the Covenant Code may be categorized into three types. According to Bruce Wells, the first type is the existence of similar legal issues, which include problems, concerns, or issues that arise in ancient law codes and the Covenant Code within the context of legal matters.[\[120\]](#_ftn120) For example, Exodus 21:16 addresses the topic of kidnapping by stating, “Whoever steals a man and sells him, and anyone found in possession of him, shall be put to death.” The legal issue of kidnapping is also addressed in the Laws of Hammurabi §14, which states that anyone who kidnaps a man will be put to death regardless if the kidnapped man is sold or not. Next, Wells explains that a second type of similarity pertains to legal reasoning, which reflects an analogous way of thinking.[\[121\]](#_ftn121) For instance, Exodus 21:35 explains that when two men each have an ox, and the oxen fight and one of them dies, then the two men shall share in the value of both the live and the dead ox. Similarly, the Laws of Eshnunna §53 explain that if two oxen gore each other, then the parties will divide the value of both. The logic resides in the concept or legal reasoning of shared risk. Finally, Wells identifies a third type of similarity, which consists of comparable legal remedies.[\[122\]](#_ftn122) Exodus 21:18-19 addresses a situation regarding two men fighting where one man punches the other man, but if the man that is hit does not die, then the legal remedy is that renumeration must be given for the man’s loss of time (Exod 21:19). Similarly, in the Laws of Hammurabi §206, the man who inflicts the wound must pay the fees of the physician. The similarities referred to above focus primarily on content. However, similar structural characteristics between the ancient legal codes and the Covenant Code also exist. Joel Hamm, Bryan Babcock, and Justin Strong identify two specific structural features of the codes: the casuistic nature utilizing conditional statements and the third person writing.[\[123\]](#_ftn123) The examples above include both characteristics. Although, without a doubt, close parallels occur between both the content and the structure of the ancient legal codes and the Covenant Code, the similarities must not be exaggerated. The distinctions between the codes must also be considered. ### The Distinctives Significant distinctions between the ancient Near Eastern law codes and the Covenant Code, as well as the corpus of law codes in general, exist both conceptually and structurally. Conceptually, Shalom Paul first notes that moral exhortations, religious injunctions, and legal prescriptions are found independently in the ancient Near Eastern legal codes, but only in the biblical account are they combined.[\[124\]](#_ftn124) The holistic nature of Scripture provides support for the concept of the *imago Dei* interwoven within the biblical law. Second, the biblical account of the law codes plumbs the depths of humanity rather than merely focusing behavioral or cultic rituals. Specifically, according to Roy Gane, unlike the ancient Near Eastern tradition, the biblical law deals with the attitudes of individuals and the value of human life.[\[125\]](#_ftn125) For example, Exodus 20:17 is a prohibition against coveting houses, other people, animals, or anything at all. Coveting is detectable only by assessing inner motivations, which are available only to an omniscient God. Furthermore, Exodus 21:12 states, “Whoever strikes a man so that he dies shall be put to death.” Although the punishment may seem extreme, it clearly displays the value that Yahweh places on human life, which differs from certain ancient Near Eastern laws that allow for economic remuneration for homicide.[\[126\]](#_ftn126) Structural distinctions also exist, especially pertaining to societal directives. Gane points out that, unlike the biblical law, some ancient Near Eastern law codes punish individuals by killing a family member in what was called “vicarious talion” or “talionic ruler punishment” (see Laws of Hammurabi §229 and §230).[\[127\]](#_ftn127) Exodus 21:29 highlights the distinction by stating that if an ox has a history of goring, and the animal kills an individual, then not only does the ox get stoned, but the owner, not a family member, is put to death. Gane also explains that the social class distinctions are not delineated when applying legal remedies to non-slaves in the Covenant Code.[\[128\]](#_ftn128) In other words, some ancient Near Eastern legal texts modify the punishments based on the rank of the individual assaulted (see Laws of Hammurabi §196-98). Finally, the biblical law codes have an important structural similarity to the United States Penal Code. Gane explains that the biblical legal code was a major advance in jurisprudence relative to the ancient Near Eastern legal system by “consistently treating an individual as innocent unless found to be guilty through an authorized procedure.”[\[129\]](#_ftn129) Alternatively, according to the Laws of Hammurabi §132, if a finger is pointed against a man’s wife accusing her of adultery, even though it has not been verified, she may be thrown in the Euphrates River as a sign of divine judgement. Three additional distinctions between the ancient Near Eastern legal codes and the Covenant Code need discussed. First, Walton identifies one of the most obvious yet significant differences, which is the source of the material.[\[130\]](#_ftn130) The ancient Near Eastern code originates from society’s kings, but the biblical material originates from the revelation of Israel’s divine king, Yahweh. Although the source distinction ought not be minimized, the two primary differences that most notably pertain to cognitive environment criticism are the concepts of covenant and holiness, both of which will be explored in greater detail within the methodology section. First, Yahweh enters a covenant with Abram in Genesis 12:1-3, which was ratified in Genesis 15 and extended to the nation of Israel in Exodus 6:6-7 when Yahweh takes the Israelites as His people. Although the suzerain-vassal relationship existed as substantiated by ancient treaties, Walton explains that the type of covenant extended to Israel is not attested in the ancient Near East.[\[131\]](#_ftn131) The covenantal distinction is illuminated by the novel ancient construct of co-identification, whereby Yahweh identifies with Israel, and thus, “Israel is made holy because Yahweh is holy.”[\[132\]](#_ftn132) Importantly, holiness is not a behavioral attribute but, instead, an ontological reality conferred via co-identification. The ancient Near Eastern law codes exclude any reference to the concept of conferred holiness. In sum, the Covenant Code, according to Walton, did not convey legislation, but instead, ordered the nature of the covenantal relationship that defined the holy people of Yahweh.[\[133\]](#_ftn133) ### The Methodology As mentioned above, within cognitive environment criticism, Walton identifies several potential models that engage the parallels between the ancient Near Eastern literature and the Bible: borrowing, polemics, counter-texts, echoes, and diffusion.[\[134\]](#_ftn134) However, the current research deploys a cognitive contextual methodology that explains the parallels through the Israelite’s worldview of transcendence. The application of the contextual methodology to a specific section of Scripture, such as the Covenant Code, begins with the identification of genre. The traditional view of the biblical legal codes, according to Wells, asserts that the law was authoritatively prescriptive and codified legislation that continues to reside within a debate regarding the extent of the codification and authority.[\[135\]](#_ftn135) Others assumed the legal codes were academic or non-legal treaties produced by scribal schools.[\[136\]](#_ftn136) However, Gane explains that the biblical laws, such as the Covenant Code, were built upon already existing divine values or priorities of God such as the sanctity of life and relational living (cf. Gen 1:27-31).[\[137\]](#_ftn137) Accordingly, Walton concludes that the Covenant Code was not codified legislation or a set of prescriptive documents, but instead, wisdom lists, similar to the genre of proverbs, that specifically provided judicial wisdom.[\[138\]](#_ftn138) However, in the ancient Near Eastern perspective of the law, justice was perceived through the lens of continuity, where the god(s) took care of the people so the people would take care of the god(s) in a co-dependent relational dynamic.[\[139\]](#_ftn139) In short, the concept of justice within an ancient Near Eastern worldview of continuity became a quid pro quo or a mutual accommodation of self-need. Alternatively, the context of the Covenant Code or wisdom lists exists within a worldview of transcendence where the Israelites kept the law in relationship with a transcendent “Other” that needed nothing in return. The genre of the Covenant Code as wisdom lists provides the launching pad to apply the comparative methodology to the two critical distinctions between the ancient Near Eastern law codes and the biblical law codes identified above: the covenant and holiness. First, regarding the covenant, William Barrick notes that biblical covenants are found within the context of ancient treaties, such as the Hittite treaties, that delineate and preserve the relationship between the suzerain and the vassal, a relationship dynamic prevalent in the ancient Near East between a king and his conquered subjects.[\[140\]](#_ftn140) Within the biblical covenant, Yahweh represents the suzerain king and the Israelites represent the vassals. Importantly, Walton explains that Israel, the vassal, is to demonstrate Yahweh’s power; thus, Israel’s condition reflects Yahweh’s holy reputation or holiness, who graciously offers His love to Israel by “extending His identity to them.”[\[141\]](#_ftn141) God proclaims in Exodus 6:7 that He is Israel’s God and the Israelites are His people, which seals the identity of the Israelites. Accordingly, Walton explains that the Covenant Code is not about following rules, and the failure to follow rules is not about penalizing sin, but instead, failure is about violating the covenant, which is supposed to preserve “the sanctity of sacred space as Yahweh’s people reflect the holy status given to them as partners and vassals in a covenant with Him.”[\[142\]](#_ftn142) At this point, the application of the comparative methodology crystalizes. Although the structure of the treaties and the related legal content of the ancient Near East appear to parallel the Covenant Code, by applying a cognitive contextual methodology, the meaning of the two corpuses are unmistakably different. First, the covenant that underpins the biblical law code emphasizes a high view of humanity where, unlike the ancient Near Eastern context, the Israelites participate within a relationship with the one and only transcendent God.[\[143\]](#_ftn143) Second, within the covenantal relationship, the Israelites can freely decide to obey the Covenant Code. Alternatively, the ancient Near Eastern worldview assumes, according to Oswalt, that choice is an illusion and hard determinism the standard within a worldview of panentheistic continuity.[\[144\]](#_ftn144) Third, within the covenantal relationship, the transcendent Yahweh, unlike the fickle ancient Near Eastern gods, is absolutely consistent and reliable. Fourth, in the transcendent worldview of the Israelites, the first principle is Spirit, not, as in the ancient Near Eastern view, matter.[\[145\]](#_ftn145) The relevance of the first principle becomes especially noteworthy within the context of conferred co-identification that results in a holy people. If holiness is not a behavioral or physical attribute, then holiness must be a conferred reality by the invisible Spirit of an almighty transcendent God whose spiritual presence resides among His people. Alternatively, the ancient Near Eastern view of continuity contends that reality is an enmeshment of the human and the divine. Fifth, Israel, as Yahweh’s holy people, is called to behave in a holy manner, which reflects Yahweh’s holiness, within a covenantal relationship. Accordingly, Oswalt explains that the biblical worldview calls for a standard of ethical obedience or holiness as a result of the conferred holiness, whereas the ancient Near Eastern view has no single standard of ethics.[\[146\]](#_ftn146) ### The Study The relevance of ancient Near Eastern background material fused with the distinctive ancient Israelite worldview has shown to be quite valuable in uncovering the core meaning of the Covenant Code. Accordingly, the following analysis briefly discusses a plan to incorporate ancient background material into a Bible study setting that is understandable to learners. In light of the identified genre of the Covenant Code, juridical wisdom literature, the approach to integrating background material into teaching incorporates a methodology that Gane calls “progressive moral wisdom.”[\[147\]](#_ftn147) The methodology first analyzes the function of the law itself, which reveals its representative value, and then the process expands to analyze the law within the Old Testament, the context of ancient life, the process of redemption, and finally, in regards to modern life.[\[148\]](#_ftn148) The verse used to deploy the plan of study is Exodus 23:4, which states, “If you meet your enemy’s ox or his donkey going astray, you shall bring it back to him.” First, regarding the function of the specific law identified, the underlying element addresses an inimical relationship between two parties, which ultimately leads to a profound test of character. At the start, Exodus 23:4 reveals a distinction from ancient Near Eastern legal codes as noted above, the biblical law deals with the attitudes of individuals. Specifically, if an enemy’s donkey goes astray and the escaped animal is seen, the individual may simply ignore the problem and nobody would know the difference, except an omniscient God. However, God holds individuals’ attitudes accountable. Accordingly, the law attempts to restrain the animosity between two enemies. Second, within the immediate context, Exodus 23:4 exists within a series of laws about justice and, within the broader context of the Pentateuch, the verse reflects similar content written in Deuteronomy 22:1-3. However, the most important aspect of context is the values presented. Certainly, in light of the personal property at stake, the Decalogue comes to mind, “You shall not steal” (Exod 20:15). However, underpinning the entire verse is the law of love with respect to valuing the life of animals, valuing human life even when contentious, and valuing relational living. The high value placed on relationships and human life is a biblical distinctive. Alternatively, the ancient Near Eastern legal codes are built upon a worldview of panentheistic determinism where human choice is an illusion and personal responsibility is rejected. Third, analyzing Exodus 23:4 within the context of the ancient Near Eastern law codes provides additional nuance to the study and understanding of the verse. For example, §71 of the Hittite Laws addresses a similar situation of an escaped stray ox.[\[149\]](#_ftn149) The individual who found the ox is allowed to use the animal while under his care as long as he notifies the elders, otherwise he is treated as a thief. Although similar content does exist, the nuanced meaning of Exodus 23:4 emerges by highlighting its distinctiveness. Gane points out that the ancient Near Eastern legal codes do not hold individuals accountable for the possibility of ignoring the situation, an act invisible to all but an omniscient God, and by contrast, the biblical account moves beyond neglect to the radical extension of love toward an enemy.[\[150\]](#_ftn150) A love based on the holiness of Yahweh is reflected in His co-identified holy people, the Israelites, a concept completely foreign to the ancient Near Eastern perspective. Fourth, the Covenant Code moves beyond the ancient Near Eastern attempt to control chaos and into the sphere of redemptive restoration. The inherent purpose of the command in Exodus 23:4 is to restore a broken relationship between two human beings. Significantly, no reward or penalty is identified within the command. Instead, according to Gane, the motivation was to follow the command not only because it was the right thing to do, but also because it was the wise thing to do.[\[151\]](#_ftn151) First, obeying the command is right because, as His vassals, following the command reflects the holiness of God who loves and values human life and relationships. Alternatively, the ancient Near Eastern motivation to follow the laws is to meet the needs of the gods so, in turn, their needs would be met, a perspective built upon the cognitive foundation of quid pro quo. Additionally, obeying the command is wise because even if extending love to an enemy immediately appears to backfire, the ultimate result may be to “heap burning coals on his head” (Prov 25:22). In other words, extending love to an enemy often provides an opportunity for the adversary to reconsider his responses in light of the powerful force of unconditional love. Said another way, according to Gane, “the biblical way to destroy your enemy is to turn him into a friend!”[\[152\]](#_ftn152) Fifth, at this point, the modern application is obvious. Many modern situations arise where a person attempts to extend harm. The harm may arise in the form of a co-worker, peer, friend, relative, or even spouse; thus, an enemy materializes. The natural tendency is to attempt to follow the rule. In this case, love an enemy. However, holiness is not about following rules. Holiness is a gift from God who has co-identified with His people. Accordingly, God’s people *are* holy. When believer’s live in that holy reality, they can loosen their grip on needing to find their value in what others think, how they are treated, or how they perform because their holy status has already been conferred by God. Accordingly, with nothing to prove, they no longer need to fight to be valued, fight to be right, or fight for their rights. A holy people can, in the most hostile environments, reflect the most holy behavior of all: love. ### Cognitive Environment Criticism Conclusion Far removed from spending the afternoon on the lookout for escaped donkeys, the modern biblical interpreter finds rich meaning within the Covenant Code. When properly viewed in light of the relevant cognitive context, obscure rule following falls by the wayside of the ancient dirt roads. Furthermore, the cultural context and iconographic imagery provide a necessary framework to view the ancient world of Exodus. Moreover, unlike the ancient Near Eastern legal codes, the underlying wisdom of the Covenant Code rejects quid pro quo, assumes a high view of humanity, denies determinism, engages a consistent and reliable God, receives a conferred holiness from the first principle, and behaves ethically as a reflection of Yahweh’s holiness. Although similarities exist between the ancient Near Eastern law codes and the biblical account, when a cognitive contextual methodology is deployed within the discipline of cognitive environment criticism, it becomes apparent that the Covenant Code is built upon the unique biblical worldview of transcendence. Personally, using the model of progressive moral wisdom within the distinctive cognitive environment of the Israelites provides both insight into modern application and a method for an intensely vibrant study of the biblical legal material. ## **Conclusion** The discipline of cognitive environment criticism engages the broader context of ancient Near Eastern society to enhance the interpreter’s understanding of the Old Testament. Specifically, a comparative methodology using the cognitive contextual framework of transcendence was used throughout the research to understand the relationship between the ancient Near Eastern content and the biblical account. Furthermore, an overview of the ancient Near Eastern archaeological and geographical data relevant to the book of Exodus enhanced the understanding and historicity of the text. Next, a literary analysis comparing and contrasting the ancient Near Eastern literature with the biblical account continued to illuminate an understanding of the book of Exodus. Specifically, the parallel stories of Moses as an infant, young adult, and mature leader, provided the biblical backdrop to engage the culture represented by the ancient Near Eastern literature. Finally, the utilization of the cognitive contextual framework of transcendence was applied directly to a portion of Exodus. The Covenant Code in Exodus 20:23-23:19 not only highlighted the concepts of covenant and holiness, but it also offered the opportunity to apply the contextual framework to a specific pericope, which provides a structural pattern for future applications. Without question, deploying cognitive environment criticism to the book of Exodus by adopting a logical comparative methodology, engaging relevant archaeology and geography, exploring comparative literature, and applying the methodology to the Covenant Code allows for an enhanced understanding of Yahweh, the ancient Israelites, and the content of Scripture. Personally, the research has provided several significant benefits. First and foremost, the angst that I had regarding the parallels between the Bible and the ancient Near Eastern literature is eliminated. Second, not only has my faith expanded, but many doubts have been removed. Also, my understanding of the cognitive environment of the Israelites and its relationship to ancient Near Eastern society has been greatly enhanced. Third, I believe that my capacity as a teacher of the Old Testament has been enlarged with a heightened awareness of the ancient Near Eastern context. Finally, I believe my New Testament understanding has also expanded with the investigation of Yahweh’s co-identification with His people. The topic is important for future study, especially in relationship to Christ’s co-identification with believers who have died and been resurrected in Christ. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) John H. Walton, *Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006), 25–26. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Angel Manuel Rodriguez, “Ancient Near Eastern Parallels to the Bible and the Question of Revelation and Inspiration,” *Journal of the Adventist Theological Society* 12, no. 1 (2001): 43–48. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) See Jeffrey J. Niehaus, *Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology* (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic & Professional, 2008). Rodríguez’s institutional parallels provide the building blocks for the holistic approach of Niehaus, which proposes shared structures between Scripture and the Ancient Near Eastern texts. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Walton, *Ancient Near Eastern Thought*, 18. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000), 7. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Walton, *Ancient Near Eastern Thought*, 22–25. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 22. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Roberto Ouro, “Similarities and Differences between the Old Testament and the Ancient Near Eastern Texts,” *Andrews University Seminary Studies* 49, no. 1 (2011): 7. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) S. Talmon, “The ‘Comparative Method’ in Biblical Interpretation: Principles and Problems,” in *Volume Du Congres*, ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn (Leiden: Brill, 1978), 324–328, 342, 356. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) John H. Walton, “Cultural Background of the Old Testament,” in *Foundations for Biblical Interpretation*, ed. D. Dockery, K. Mathews, and R. Sloan (Nashville: Broadman/Holman, 1994), 256. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Samuel Sandmel, “Parallelomania,” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 81, no. 1 (March 1962): 1. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Noel Weeks, “Problems with the Comparative Method in Old Testament Studies,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 62, no. 2 (June 1, 2019): 306. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) John H. Walton, “Interactions in the Ancient Cognitive Environment,” in *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 333–335. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Niehaus, *Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology*, 30. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Sandmel, “Parallelomania,” 2. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) John N. Oswalt, *The Bible Among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature?* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2009), 185–194. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) John D. Currid, *Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2013), 22. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 37. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 37. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Ouro, “Similarities and Differences,” 13. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Ibid. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Oswalt, *The Bible among the Myths*, 101. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 39. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Ibid., 46. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Ouro, “Similarities and Differences,” 16. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Ibid. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 40. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Hershel Shanks, “The Exodus and the Crossing of the Red Sea, According to Hans Goedicke,” *Biblical Archaeology Review*, 1981, 43–46. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Ibid. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Ibid., 42–50. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) James K. Hoffmeier, “Out of Egypt,” *Biblical Archaeology Review*, 2007, 33–37. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Ibid. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Ibid. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Robert Littman, Marta Lorenzon, and Jay Silverstein, “With & Without Straw: How Israelite Slaves Made Bricks,” *Biblical Archaeology Review*, 2014, 60–63. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) J. Randall Price and H. Wayne House, *Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology: A Book by Book Guide to Archaeological Discoveries Related to the Bible* (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Academic, 2017), 85. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Ibid. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) G K. Beale, “An Exegetical and Theological Consideration of the Hardening of Pharaoh’s Heart in Exodus 4-14 and Romans 9,” *Trinity Journal* 5, no. 2 (1984): 149. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Alan R. Millard, “Tutankhamun, The Tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant,” *Bible and Spade* 7, no. 2 (1994): 50. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) Price and House, *Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology*, 92–93. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Elie Borowski, “Cherubim: God’s Throne?” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 21, no. 4 (July 1995): 36–41. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Price and House, *Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology*, 82. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Victor H. Matthews and Don C. Benjamin, *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East* (New York: Paulist Press, 2016), 100. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Titus M. Kennedy, *Unearthing the Bible: 101 Archaeological Discoveries That Bring the Bible to Life* (Eugene: Harvest House Publishers, 2020), 47–48. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) John A. Harmon, “Archaeology of Egypt,” in *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*, ed. John D. Barry et al. (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016). [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) Ralph K Hawkins, “Propositions for Evangelical Acceptance of a Late-Date Exodus-Conquest: Biblical Data and the Royal Scarabs from Mt Ebal,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 50, no. 1 (March 2007): 36. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48) Ibid., 39–45. [\[49\]](#_ftnref49) Ibid., 46. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50) Price and House, *Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology*, 87. [\[51\]](#_ftnref51) Ibid. [\[52\]](#_ftnref52) Kennedy, *Unearthing the Bible*, 53–54. [\[53\]](#_ftnref53) Price and House, *Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology*, 89. [\[54\]](#_ftnref54) Kennedy, *Unearthing the Bible*, 58–59. [\[55\]](#_ftnref55) Ibid. [\[56\]](#_ftnref56) Thomas V. Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas: A Complete Guide to the Expansive Geography of Biblical History* (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1998), 68. [\[57\]](#_ftnref57) Carl G. Rasmussen, *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2010), 103. [\[58\]](#_ftnref58) James K. Hoffmeier, *Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition* (New York: Oxford, 1996), 179-182. [\[59\]](#_ftnref59) Rasmussen, *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible*, 103–104. [\[60\]](#_ftnref60) Hoffmeier, *Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition*, 183. [\[61\]](#_ftnref61) Rasmussen, *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible*, 104. [\[62\]](#_ftnref62) Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas*, 65. [\[63\]](#_ftnref63) Ibid., 68. [\[64\]](#_ftnref64) Hoffmeier, *Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition*, 184. [\[65\]](#_ftnref65) Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas*, 65. [\[66\]](#_ftnref66) Ibid., 66, 68. [\[67\]](#_ftnref67) Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas*, 67. [\[68\]](#_ftnref68) James Bennett Pritchard, *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*, 3rd ed. with Supplement. (Princeton: Princeton University, 1969). [\[69\]](#_ftnref69) Brad C. Sparks, “Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus: Discussions of Exodus Parallels in the Egyptology Literature,” in *Israel’s Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience*, ed. Thomas E. Levy, Thomas Schneider, and William H. C. Propp (New York: Springer, 2015). [\[70\]](#_ftnref70) Ibid., 259. [\[71\]](#_ftnref71) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 76. [\[72\]](#_ftnref72) Pritchard, *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*, 119. [\[73\]](#_ftnref73) Ibid. [\[74\]](#_ftnref74) Donald B. Redford, “The Literary Motif of the Exposed Child,” *Numen* 14, no. 3 (1967): 225. [\[75\]](#_ftnref75) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 80. [\[76\]](#_ftnref76) Redford, “The Literary Motif of the Exposed Child,” 220. [\[77\]](#_ftnref77) Matthews and Benjamin, *Old Testament Parallels*, 141. [\[78\]](#_ftnref78) Sparks, “Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus: Discussions of Exodus Parallels in the Egyptology Literature,” 266. [\[79\]](#_ftnref79) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 93–94. [\[80\]](#_ftnref80) Ibid., 100. [\[81\]](#_ftnref81) Ibid. [\[82\]](#_ftnref82) Sparks, “Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus: Discussions of Exodus Parallels in the Egyptology Literature,” 267. [\[83\]](#_ftnref83) Sparks, “Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus: Discussions of Exodus Parallels in the Egyptology Literature,” 267. [\[84\]](#_ftnref84) Mark S. Smith and Simon B. Parker, *Ugaritic Narrative Poetry*, vol. 9, Writings from the Ancient World (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 156. [\[85\]](#_ftnref85) Thomas B Dozeman, “Moses: Divine Servant and Israelite Hero,” *Hebrew Annual Review* 8 (1984): 57. [\[86\]](#_ftnref86) Ibid. [\[87\]](#_ftnref87) Roy E. Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017), 45–46. [\[88\]](#_ftnref88) William D Barrick, “The Mosaic Covenant,” *The Master’s Seminary Journal* 10, no. 2 (1999): 221. [\[89\]](#_ftnref89) Cleon L Jr Rogers, “The Covenant with Moses and Its Historical Setting,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 14, no. 3 (1971): 147–148. [\[90\]](#_ftnref90) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 46. [\[91\]](#_ftnref91) Ibid. [\[92\]](#_ftnref92) Miriam Lichtheim, *Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms*, vol. 1 (Berkeley: University of California, 1973), 215. [\[93\]](#_ftnref93) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 125. [\[94\]](#_ftnref94) Lichtheim, *Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms*, 1:217. [\[95\]](#_ftnref95) Ibid. [\[96\]](#_ftnref96) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 126. [\[97\]](#_ftnref97) Joel Hamme, Bryan C. Babcock, and Justin David Strong, “Code of Hammurabi,” in *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*, ed. John D. Barry (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016). [\[98\]](#_ftnref98) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 126. [\[99\]](#_ftnref99) Pritchard, *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*, 175. [\[100\]](#_ftnref100) Joel M. LeMon, “Egypt and the Egyptians,” in *The World around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East*, ed. Bill T. Arnold and Brent A. Strawn (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2019), 172–178. [\[101\]](#_ftnref101) Ibid. [\[102\]](#_ftnref102) Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas*, 57. [\[103\]](#_ftnref103) Ibid., 59. [\[104\]](#_ftnref104) Ibid. [\[105\]](#_ftnref105) LeMon, “Egypt and the Egyptians,” 178–181. [\[106\]](#_ftnref106) Ibid. [\[107\]](#_ftnref107) Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas*, 59. [\[108\]](#_ftnref108) Daniel Bodi, “Mesopotamian and Anatolian Iconography,” in *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 165. [\[109\]](#_ftnref109) Leland Ryken, James C. Wilhoit, and Tremper Longman III, eds., *Dictionary of Biblical Imagery* (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1998), 1, 20. [\[110\]](#_ftnref110) Brent A. Strawn, “‘With a Strong Hand and an Outstretched Arm’: On the Meaning(s) of the Exodus Tradition(s),” in *Iconographic Exegesis of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament: An Introduction to Its Theory, Method, and Practice*, ed. Isaak J. De Hulster, Brent A. Strawn, and Ryan P. Bonfiglio (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015), 106. [\[111\]](#_ftnref111) Ibid., 107. [\[112\]](#_ftnref112) Ibid. [\[113\]](#_ftnref113) LeMon, “Egypt and the Egyptians,” 176–177. [\[114\]](#_ftnref114) Strawn, “‘With a Strong Hand and an Outstretched Arm’: On the Meaning(s) of the Exodus Tradition(s),” 109. [\[115\]](#_ftnref115) Ibid., 109–112. [\[116\]](#_ftnref116) Pamela Barmash, “Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Law,” *Religion Compass* 12, no. 5–6 (May 2018): 3. [\[117\]](#_ftnref117) Ibid. [\[118\]](#_ftnref118) David P. Wright, *Inventing God’s Law: How the Covenant Code of the Bible Used and Revised the Laws of Hammurabi* (Oxford: Oxford University, 2009), 3–4. [\[119\]](#_ftnref119) John H Walton, “Understanding Torah: Ancient Legal Text, Covenant Stipulation, and Christian Scripture,” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 29, no. 1 (2019): 2–4. [\[120\]](#_ftnref120) Bruce Wells, “What Is Biblical Law?: A Look at Pentateuchal Rules and Near Eastern Practice,” *The Catholic Biblical Quarterly* 70, no. 2 (April 2008): 233. [\[121\]](#_ftnref121) Ibid., 236. [\[122\]](#_ftnref122) Ibid., 238–241. [\[123\]](#_ftnref123) Hamme, Babcock, and Strong, “Code of Hammurabi.” [\[124\]](#_ftnref124) Shalom Paul, *Studies in the Book of the Covenant in the Light of Cuneiform and Biblical Law* (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2005), 43. [\[125\]](#_ftnref125) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 130. [\[126\]](#_ftnref126) See the Hittite Telipinu Edict §49, the Laws of Eshnunna §47A, and the Laws of Hammurabi §198. [\[127\]](#_ftnref127) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 130–131. [\[128\]](#_ftnref128) Ibid., 131. [\[129\]](#_ftnref129) Ibid., 132. [\[130\]](#_ftnref130) John H. Walton and J. Harvey Walton, *The Lost World of the Torah: Law as Covenant and Wisdom in Ancient Context* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2019), 90–91. [\[131\]](#_ftnref131) Ibid., 91–92. [\[132\]](#_ftnref132) Ibid., 92. [\[133\]](#_ftnref133) Walton and Walton, *The Lost World of the Torah*, 92. [\[134\]](#_ftnref134) Walton, “Interactions in the Ancient Cognitive Environment,” 333–335. [\[135\]](#_ftnref135) Wells, “What Is Biblical Law?,” 226–228. [\[136\]](#_ftnref136) Ibid., 228–230. [\[137\]](#_ftnref137) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 23, 79–80. [\[138\]](#_ftnref138) Walton, “Understanding Torah,” 5–7. See the fusion of Torah and wisdom through the exploration of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Ben Sira, and Tobit in John J. Collins, “Torah as Narrative and Wisdom,” in *The Invention of Judaism*, 1st ed., Torah and Jewish Identity from Deuteronomy to Paul (Oakland: University of California Press, 2017), 80–96. See also the Torah viewed as wisdom in Deuteronomy in John J. Collins, “Wisdom and Torah,” in *Pedagogy in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity*, ed. Karina Martin Hogan, Matthew Goff, and Emma Wasserman (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2017), 59–80. [\[139\]](#_ftnref139) Oswalt, *The Bible among the Myths*, 59–60. [\[140\]](#_ftnref140) Barrick, “The Mosaic Covenant,” 215. [\[141\]](#_ftnref141) Walton, “Understanding Torah,” 10–11. [\[142\]](#_ftnref142) Walton, “Understanding Torah,” 11–12. [\[143\]](#_ftnref143) Oswalt, *The Bible among the Myths*, 69–70. [\[144\]](#_ftnref144) Ibid., 60. [\[145\]](#_ftnref145) Ibid., 66–67. [\[146\]](#_ftnref146) Oswalt, *The Bible among the Myths*, 60–61. [\[147\]](#_ftnref147) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 197. [\[148\]](#_ftnref148) Ibid., 201. [\[149\]](#_ftnref149) See also a similar ancient Near Eastern parallel in §50 of the Laws of Eshnunna. [\[150\]](#_ftnref150) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 229. [\[151\]](#_ftnref151) Ibid., 230. [\[152\]](#_ftnref152) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 231. # Bibliography - Barmash, Pamela. “Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Law.” *Religion Compass* 12, no. 5–6 (May 2018): 1–9. - Barrick, William D. “The Mosaic Covenant.” *The Master’s Seminary Journal* 10, no. 2 (1999): 213–232. - Beale, G K. “An Exegetical and Theological Consideration of the Hardening of Pharaoh’s Heart in Exodus 4-14 and Romans 9.” *Trinity Journal* 5, no. 2 (1984): 129–154. - Bodi, Daniel. “Mesopotamian and Anatolian Iconography.” In *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, edited by Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018. - Borowski, Elie. “Cherubim: God’s Throne?” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 21, no. 4 (July 1995): 36–41. - Brisco, Thomas V. *Holman Bible Atlas: A Complete Guide to the Expansive Geography of Biblical History*. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1998. - Collins, John J. “Torah as Narrative and Wisdom.” In *The Invention of Judaism*, 80–96. 1st ed. Torah and Jewish Identity from Deuteronomy to Paul. Oakland: University of California Press, 2017. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Wisdom and Torah.” In *Pedagogy in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity*, edited by Karina Martin Hogan, Matthew Goff, and Emma Wasserman, 59–80. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2017. - Currid, John D. *Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament*. Wheaton: Crossway, 2013. - Dozeman, Thomas B. “Moses: Divine Servant and Israelite Hero.” *Hebrew Annual Review* 8 (1984): 45–61. - Gane, Roy E. *Old Testament Law for Christians*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017. - Hamme, Joel, Bryan C. Babcock, and Justin David Strong. “Code of Hammurabi.” In *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*, edited by John D. Barry. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016. - Harmon, John A. “Archaeology of Egypt.” In *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*, edited by John D. Barry, David Bomer, Derek R. Brown, Rachel Klippenstein, Mangum Douglas, Carrie Sinclair Wolcott, Lazarus Wentz, Elliot Ritzema, and Wendy Widder. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016. - Hawkins, Ralph K. “Propositions for Evangelical Acceptance of a Late-Date Exodus-Conquest: Biblical Data and the Royal Scarabs from Mt Ebal.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 50, no. 1 (March 2007): 31–46. - Hoffmeier, James K. *Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition*. New York: Oxford, 1996. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Out of Egypt.” *Biblical Archaeology Review*, 2007. - Kennedy, Titus M. *Unearthing the Bible: 101 Archaeological Discoveries That Bring the Bible to Life*. Eugene: Harvest House Publishers, 2020. - LeMon, Joel M. “Egypt and the Egyptians.” In *The World around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East*, edited by Bill T. Arnold and Brent A. Strawn. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2019. - Lichtheim, Miriam. *Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms*. Vol. 1. Berkeley: University of California, 1973. - Littman, Robert, Marta Lorenzon, and Jay Silverstein. “With & Without Straw: How Israelite Slaves Made Bricks.” *Biblical Archaeology Review*, 2014. - Matthews, Victor H., and Don C. Benjamin. *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East*. New York: Paulist Press, 2016. - Millard, Alan R. “Tutankhamun, The Tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant.” *Bible and Spade* 7, no. 2 (1994): 49–51. - Niehaus, Jeffrey J. *Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology*. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic & Professional, 2008. - Oswalt, John N. *The Bible Among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature?* Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2009. - Ouro, Roberto. “Similarities and Differences between the Old Testament and the Ancient Near Eastern Texts.” *Andrews University Seminary Studies* 49, no. 1 (2011): 5–32. - Paul, Shalom. *Studies in the Book of the Covenant in the Light of Cuneiform and Biblical Law*. Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2005. - Price, J. Randall, and H. Wayne House. *Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology: A Book by Book Guide to Archaeological Discoveries Related to the Bible*. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Academic, 2017. - Pritchard, James Bennett. *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*. 3rd ed. with Supplement. Princeton: Princeton University, 1969. - Rasmussen, Carl G. *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2010. - Redford, Donald B. “The Literary Motif of the Exposed Child.” *Numen* 14, no. 3 (1967): 209–228. - Rodriguez, Angel Manuel. “Ancient Near Eastern Parallels to the Bible and the Question of Revelation and Inspiration.” *Journal of the Adventist Theological Society* 12, no. 1 (2001): 43–64. - Rogers, Cleon L Jr. “The Covenant with Moses and Its Historical Setting.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 14, no. 3 (1971): 141–155. - Ryken, Leland, James C. Wilhoit, and Tremper Longman III, eds. *Dictionary of Biblical Imagery*. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1998. - Sandmel, Samuel. “Parallelomania.” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 81, no. 1 (March 1962): 1–13. - Shanks, Hershel. “The Exodus and the Crossing of the Red Sea, According to Hans Goedicke.” *Biblical Archaeology Review*, 1981. - Smith, Mark S., and Simon B. Parker. *Ugaritic Narrative Poetry*. Vol. 9. Writings from the Ancient World. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997. - Sparks, Brad C. “Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus: Discussions of Exodus Parallels in the Egyptology Literature.” In *Israel’s Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience*, edited by Thomas E. Levy, Thomas Schneider, and William H. C. Propp. New York: Springer, 2015. - Strawn, Brent A. “‘With a Strong Hand and an Outstretched Arm’: On the Meaning(s) of the Exodus Tradition(s).” In *Iconographic Exegesis of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament: An Introduction to Its Theory, Method, and Practice*, edited by Isaak J. De Hulster, Brent A. Strawn, and Ryan P. Bonfiglio. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015. - Talmon, S. “The ‘Comparative Method’ in Biblical Interpretation: Principles and Problems.” In *Volume Du Congres*, edited by Frederick E. Greenspahn, 320–356. Leiden: Brill, 1978. - Walton, John H. *Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Cultural Background of the Old Testament.” In *Foundations for Biblical Interpretation*, edited by D. Dockery, K. Mathews, and R. Sloan, 256. Nashville: Broadman/Holman, 1994. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Interactions in the Ancient Cognitive Environment.” In *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, edited by Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Understanding Torah: Ancient Legal Text, Covenant Stipulation, and Christian Scripture.” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 29, no. 1 (2019): 1–18. - Walton, John H., Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas. *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000. - Walton, John H., and J. Harvey Walton. *The Lost World of the Torah: Law as Covenant and Wisdom in Ancient Context*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2019. - Weeks, Noel. “Problems with the Comparative Method in Old Testament Studies.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 62, no. 2 (June 1, 2019): 287. - Wells, Bruce. “What Is Biblical Law?: A Look at Pentateuchal Rules and Near Eastern Practice.” *The Catholic Biblical Quarterly* 70, no. 2 (April 2008): 223–243. - Wright, David P. *Inventing God’s Law: How the Covenant Code of the Bible Used and Revised the Laws of Hammurabi*. Oxford: Oxford University, 2009. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Jewish Sects](https://www.livestransforming.com/jewish-sects/) **Published:** December 6, 2010 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Jewish Sects [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 23 1 182x300 - Jewish Sects](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-23-1-182x300.png "Jewish Sects - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/426DD0T)The New Testament: Its Background and Message ***How do the beliefs of the Jewish Sects of the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes compare? Are there parts of these groups’ beliefs that can be agreed with? Why? Which party controlled the Temple and was apparently on better terms with the Romans.*** Pharisees were one of the most influential Jewish sects during the time of Christ with a strong zeal for strict obedience to the Torah (Ryrie, 1995, 1516). Oral tradition, documented as the Mishnah, became commensurate to a second law to rigidly observe (Lea, 2003). Josephus (Jewish War) explains, “They say that all souls are imperishable, but that the souls of good men only pass into other bodies while the souls of evil men are subject to eternal punishment” (as cited in Segal, 2003, 167). The Pharisees also believed in immortal power with future rewards and punishments depending on the righteousness or malevolence during life (Segal, 2003). Finally, as supernaturalists they believed angels and spirits existed (Lea, 2003). The Sadducees believed in the Torah and its supremacy over the Writings and the Prophets of [the Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/) and, in contrast to the Pharisees, were anti-supernaturalists (Lea, 2003). Sadducees diverged from pharisaic beliefs by denying the existence of angels and spirits as well as future punishment and rewards (Ryrie, 1995). The resurrection was a strong pharisaic tradition; however, the Sadducees denied its reality (Tomson, 2001). Though Sadducees believed in the Torah, they gravitated toward Hellenistic lifestyles and limited the Torah’s authority to areas specifically covered; conversely, the pharisaic notion was to broaden the Torah’s reach by continuously augmenting the application of the law (Segal, 2003). The Sadducees were a priestly party in close proximity to political power, while the Pharisees were patriotic allies of the people (Driscoll, 1912). According to Josephus (Jewish War), the abstemious Essenes were considered “stricter than all other Jews” (as cited in Cohen, 2007, 133). They were a small restrained group congregated in communal life, dedicated to asceticism and the abstinence of worldly pleasures including marriage (Lea, 2003). Cohen (2007) explains that a key difference between Essenes and other Jewish sects was the role intentionality played in the application of the law. For Essenes legal prohibition is absolute, but intentionality plays a central role to a mishnaic sage’s interpretation of the law (Cohen, 2007). It is difficult not to agree with the supernaturalistic pharisaic beliefs including angels, eternal immortality, and bodily resurrection. In fact, Jesus commends the Pharisees saying, “The scribes and Pharisees have seated themselves in the chair of Moses” (Matthew 23:2, New American Standard \[NAS\]). Further, I naturally agree with the intentionality of the adherence to the law by the Pharisees, and personally desire to do all the Pharisees tell me to do and observe, absent of hypocrisy (Matthew 23:3, NAS). However, I recognize the futility of such an assertion. To agree with certain pharisaic beliefs necessitates an intellectual and ideological clash with the Sadducees. Anti-supernaturalistic beliefs in spirit life and immortality contradict basic Christian principles (Romans 8:16 NAS, John 3:16 NAS). And a rejection of a bodily resurrection proves Christian faith is vain (I Corinthians 15:13-14, NAS). Finally, the extreme arrogance of the Essenes to humanly acquire righteousness appears to be an affront to the basic precepts of Christianity (Romans 3:21-22, NAS). Huie (1997) recognizes that even as early as the Maccabean period there is evidence Pharisees were the party in control of the Temple. And although the, “Sadducees were the party of those with political power, those allied with the Herodian and Roman rulers,” the Pharisees were the group who extended significant influence among the common people (Huie, 1997). **References** Carson, D.A., & Moo, D. J. (2005). An Introduction to the New Testament (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Cohen, S. J. D. (2007). The Judaean Legal Tradition and the Halakhah of the Mishnah: The Cambridge Companion to the Talmud and Rabbinic Literature (Charlotte Elisheva Fonrobert and Martin S. Jaffee eds.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Collections Online, Cambridge University Press.14 February 2010, DOI:10.1017/CCOL0521843901.007 Driscoll, J.F. (1912). Sadducees. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved February 15, 2010 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13323a.htm Huie, B. T. (1997). Who were the Pharisees and the Sadducees? Retrieved February 14, 2010 from http://www. herealittletherealittle.net/index.cfm?page\_name =Pharisees-Sadducees Lea, T. D. (2003). The New Testament its Background and Message (2nd ed.). Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. Ryrie, Charles Caldwell. (1995). Ryrie Study Bible (Expanded ed.). Chicago, IL: Moody Press. Segal, A. F. (2003). Paul’s Jewish Presuppositions: The Cambridge Companion to St Paul (James D. G. Dunn eds.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Collections Online, Cambridge University Press.14 February 2010, DOI:10.1017/CCOL0521781558.012 Tomson, P. J. (2001). Jesus and his Judaism: The Cambridge Companion to Jesus (Markus Bockmuehl eds.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Collections Online, Cambridge University Press.14 February 2010, DOI:10.1017/CCOL0521792614.003 **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Comparing the Gospels](https://www.livestransforming.com/comparing-the-gospels/) **Published:** December 11, 2010 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Comparing the Gospels [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 23 1 182x300 - Comparing the Gospels](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-23-1-182x300.png "Comparing the Gospels - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/426DD0T)The New Testament: Its Background and Message ***Have you ever spent time comparing the Gospels. This article summarizes the differences and similarities between the beginnings of each Gospel. Explains what these differences tell us about the emphasis of the authors in each Gospel and describes the details of Jesus’ birth and childhood. It also offers a contrast between the accounts of Matthew and Luke. How are they similar and how are they different? Which one describes visions of angels as the way God warns Joseph and Mary? Which utilizes dreams? Finally, it evaluates the genealogies in Matthew and Luke. Can they be harmonized? Why or why not?*** The historical, religious, and cultural introduction by Luke sharply contrasts with the Gospel of Mark which immediately pairs Jesus alongside John the Baptist in the desert (Squires, 2006, 162). John diverges from the Synoptic Gospels by providing a preview of the central themes including the Word, the Light, and the world (Lea, 2003, 172). Matthew’s story immediately focuses on the Messiah’s lineage and moves directly into a creative delivery of place names emphasizing Old Testament prophecies (Barton, 2007, 124). Unlike Mark and John, Mathew and Luke both detail the birth and childhood of Jesus as well as document Jesus’ genealogy (Lea, 2003, 171, 173-174). The conscientious historical focus of Luke emphasizes a message directed toward a Hellenistic population who advocated good history and its beneficial application (Squires, 2007, 160). John, however, emphasized an indiscriminate message of progression toward the light (Lea, 2003, 173). Matthew’s introduction supports Israel’s perspective of the Davidic Messiah and, like King David, shows Jesus as being from the tribe of Judah and the town of Bethlehem, emphasizing a message directed toward the Palestinian Jews (Barton, 2007, 124). Finally, Mark’s intentional exclusion of Jewish ancestry and history appears to support an emphasis of ministering in Rome (Lea, 2003, 122). According to Lea (2003), Bethlehem, the birthplace of Christ, was the home of Joseph and the Virgin Mary due to a government decree as recorded solely in Luke. Luke also reports that shepherds were directed by angels, and Matthew reveals that the Magi were directed by a miraculous star, both pointing to Bethlehem. In accordance with Jewish law, circumcision took place on the eighth day and a ceremonious offering was given on the fortieth day. Prompted by an angelic dream as recorded in Matthew, Joseph transported Jesus to Egypt for protection from Herod. Two additional dreams instructed Joseph to return to Israel and, finally, to Nazareth. Luke, alone, chronicles Jesus’ messianic consciousness exemplified by his involvement in temple discussions at age twelve (Lea, 2003, 177-179). The narration of Jesus’ birth, as emphasized by Lea (2003), is from the perspective of Joseph in the Gospel of Matthew, but from the perspective of Mary in Luke’s gospel. Accordingly, it is Luke who reports angelic conversations, including one between Gabriel and Mary conveying Elizabeth’s pregnancy (Lea, 2003, 175-176). Matthew’s story, however, is “told in such a way to recapitulate the story of Moses and the people of Israel” paralleling Herod’s threat toward Jesus with the threat toward an infant Moses and juxtaposing Moses as the deliverer of Israel with Jesus, the savior of Israel (Barton, 2007, 124). The genealogy in Matthew descends from Abraham to Jesus utilizing, “three sets of fourteen generations” including an adulteress and a harlot suggesting a “theme of grace” (Lea, 2003, 174-175). Luke’s lineage commences with Jesus and reaches back as far as Adam setting forth the story’s universal horizons (Squires, 2007, 163). Although Lea (2003) notes that ancestral references from Abraham to David are very similar, from David to Joseph the divergence in Matthew and Luke is significant. Three explanations are offered in an attempt to harmonize the genealogies (Lea, 2003, 173-174). First, it has been suggested that, “Matthew’s gospel provides the genealogy of Joseph,” and “Luke’s gospel provides the genealogy through Mary” (Lea, 2003, 174). Others suggest Matthew presents an ancestry through Jacob, Joseph’s actual father, and Luke presents an ancestry through Heli, Joseph’s legal father (Lea, 2003, 174). A final explanation is that, “Matthew named the legal descendents of David,” and Luke named the “descendants of David in that branch of the Davidic family to which Joseph, Mary’s husband, belonged” (Lea, 2003, 174). **References** Barton, S. C. (2006). The Gospel according to Matthew: The Cambridge Companion to The Gospels (Stephen C. Barton ed.). Oxford, England: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Collections Online, Cambridge University Press.18 February 2010, DOI:10.1017/CCOL0521807662.007 Carson, D.A., & Moo, D. J. (2005). An Introduction to the New Testament (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Lea, T. D., & David Alan Black. (2003). [The New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/) its Background and Message (2nd ed.). Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. Maas, A. (1909). Genealogy of Christ In the Catholic Encyclopedia. New York, NY: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06410a.htm Squires, J. T. (2006). The Gospel according to Luke: The Cambridge Companion to The Gospels (Stephen C. Barton ed.). Oxford, England: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Collections Online, Cambridge University Press.18 February 2010, DOI:10.1017/CCOL0521807662.009 **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Trial of Jesus](https://www.livestransforming.com/trial-of-jesus/) **Published:** December 12, 2010 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Trial of Jesus [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 23 1 182x300 - Trial of Jesus](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-23-1-182x300.png "Trial of Jesus - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/426DD0T)The New Testament: Its Background and Message ***Do you know the events that led to the Trial of Jesus that created conflict between Jesus and the Jewish and Roman authorities during Jesus’ last week. This article explains this as well as the Jewish and Roman phases of Jesus’ trial and which parts of this trial were contrary to Jewish law?*** Lea (2003) presents five specific conflicts with authorities commencing with inquiries regarding Jesus’ permission to cleanse the temple. Secondly, a group of Herodians, in collaboration with the Pharisees, plotted an unsuccessful trap by questioning Jesus in regards to payment of the annual poll tax. Later that day, the Sadducees attempted to trick Jesus by asking him whose wife a woman of seven husbands would be in the resurrection. A scribe was the next interrogator and asked for Jesus to identify the greatest commandment. Finally, Jesus posed a question to the Pharisees to illuminate the connection between the Lord of David and the Son of David. Subsequent to these conflicts Jesus denounces the scribes and Pharisees to the crowds and his disciples (Lea, 2003, 249-253). After Jesus’ arrest he encounters Annas, an Alexandrian Sadducee, who sends Jesus to his son-in-law, High Priest Caiaphas (Lea, 2003, 263). [The High Priest](https://www.livestransforming.com/high-priestly-prayer-of-jesus-john-17/) asks Jesus whether he is the Christ (Matthew, 26:63). According to Lea (2003), Caiaphas determines that Jesus’ response is blasphemous based on his lack of popularity rather than corroborated facts; accordingly, the Sanhedrin issued a death sentence (Lea, 2003, 264-265). Although “the Sanhedrin could condemn a man to death,” they required permission from the Roman government to execute the sentence (Ryrie, 1995, 1717). Furthermore, “Jewish execution was by stoning; the Roman method was crucifixion” (Ryrie, 1995, 1717). According to Old Testament prophecy, Jesus had to be crucified (Ryrie, 1995, 1717). Additionally, it was atypical for a Roman governor to issue a death sentence for blasphemy, so Jewish leaders fabricated an accusation based on unsubstantiated, contextually libelous comments, purporting Jesus as a political threat (Lea, 2003, 265). Jewish leaders communicated the contrived threat to the Roman prefect of Judea, Pontius Pilate, who had authority to determine cases of capital punishment (Ryrie, 1995, 1610). The timorous and capricious governor immediately sought a change of venue based on Jesus’ Galilean background and sent him to Herod Antipas (Lea, 2003, 266). Antipas’ derisive treatment of Jesus quickly landed him back in Pilate’s jurisdiction where the governor, fearful of Tiberius’ castigation, put political and personal aspirations above the justice of Jesus and, according to Lea (2003), “surrendered to his conscience” (Lea, 2003, 266; Ryrie, 1995, 1610). Historically, an objective view of Jewish law rendered it as an exceedingly humane and moderate justice system, which is ironic in light of its incongruity with the treatment of Jesus (Mendelsohn, 1891, 16). Under Jewish law, “Not only is self-condemnation never extorted from the defendant by means of torture, but no attempt is ever made to lead him to self-incrimination” (Mendelsohn, 1891, 133). Caiaphas, however, explicitly questioned Jesus regarding his deity in a blatant attempt to encourage Jesus to incriminate himself (Matthew 26:63). Furthermore, the high priest’s private examination could be considered illegal in light of the Jewish Law which states, “Be not a sole judge, for there is no sole judge, but One” (Richards, 1915, 24). Under Jewish Law two witnesses were required to establish a charge and “their testimony had to be in agreement (Ryrie, 1995, 1567). However, it is clear the witnesses charging Jesus did not convey consistent testimony (Mark 14:59). Although the formal decree of death was made after dawn, Jewish Law states, “Criminal cases can be acted upon by the various courts during the day time only” and it is probable that part of the trial occurred at night (Lea, 2003 265; Mendelsohn, 1891, 112; Richards, 1915, 23). Finally, it appears likely a portion of the trial occurred on the first day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread which suggests a contradiction with the Jewish Law that judgment is not permissible “on the Sabbath (festival)” (Richards, 1915, 27; Krauss, 1909, 40). References **References** Krauss, S., (1909). The Mishnah Treatise Sanhedrin No. XI. Leiden, NL: E. J. Brill. Lea, T. D., & David Alan Black. (2003). The New Testament its Background and Message (2nd ed.). Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. Mendelsohn, S., LL. D. (1891). The Criminal Jurisprudence of the Ancient Hebrews: Compiled from the Talmud and Other Rabbinical Writings, and Compared with Roman and English Penal Jurisprudence. Baltimore, MD: M. Curlander. Richards, Honorable J. E. (1915). The Illegality of the Trial of Jesus. New York, NY: Platt and Peck. Ryrie, Charles Caldwell (1995). Ryrie Study Bible (Expanded ed.). Chicago, IL: Moody Press. # 1 Comment 1. ![Blogging to the Bank 2.0](https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/3af33790dfcc17429475c69ea5918660f7bd28acfb6ed65aa2f7aed054c0adb9?s=80&d=mm&r=g) [Blogging to the Bank 2.0](http://bloggingtothebank-reviews.com/) on February 11, 2011 at 12:42 pm Hi, just needed you to know I have added your web site to my Google bookmarks due to your extraordinary blog layout. But seriously, I think your web site has a single from the freshest theme I’ve came across. It incredibly helps make reading your blog significantly easier. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [The Galatians](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-galatians/) **Published:** January 21, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Galatians ***Do you know the occasion and purpose for the writing to the Galatians. Who were the opponents of Paul in Galatia? What was the nature of the opponents’ doctrine and how did Paul respond to it? This article will answer these questions and more.*** In the face of Jewish opposition, the southern region of Galatia had been fertile soil for Paul’s ministry as he traveled with his companion, Barnabas, through cities recorded by Luke in Acts 13 and 14 (Carson, 2005, 465). However, after Paul left the area of Galatia he received news that some trouble-makers were agitating the believers (Longenecker, 2003, 64). Although Paul was not completely sure of the identity of his opponents (Galatians 5:10, New American Standard \[NAS\]), apparently a group of Jewish Christians, or possibly local Jews, were teaching that submission to the Jewish law was a requirement of salvation (Carson, 2005, 465-466). Paul’s letter to the Galatians was a result of the challenges the Galatians were facing, but also reflected a continuing debate regarding the applicability of the Torah in Jerusalem and Antioch in Syria (Boice, 1976, 410). Paul’s opponents viewed nomism as an integral part of maintaining and, likely, procuring a relationship with God (Lea, 2003, 364). In order to further their agenda, the agitators attempted to undermine Paul’s authority, claim Paul’s gospel was not true, and charge that the gospel preached by Paul would lead to immorality (Boice, 1976, 410-411). Paul addressed the issues of the law with various arguments, however, one of his “finest deliberations on the subject was informed by a belief that cruciform existence is intrinsic to Christian identity and is the most intimate form of relationship with God” (Longenecker, 2003, 66). The crucial language utilized by Paul arguing for the sufficiency of the Christian faith climaxes with “I have been crucified with Christ; and it is no longer I who live, but Christ lives in me” (Galatians 5:20, NAS) which naturally leads to the recognition that righteousness, which the Jewish Christians were attempting to accomplish through the futility of human effort, can only be realized by grace via faith. In other words, “Christ in me” imputes righteousness not the Law, otherwise, “Christ died needlessly” (Galatians 5:21-3:2, NAS). Longenecker (2003) identifies four significant Pauline points which decimate the opponent’s gospel which, of course, is no gospel at all (Galatians 1:6-7, NAS). First, paradoxically, Paul emphasizes that a morality is central to a cruciform existence (Longenecker, 2003, 67). The manifested righteousness frees believers from the need to acquire significance or justification from immoral idolatries such as human performance by realizing the very thing we are striving for already exists. Secondly, Paul explains the entirety of the Law is fulfilled in one word: “Love your neighbor as yourself” (Galatians 5:14, NAS). In other words, through “service to others the expectations of the law are fully concretized in unrivalled fashion” (Longenecker, 2003, 68). Again, paradoxically, when a cruciform life is extended and death reigns to its own desires, self-giving is magnified completely fulfilling the Law in an unbridled extension of love for others. Next, Paul refers metaphorically to the purpose of the law as pedagogue (Galatians 3:24, NAS) which is “relieved of its duty once the child comes of age,” just as the function of the law terminated with Christ’s arrival (Longenecker, 2003, 69). Accordingly, Paul now directs us to “walk by the Spirit” not by the Law, for if led by the Spirit, we are not under the Law (Galatians 5:16-17, NAS). Finally, Paul plunges a dagger into the motivation of his opponents by accusing them of championing nomistic teaching for the purpose of self-promotion (Longenecker, 2003, 70; Galatians 4:17, NAS). For delighting in the Law can be extremely dangerous especially when “spiritual pride is added to that of mere ordinary pedantry and conceit” (Lewis, 1958, 57). [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 21 182x300 - The Galatians](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-21-182x300.jpg "The Galatians - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4c8RloN)An Introduction to the New Testament The letter to the Galatians was originally a response to disturbing news reaching an apostle who responded with a message of salvation by grace, believers united in love, and Holy Spirit directed living (Lea, 2003, 366) which culminated in a “classic expression of the meaning of justification by faith in Christ alone” (Carson, 2005, 468). **References** Boice, J. M. 1976. The Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Ed.Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Carson, D.A., & Moo, D. J. 2005. An Introduction to the New Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Lea, T. D., & David Alan Black. 2003. [The New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/) Its Background and Message. 2nd ed. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. Lewis, C. S. (1958). Reflections on the Psalms: The Celebrated Musings on One of the Most Intriguing Books of the Bible. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. Longenecker, Bruce. 2003. The Cambridge Companion to St Paul. Ed. James D. G. Dunn. Cambridge: Cambridge University. DOI:10.1017/CCOL0521781558.005. # 1 Comment 1. ![facebook layouts](https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f2e56b0ecb3deab31a7feec509aaeea2860ab71b8e304786cea1eeef8ffb3877?s=80&d=mm&r=g) [facebook layouts](http://facebooklayouts.blog.friendster.com/2011/02/large-collection-of-facebook-layouts-you-can-use/) on February 15, 2011 at 10:51 am thnx bro **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Augustine Conversion](https://www.livestransforming.com/augustine-conversion/) **Published:** February 16, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Augustine Conversion [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 1 1 182x300 - Augustine Conversion](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-1-1-182x300.png "Augustine Conversion - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4lacBhY)Church History, Volume One: From Christ to the Pre-Reformation: The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context ***Do you want to learn about St. Augustine’s Conversion experience, who witnessed to him, and what other factors led to his coming to faith in Christ? This article will answer these questions and more.*** Augustine is already a Christian intellectually at the beginning of Book VIII of his Confessions, but he is not able to relinquish his worldy affairs.1 A prompting of God causes Augustine to seek out the counsel of Simplicianus, Ambrose’s spiritual father and successor as the Bishop of Milan.2 Simplicianus congratulates Augustine for studying the Platonists, in particular, the Neo-Platonists which, “in many ways, led to the belief in God and His word.”3 Simplicianus then tutors Augustine by divulging the story of Victorinus’ conversion.4 Victorinus had been an accomplished rhetor and distinguished adversary of Christianity, but publicly converted to Christianity as an elderly man.5 Accordingly, Augustine sees himself in the story of Victorinus and is reminded of the impact of the New Testament parables of the lost sheep and Prodigal Son.6 Augustine also reflects on the conversion of [the Apostle Paul](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-apostle-pauls-perspective-on-jewish-law/) and the influence he extended as a previous opponent to the faith.7 Although Augustine “ burned to imitate” Victorinus, he felt bound by his flesh as he painfully deliberated over the possibility of a radically different faith and life.8 Augustine then describes a day when he and his friend Alypius were visited by Ponticianus who told them the story of Antony, a highly regarded Egyptian monk.9 Antony’s life provided the influential backdrop for two of Ponticianus’ friends’ decision of “forsaking all that they had and following Thee.”10 Augustine then retires to his garden with his friend Alypius under a crushing shame stemming from his inability to overcome his fleshly desires.11 A fight between two wills is then discussed by Augustine; however, he claims both contrary wills as his own, as opposed to the Manichaean doctrine that espouses a good will and a bad will.12 Finally, a broken Augustine landed under a fig tree in tears begging God to intervene.13 Through the sounds of his weeping heart, he heard a child’s voice from a neighbor’s house saying, “Take up and read; take up and read.”14 Interpreting the voice as a message from God, Augustine quickly retrieved his letters of St. Paul and started reading where his “eyes first fell.”15 Romans 13:13-14 immediately vanquished Augustine’s fears and he informed Alypius of his decision, who in turn, upon reading further to Romans 14:1 joined Augustine in his decision.16 Beyond the influence of individuals such as Ambrose, Simplicianus, and Ponticianus or Augustine’s background in Manichaeism and Neo-Platonism, other factors may have contributed to his conversion. Ferguson explains that Augustine’s early education in philosophy, the impact of Cicero’s Hortensius, and his study at Madaura and Carthage were integral to his intellectual development. Furthermore, Augustine’s mother was a Christian and his father, a pagan, was baptized prior to his death.17 All of these factors may have played a role in Augustine’s ultimate decision to dedicate his life to Christ. _______________________ 1. Everett Ferguson, Church History: Volume One: From Christ to Pre-Reformation: The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005), 270. 2. Augustine Confessions 8.1 3. Ibid., 8.3. 4. Ibid., 8.3-4. 5. Ibid., 8.3. 6. Ibid., 8.6. 7. Ibid., 8.9. 8. Ibid., 8.10-12. 9. Ibid., 8.14-15. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid., 8.19 12. Ibid., 8.21-22. 13. Ibid., 8.28. 14. Ibid., 8.29. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid., 8.30. 17. Ferguson, Church History, 269. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ferguson, Everett. Church History: Volume One: From Christ to Pre-Reformation: The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005. Schaff, Philip, ed. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Volume 1: The Confessions and Letters of Augustin, with a Sketch of His Life and Work. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1999. # 1 Comment 1. ![facebook](https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/3ee51e66d155cc2feb822a8f0bbc8d99536a4d77c0dfed1713ac7c3bb5e5e497?s=80&d=mm&r=g) [facebook](http://facebooklayouts.insanejournal.com/) on February 17, 2011 at 4:46 pm i love it **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Early Church Fathers](https://www.livestransforming.com/early-church-fathers/) **Published:** February 16, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Do you want to get to know the early Church Fathers? This article introduces you to the Early Church Fathers from an evangelical perspective by analyzing a reviewing Brian Litfin’s work, Getting to Know the Church Fathers: An Evangelical Introduction. **Content:** # Early Church Fathers **Do you want to get to know the early Church Fathers? This article introduces you to the Early Church Fathers from an evangelical perspective by analyzing a reviewing Brian Litfin’s work, Getting to Know the Church Fathers: An Evangelical Introduction.** **INTRODUCTION** [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 1 2 182x300 - Early Church Fathers](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-1-2-182x300.png "Early Church Fathers - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4caULaj)Getting to Know the Church Fathers: An Evangelical Introduction As a professor of theology at Moody Bible Institute, Bryan M. Litfin, Ph.D. has written a dynamic and accessible work weaving biographical, theological, and historical content in an attempt to restore the relevancy of patrology to evangelicals. A chronological sampling of ten church fathers is provided for study. The work begins with the early second century fathers, represented by Ignatius of Antioch and Justin Martyr, and continues into the middle of the fifth century with an introduction to Cyril of Alexandria. The book’s introduction provides Litfin’s thesis: As spiritual mentors, the church fathers connect modern thought with the “general thrust of the Christian faith,” in particular, the doctrinal aspects of orthodox Christianity as well as its communal aspects.1 The thesis is supported by attacking three common myths that suggest the church fathers were Roman Catholic, not biblically based, and represented the fall of Christianity. The purpose of this review is to provide a brief summary of the work and an analysis of its strengths and weaknesses in light its thesis. **BRIEF SUMMARY** Litfin begins by introducing Ignatius of Antioch in the context of Christianity’s primary second century opponents, the Judaizers and Gnostics. Ignatius is given credit for pioneering a monepiscopacy in order to protect the universal catholic church from false doctrines which, in effect, connects his work to the modern day senior pastor. The apologist, Justin Martyr, is introduced next as an early apologist who wrote three key apologetic works including the Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, First Apology, and Second Apology. The contributions made by Justin include a perspective of the Logos that provided a pre-Trinitarian view, as well as an amalgamation of Greek philosophy and Christianity in an attempt to reach a populous with a Hellenistic world view. Next, in light of the threat of Gnosticism, Irenaeus of Lyons is credited with the theological construct that salvation provides redemption from sin not knowledge. Furthermore, Irenaeus combats Gnostic thought by suggesting the catholic church draw its authority from the apostles, two testaments of the Bible, and creeds supported by the Rule of Faith. Continued exploration of the dangers of heresy leads the author to Tertullian who is responsible for significantly hampering the influence of heretics like Marcion. Although ornery and legalistic, Tertullian was the first to coin the term “Trinity” and also made an essential connection between the Old Testament and [New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/) by proposing the former as preparation and the latter as fulfillment which greatly informed future theological discourse. The martyrdom of Perpetua is next explored conveying a heroic example of Christian commitment as she renounced her family and faced the beasts while singing psalms. Moving on to the controversial Origen, Litfin presents him in light of his brilliant intellect. The legacy of Origen primarily rests in his allegorical interpretation of Scripture which supports layered meanings of God’s revealed Truth, and although criticized by some evangelicals, he provides an important perspective on interpretive methods. Athanasius is addressed next and is credited for almost single handedly overcoming Arianism and furthering an orthodox view of the Trinity. Following Athanasius the “Golden Mouth” of John Chrysostom’s preaching ministry is presented as an exemplification of the Antiochene School which focused on the literal interpretation of Scripture.2 Unfortunately, the mouth of Chrysostom was also injurious and resulted in exile and an isolated elderly existence. The beloved Augustine of Hippo is next revealed as a church father that turned from the dissatisfaction of worldly success to the satisfaction of God as described in the Confessions. Additionally, Augustine’s focus on divine grace and the theology of God’s love effectively fought off the impact of Pelagianism and Donatism. Finally, a church father of late antiquity, Cyril of Alexandria, who engaged in the Christological debate regarding Christ’s unity, is introduced. As opposed to Nestorius who overemphasized Jesus’ humanity, Cyril “coined the term ‘hypostatic union’” in order to explain that “Christ is one person (or hypostasis) who possesses two natures, divine and human.3” **STRENGTHS** The strengths of Litfin’s work can be found in four prominent areas. First, he competently supports the doctrinal and communal thematic purposes of the book. For example, doctrinally he includes references to the development of Trinitarian thought through Justin Martyr’s logic that connects the Logos to Jesus becoming flesh4 and Athanasius’ battle against Arianism.5 The author also supports the communal aspects of the theme by connecting us with the individual lives of the fathers as exemplified by the riveting stories of Augustine’s conversion6 and Perpetua’s martyrdom.7 Second, the author adequately disproves the three myths noted in his introduction. Although admittedly Rome was important, the influence of Augustine in North Africa, Cyril and Athanasius in Alexandria, and John Chrysostom in Constantinople attests to the fact that Rome was not solely responsible for the father’s heritage.8 Furthermore, the book explores the controversial Origen’s insatiable appetite for the Word supporting the idea that the fathers’ held Scripture in high esteem.9 Finally, the fact that a church father like Tertullian adequately conveyed a relationship between the Old and New Testament of preparation and fulfillment that continues to be foundational to current theological thought, reinforces the author’s belief that the church fathers supported the rise of orthodox Christianity, not its fall.10 Third, Litfin spends little time proselytizing an evangelical perspective. For instance, the author appropriately references Irenaeus’s refutation of Gnosticism while steering clear of lecturing on the potential link between Irenaeus’s views and apostolic succession.11 The overall academic approach adds significantly to the credibility of the work. Finally, the most prominent strength of the book is possibly its accessibility and readability. The bibliographical approach of Getting to Know the Church Fathers presents an engaging style attractive to both laymen and clergy. Litfin has skillfully bridged the lost history of the church fathers to modern day evangelicals in an engaging fashion. **WEAKNESSES** Although a thoroughly enjoyable read, a couple critiques are relatively easy to note. First, the introductions, at times, appear superfluous. For example, the story of the Wild West as an introduction to Tertullian seemed to add very little to the story.12 Second, and more importantly, the author ignored some very significant and influential church fathers and controversial subjects. Excluding Clement of Alexandria and Cyprian of Carthage may have helped Litfin support the book’s thesis, but it also avoided two very important figures of Christian history. Furthermore, omitting the subjects of penance and the Eucharist certainly decreased the risk of proselytizing; their absence also decreased the credibility of the book by silently calling into question the complete defeat of his trilogy of myths. **CONCLUSION** Litfin’s compelling work is certainly relevant to modern Christianity as it masterfully connects the church fathers with the doctrinal and communal aspects of Christian thought. The evidence presented against stereotypical myths, the absence of an agenda, and the accessibility of the work all add to its impact. And though the superfluous introductions and the omission of relevant figures and content did detract, the overall significance of the work should not be underestimated. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ 1\. Bryan M. Litfin, Getting to Know the Church Fathers: An Evangelical Introduction (Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2007), 28. 2\. Ibid., 191. 3\. Ibid., 252. 4\. Ibid., 68. 5\. Ibid., 167. 6\. Ibid., 222-26. 7\. Ibid., 120-35. 8\. Ibid., 256. 9\. Ibid., 155. 10\. Ibid., 111. 11\. Ibid., 85. 12\. Ibid., 97-98. BIBLIOGRAPHY Litfin, Bryan M. Getting to Know the Church Fathers: An Evangelical Introduction. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2007. **Categories:** Book Reviews --- ### [Intertestamental Period](https://www.livestransforming.com/intertestamental-period/) **Published:** March 12, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Intertestamental Period ***Are you interested in the Intertestamental Period? This article reviews the four hundred years prior to John the Baptist that lays a rich historical framework for the ministry of Jesus Christ.*** ## Introduction The paradoxical realization that a tumultuous and ruthless historical and political atmosphere would usher the Prince of Peace into humanity can be difficult for students of the gospel to reconcile. An understanding of the Intertestamental Period’s history and politically charged climate will illustrate evidence of Divine Providence weaving through approximately four-hundred years of antiquity, culminating in an optimal environment for the expansion and fulfillment of the Great Commission. The forthcoming study will explore a brief history of the Intertestamental Period, specifically, the Grecian, Ptolemaic, Seleucid, Maccabean, Hasmonean and Roman periods, and their respective ramifications for the Jewish people and the land of Palestine. Discussion will include the impact of Caesar Augustus and the development of Pax Romana on the first century world of [the New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/). [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 21 182x300 - Intertestamental Period](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-21-182x300.jpg "Intertestamental Period - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DTTkAB)An Introduction to the New Testament ## Grecian Period Historical evidence of the hand of God at work to prepare the way for his own Son is poignantly illustrated through one impassioned ruler. A child prodigy under the tutelage of Aristotle by age 13, Alexander the Great had an insatiable thirst for knowledge that undoubtedly cultivated his phenomenal military genius.[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn1) Subsequent leadership experience gained in the Battle of Chaeronea under his father, Philip, prepared the adolescent Alexander for his ascension to the Macedonian throne following his father’s death.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn2) Alexander aspired to conquer and rule all of Persia and in 334 B.C. he entered Asia Minor and defeated Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus River, then conducted successful advances against Ephesus, Miletus, Halicarnassus, and Issus.[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn3) Seven months of stiff competition resulted in the fulfillment of the prophecy of Ezekiel 26:3 as Alexander the Great conquered Tyre and besieged Gaza two months later.[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn4) The ambitious young leader had effectively established himself as the ruler of the entire Middle East.[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn5) The impact on the Jewish community of Alexander’s ultimate dream of a “single world-wide empire based on unity of language, custom and culture” began to materialize even prior to his death.[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn6) During a visit to Jerusalem, Juddua, a Jewish high priest, was allegedly prompted through a dream to inform Alexander of his role in the fulfillment of a prophecy in Daniel, which precipitated Jewish freedom to follow their ancestral laws.[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn7) The ramifications of Alexander’s political triumphs included the spread of Hellenism, the universal integration of the Greek language, enhanced transportation and erosion of socioeconomic barriers ultimately culminating in a “widespread dispersion of Jews,” assisting in the preparation of a global Divine intervention.[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn8) However, even before the illustrious conqueror was laid to rest in 323 B.C. a battle for his kingdom ensued.[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn9) ## Ptolemaic Period “To the strongest” was Alexander’s indeterminate solution to the appointment of his successor, [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn10) spawning conflict between four emerging generals.[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn11) An alliance between Ptolemy, Cassander and Lysimachus toppled Antigonus’ plan to replace Alexander, which eventually resulted in the assignment of Egypt to Ptolemy, Syria to Lysimachus and Babylon to an Alexandrian general, Seleucus Nicator, in a potentially prophetic fulfillment of Daniel 11:4.[\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn12) Intermittent warfare continued for approximately forty more years as Alexander’s empire was ultimately dichotomized between the Ptolemies as rulers of Egypt, Palestine and Phoenicia and the Seleucids as rulers of Asia Minor, Syria and Mesopotamia.[\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn13) Under Ptolemaic rule, the population of Egyptian Jews flourished in an environment of autonomy that encouraged the deepening of a Jewish faith community permitted to build synagogues and follow ancestral laws.[\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn14) Jewish scholars in the Egyptian city of Alexandria produced the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, effectuating the profound impact of a “bond uniting the Jews of widely scattered Dispersion” and an “instrument for the propagation of Judaism throughout the Greek-speaking world.”[\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn15) Although the Greek cultural backdrop that encapsulated many Jews would also have an “immeasurable influence on the life”[\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn16) of the Dispersion and of Palestine over the next few centuries, the imminent decline of the current Ptolemaic reign accentuated more immediate concerns of impending doom toward a Jewish nation.[\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn17) ## Seleucid Period In 198 B.C. control of Palestine was transferred from the Egyptian Ptolemies to the Syrian Seleucids led by the impressive command of Antiochus III at the Battle of Paneas.[\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn18) Antiochus III was murdered in 187 B.C. and replaced by his son Seleucus IV, who, while continuing moderate Jewish tolerance, secured the release of his brother, Antiochus IV, who was held captive by the Romans.[\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn19) Upon Seleucus’ death in 175 B.C. Antiochus established himself as king facing three serious impediments to his reign including a desperate need for money, a lack of national unity, and the threat of neighboring countries.[\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn20) Accordingly, to further his initiatives Antiochus accepted a bribe from Jason, the brother of the Jewish high priest Onias III, of 440 talents and a commitment to unify the nation via the introduction of Hellenism in return for appointing the traitor to the position of high priest.[\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn21) The corrupt behavior enraged the Jews who, led by Jason after his removal by Menelaus’ bigger bribe,[\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn22) executed a mass murder of all the Seleucid officials upon receipt of a fallacious rumor of Antiochus’ death.[\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn23) The retaliation of Antiochus on Jerusalem was brutal and included the desecration of the Temple[\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn24) and the murder of 80,000 in three days.[\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn25) Subsequent to an embarrassing defeat in Egypt in 168 B.C. Antiochus, the madman, determined to completely obliterate the Jewish religion by prohibiting adherence to ancestral laws, “substituting pagan altars, instituting the sacrifice of pigs” and threatening torture and death to all who did not adhere to his mandates.[\[26\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn26) As control of Palestine transferred to Syria during the Seleucid period, the Jewish Diaspora grew as the Egyptian Jews were politically separated from those in Palestine, “a situation that was to have serious consequences for Judaism.”[\[27\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn27) However, during the persecution of Antiochus, the Jewish nation increased their resolve and heroic spirit in “confirming rather than dispersing its individuality”[\[28\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn28) as they experienced the first attempt at religious extermination.[\[29\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn29) Fortunately, as in future generations, reinforcements converged, and in 166 B.C. they aligned under the courageous leadership of a Jewish patriarch’s family.[\[30\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn30) ## Maccabean Period An agent of Antiochus arrived in a village of the Jewish priest, Matthathias, and demanded that all publicly renounce their faith.[\[31\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn31) The priest defied the order and slew a capricious Jew who acquiesced then murdered a Syrian officer and fled to the mountains of Judaea with his five sons where it was decided to defend the holy Covenant to the death.[\[32\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn32) Upon Matthathias’ death, his “third son Judas, nicknamed Maccabeus (‘the hammer’)” took the reign of leadership and organized a successful military campaign of guerilla warfare with approximately 3,000 men. The pursuant treaty granted religious freedom to the Jews[\[33\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn33) whereby “the Temple was purged of all idols and rededicated to the Lord and continues to be celebrated as the Feast of Hanukkah.”[\[34\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn34) However, what originated as a religious rebellion morphed into a campaign for political independence from Syria and precipitated Judas’ death at the hands of the Syrian army.[\[35\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn35) Jonathon, Judas’ brother, accepted the leadership role in the anti-Syrian movement and, after seven years of consolidating his forces, was approached by Syrian leaders, Demetrius and Balas, for military support.[\[36\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn36) Jonathon now had garnered the role of “master of Judaea”[\[37\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn37) but was murdered by a deceptive Syrian leader apprehensive of Jonathon’s extensive power.[\[38\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn38) Simon, the only living son of Matthathias assumed leadership of the political movement and initiated negotiations with Syrian ruler Demetrius II who finally “recognized Judaea as a sovereign and independent country,” a status that endured for approximately seventy years.[\[39\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn39) Although some perceived the Maccabees as incredible proponents of Jewish religious freedom, many contend that the real heroes were the martyrs, and diminish the prominence of the military family’s legacy.[\[40\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn40) Gowan suggests the enduring significance of this period may be in the understandable difficulty the Jewish community, under the memory of Antiochus, will have in recognizing opposition to Judaism as anything other than a force of Satan, which “tended to color the way the Jews viewed the later, inherently less reprehensible, interference of the other Gentiles in their lives.”[\[41\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn41) And although a Hellenistic political force ceased to exist during the Maccabean period, Hellenistic ideals continued to influence the Jewish population for centuries and, unfortunately, quickly infiltrated the family dynasty that gave their very lives to eradicate its repugnant effects.[\[42\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn42) ## Hasmonean Period Simon and two of his sons were murdered by his son-in-law Ptolemy in a deplorable and ultimately inane act of political ambition[\[43\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn43) which resulted in Simon’s third son, John Hyrcanus, assuming the position of high priest and leading brilliantly until his death in 106 B.C.[\[44\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn44) Hyrcanus’ successors, Aristobulus I and Alexander Jannaeus, were tyrannical and ruthless which enhanced the energy and popularity of oppositional Jewish sects they violently trampled.[\[45\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn45) Upon Jannaeus’ death, his wife Alexandra assumed the rank of Queen[\[46\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn46) and redirected the emphasis toward peace and prosperity.[\[47\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn47) Her reforms included restoring Jewish ceremonies, curtailing Sadducaic control of the Temple, initiating mandatory educations system for Jewish children and enhancing appreciation for Pharisaic contributions so society.[\[48\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn48) Alexandra designated her son Hyrcanus II as her successor, however, her son Aristobulus II forcefully disagreed and vanquished his brother.[\[49\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn49) Antipater, father of Herod the Great, fearful of losing political clout under Aristobulus’ reign, insidiously convinced Hyrcanus to pursue the reacquisition of his position of power which, in effect, induced a civil war.[\[50\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn50) “To terminate the struggle, both brothers appealed to Rome, which at this juncture inaugurated roman politics in Palestine, and from this time forth Rome was to exercise a lasting influence upon Judea and the period of the New Testament.”[\[51\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn51) A number of institutions manifested during the Hasmonean period that will significantly impact the near future of the Jewish community including the formal recognition of various Jewish sects, the Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes,[\[52\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn52) as well as the advancement of the Sanhedrin.[\[53\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn53) The despotic leaders during the Hasmonean period undoubtedly enhanced Pharisaic popularity and diminished Sadducaic influence with critical Messianic ramifications.[\[54\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn54) Finally, the introduction of Antipater and his lineage into the dismal ending of the Hasmonean rule exemplifies the “invincible grip of Rome’s conquering hand from which they were destined never to escape as an independent nation.”[\[55\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn55) ## Roman Period The Roman general Pompey unsuccessfully attempted to settle the dispute between the two Hasmonean brothers, Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus II, and sieged Jerusalem in 63 B.C.[\[56\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn56) After fourteen years of rule, a rivalry between Pompey and Julius Caesar culminated in a civil war.[\[57\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn57) The opportunistic Antipater allied with Caesar whose victory at the battle of Pharsalus[\[58\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn58) precipitated his assignment as procurator of Judea[\[59\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn59) and the subsequent appointment of his son, Herod the Great, to the governorship of Galilee, in reward for his allegiance.[\[60\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn60) Upon Caesar’s assassination in 44 B.C., Herod aligned with the opposition, Cassius, who seized command of the Syrian government[\[61\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn61) and offered Herod the promise of kingship of Judea.[\[62\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn62) However, Cassius was defeated two years later at the Battle of Philippi by Octavian and Anthony, which disingenuously propelled the calculating Herod to negotiate a bribe to procure the appointment as joint tetrarch of Judea.[\[63\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn63) Unfortunately for Herod, Antigonus garnered significant Jewish and Parthian support in an attempt to prolong the inevitable Hasmonean finale, and assumed the position of Judea’s High Priest and King.[\[64\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn64) To Herod’s amazement the Roman Senate in 39 B.C., with the approval of Antony and Octavian,[\[65\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn65) elected him King of Judea—“a king without a country.”[\[66\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn66) Undaunted by such a minor inconvenience, the ruthless Herod assembled an army, procured Roman support, sieged Jerusalem in a bloody massacre, and beheaded Antigonus.[\[67\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn67) Loyal to Antony, Herod’s political misalignment is once again exposed a few years later when Octavian defeats Antony at the battle of Actium.[\[68\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn68) Undeterred, Herod shrewdly pledged his loyalty[\[69\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn69) to Rome’s inaugural Emperor[\[70\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn70) culminating in a confirmation of his kingship and an extended empire,[\[71\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn71) after exemplifying the audacity and fierceness necessary to cultivate Augustus’ legacy of Pax Romana.[\[72\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn72) ## Pax Romana “May it be my privilege to establish the republic safe and sound on its foundations, gathering the fruit of my desire to be known as author of the ideal constitution, and taking with me to the grave the hope that the basis which I have laid will be permanent,” were the words of Octavian, now Augustus Caesar, laying his claim to history as recorded by the Roman historian Suetonius.[\[73\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn73) Herod’s administrative prowess, though vicious and malevolent, complemented the vision of Augustus with his ability to avoid unnecessary wars, construct and rebuild Palestine’s infrastructure,[\[74\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn74) and fortify the nation’s defense.[\[75\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn75) Upon Herod’s death, his three sons, Archelaus, Herod Antipas and Herod Philip were to become heirs to his kingdom, dividing their rule into Judea as well as Samaria and Idumea, Galilee and Perea, and Trachonitis and adjacent regions respectively.[\[76\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn76) Archelaus was banished quickly; however, both Herod Antipas and Herod Philip’s leadership extended into much of Jesus’ life on earth.[\[77\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn77) Herod aligned with Rome’s first Emperor, Augustus Caesar, through much of his reign.[\[78\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn78) A leader whose influence extended far beyond the Palestine territory,[\[79\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn79) Augustus ushered in an era of “domestic peace and union \[that\] were the natural consequences of the moderate and comprehensive policy embraced by the Romans”[\[80\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn80) that became known as Pax Romana.[\[81\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn81) The distinguished achievements of Augustus’ fifty-six year reign[\[82\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn82) broadened the Roman Empire, utilized client states to defend its boundaries,[\[83\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn83) negotiated peace with Parthia through successful diplomatic initiatives,[\[84\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn84) and engineered incredible advances in domestic affairs.[\[85\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn85) The mighty impact of Pax Romana on the first century world of the New Testament cannot be underestimated as introduced by Church Father Eusebius of Caesarea: But when that instrument of our redemption, the thrice holy body of Christ, which proved itself superior to all Satanic fraud, and free from evil from both in word and deed, was raised, at once for the abolition of ancient evils, and in token of his victory over the power of darkness; the energy of these evil spirits was at once destroyed. The manifold forms of government, the tyrannies and republics, the siege of cities, and devastation of countries caused thereby, were now no more, and one God was proclaimed to all mankind. At the same time one universal power, the Roman empire, arose and flourished, while the enduring and implacable hatred of nation against nation was now removed, and as the knowledge of one God, and one way of religion and salvation, even the doctrine of Christ, was made known to all mankind; so at the self-same period, the entire dominion of the Roman empire being vested in a single sovereign, profound peace reigned throughout the world. And thus, by the express appointment of the same God, two roots of blessing, the Roman empire, and the doctrine of Christian piety, sprang up together for the benefit of man.[\[86\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn86) The Church Father Origen of Alexandria expands the application of Eusebius with his observation of God’s Divine Providence: For righteousness has arisen in His days, and there is abundance of peace, which took its commencement at his birth, God preparing the nations for His teaching, that they might be under one prince, the king of the Romans, and that it might not, owing to the want of union among the nations, caused by the existence of many kingdoms, be more difficult for the apostles of Jesus to accomplish the task enjoined upon them by their Master, when He said, ‘Go and teach all nations.’ Moreover it is certain that Jesus was born in the reign of Augustus, who, so to speak, fused together into one monarchy the many populations of the earth. Now the existence of many kingdoms would have been a hindrance to the spread of the doctrine of Jesus throughout the entire world; not only for the reasons mentioned, but also on account of the necessity of men everywhere engaging in war, and fighting on behalf of their native country, which was the case before the times of Augustus, and in periods still more remote, when necessity arose, as when the Peloponnesians and Athenians warred against each other, and other nations in like manner. How, then, was it possible for the Gospel doctrine of peace, which does not permit men to take vengeance even upon enemies, to prevail throughout the world, unless at the advent of Jesus a milder spirit had been everywhere introduced into the conduct of things?[\[87\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn87) From the moment of the Immaculate Conception, the rapid deployment of the Gospel message was made physically possible by the environment effectuated by the Roman Empire.[\[88\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn88) ## Conclusion Beginning with Alexander the Great we see God’s Divine Providence colorfully illuminated through the prophecy of Daniel; however, the more prominent intervention may have been the dispersion of the Jews, who soon become the infrastructure supporting communication lines from Judea, Samaria and beyond. Under Ptolemaic rule Jewish scholars produced the Septuagint which divinely glued the dispersed Jews together in order to potentially become instruments of the Gospel. The brutal Seleucid atmosphere continued to grow the Jewish Diaspora, while simultaneously deepening a monotheistic identity that produced Maccabean courage and extended the hope of freedom to a Jewish community which foreshadowed the transcendent Messianic liberty. Finally, the Hasmoneans ushered in a Roman Empire that provided an “environment for the church to carry out her mission.”[\[89\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn89) Four hundred years of Divine orchestration living within a supposed antithetical consonance and dissonance of cultural settings and political events resolved into a symphonic Message of hope extended “to the ends of the earth.”[\[90\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftn90) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref1). D. S. Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1967), 1-2. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref2). John Stevenson, “The Intertestamental Period,” www.angelfire.com/nt/theology / 15-400sy.html (accessed February 20, 2010). [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref3). Raymond F. Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period (St. Louis, London: Concordia Publishing House, 1975), 17. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref4). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 3. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref5). Thomas D. Lea, and David Alan Black, The New Testament its Background and Message, 2nd ed. (Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003), 13. [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref6). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 10. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref7). Ibid., 14-15. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref8). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 20-21. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref9). Ibid., 21. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref10). Stevenson, The Intertestamental Period,” http://www.angelfire.com/nt/theology /15-400sy.html. [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref11). Lea and David Alan Black, The New Testament its Background and Message, 15. [\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref12). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 21-22. [\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref13). Donald E. Gowan, Bridge Between the Testaments: A Reappraisal of Judaism from the Exile to the Birth of Christianity, 3rd Rev. ed. (Allison Park, Pennsylvania: Pickwick Publications, 1986), 61-62. [\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref14). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 18-19. [\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref15). Ibid., 20. [\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref16). Ibid., 19. [\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref17). Ibid., 17. [\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref18). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 27. [\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref19). Gowan, Bridge Between the Testaments, 67. [\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref20). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 31. [\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref21). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 29. [\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref22). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 38-39. [\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref23). Stevenson, The Intertestamental Period,” http://www.angelfire.com/nt/theology / 15-400sy.html. [\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref24). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 39. [\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref25). Stevenson, The Intertestamental Period,” http://www.angelfire.com/nt/theology / 15-400sy.html. [\[26\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref26). Gowan, Bridge Between the Testaments: A Reappraisal of Judaism from the Exile to the Birth of Christianity, 80. [\[27\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref27). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 27. [\[28\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref28). Ibid., 31. [\[29\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref29). Gowan, Bridge Between the Testaments: A Reappraisal of Judaism from the Exile to the Birth of Christianity, 80. [\[30\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref30). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 33. [\[31\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref31). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 43-45. [\[32\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref32). Ibid., 45. [\[33\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref33). Gowan, Bridge Between the Testaments: A Reappraisal of Judaism from the Exile to the Birth of Christianity, 81. [\[34\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref34). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 35. [\[35\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref35). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 52. [\[36\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref36). Gowan, Bridge Between the Testaments: A Reappraisal of Judaism from the Exile to the Birth of Christianity, 83-84. [\[37\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref37). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 57. [\[38\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref38). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 38. [\[39\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref39). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 57-58. [\[40\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref40). Gowan, Bridge Between the Testaments: A Reappraisal of Judaism from the Exile to the Birth of Christianity, 86. [\[41\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref41). Ibid. [\[42\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref42). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 58-59. [\[43\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref43). Ibid., 62. [\[44\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref44). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 40-41. [\[45\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref45). Gowan, Bridge Between the Testaments: A Reappraisal of Judaism from the Exile to the Birth of Christianity, 90. [\[46\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref46). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 73-74. [\[47\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref47). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 42-43. [\[48\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref48). Ibid., 43. [\[49\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref49). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 76-77. [\[50\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref50). Ibid. [\[51\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref51). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 43. [\[52\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref52). Gowan, Bridge Between the Testaments: A Reappraisal of Judaism from the Exile to the Birth of Christianity, 90. [\[53\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref53). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 43. [\[54\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref54). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 71. [\[55\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref55). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 43-44. [\[56\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref56). Ibid., 44. [\[57\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref57). Gowan, Bridge Between the Testaments: A Reappraisal of Judaism from the Exile to the Birth of Christianity, 92. [\[58\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref58). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 84. [\[59\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref59). Gowan, Bridge Between the Testaments: A Reappraisal of Judaism from the Exile to the Birth of Christianity, 92. [\[60\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref60). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 86. [\[61\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref61). Ibid., 86-87. [\[62\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref62). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 46. [\[63\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref63). Ibid. [\[64\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref64). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 87-88. [\[65\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref65). Ibid., 89. [\[66\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref66). Stevenson, The Intertestamental Period,” http://www.angelfire.com/nt/theology / 15-400sy.html. [\[67\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref67). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 89. [\[68\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref68). Ibid., 93. [\[69\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref69). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 46. [\[70\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref70). Lea and David Alan Black, The New Testament its Background and Message, 21. [\[71\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref71). Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod, 94. [\[72\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref72). Ibid. [\[73\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref73). Charles Norris Cochrane, Christianity and Classical Culture: A Study of Thought and Action from Augustus to Augustine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974), 1. [\[74\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref74). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 47. [\[75\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref75). Lea and David Alan Black, The New Testament its Background and Message, 25. [\[76\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref76). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 47-48. [\[77\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref77). Lea and David Alan Black, The New Testament its Background and Message, 26. [\[78\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref78). Surburg, Introduction to the Intertestamental Period, 46. [\[79\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref79). Theodor Mommsen, A History of Rome Under the Emperors (New York, NY: Routledge, 1992), 104. [\[80\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref80). Edward Gibbon, “The Internal Prosperity in the Age of the Antonines,” in History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (n.p.: B&R Samizdat Express, n.d.), pt. III. [\[81\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref81). Lea and David Alan Black, The New Testament its Background and Message, 21. [\[82\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref82). Mommsen, A History of Rome Under the Emperors, 79. [\[83\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref83). Ibid., 104-15. [\[84\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref84). Ibid., 107. [\[85\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref85). Ibid., 95-104. [\[86\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref86). Eusebius Pamphilus of Caesarea, “Oration in Praise of Constantine,” Retrieved from http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2504.htm. Ch.16, 3-4. [\[87\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref87). Origen, “Contra Celsus, Book II,” Retrieved from http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04162.htm. Ch.30. [\[88\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref88). Henry Thompson Rowell, Rome in the Augustan Age (Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), 230. [\[89\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref89). Seyoon Kim, Christ and Caesar: The Gospel and the Roman Empire in the Writings of Paul and Luke (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2008), 179. [\[90\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/NBST%20525/Writing%20and%20Research/Intertestamental%20History/History%20of%20Intertestamental%20Period%20-%20Derek%20Wilder%20-%20NBST%20525%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED%20VERSION.docx#_ftnref90). Acts 1:8 (New International Version). **BIBLIOGRAPHY** Carson, D. A. An Introduction to the New Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005. Cochrane, Charles Norris. Christianity and Classical Culture: A Study of Thought and Action from Augustus to Augustine. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1974. Eusebius Pamphilus of Caesarea. “Oration in Praise of Constantine.” http://www.newadvent.org /fathers/2504.htm. Gibbon, Edward. “The Internal Prosperity in the Age of the Antonines.” In History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. N.p.: B&R Samizdat Express, n.d. Gowan, Donald E. Bridge between the Testaments: A Reappraisal of Judaism from the Exile to the Birth of Christianity. 3rd ed. Allison Park, PA: Pickwick, 1986. Henry Thompson Rowell. Rome in the Augustan Age. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma, 1962. Kim, Seyoon. Christ and Caesar: The Gospel and the Roman Empire in the Writings of Paul and Luke. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2008. Lea, Thomas D., and David Alan Black. The New Testament its Background and Message. 2nd ed. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 2003. Mommsen, Theodor. A History of Rome under the Emperors. New York, NY: Routledge, 1992. Origen. “Contra Celsus, Book II.” http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04162.htm. Russell, D. S. The Jews from Alexander to Herod. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1967. Stevenson, John. “The Intertestamental Period.” http://www.angelfire.com/nt/theology/15-400sy.html. Surburg, Raymond F. Introduction to the Intertestamental Period. St. Louis, London: Concordia, 1975. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Substitutionary Atonement](https://www.livestransforming.com/substitutionary-atonement/) **Published:** March 17, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Cur Deus Homo is Latin for, "Why God became man?" Anselm of Canterbury is an ingenious medieval theologian who is credited for the current evangelical understanding of Substitutionary Atonement. This research explores the concept of iustitia in the development of Anselm’s Satisfaction theory of atonement and provides evidence proving the validity of the theory in light of three influential modern critiques. **Content:** # Substitutionary Atonement # *Iustitia* in Anselms *Cur Deus Homo?* ## INTRODUCTION ## Anselm of Canterbury is considered the most significant and influential early medieval figure to explore the idea of iustitia as it pertains to the relationship between God and humanity,[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn1) more specifically, to the doctrine of atonement.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn2) Anselm’s purpose of Cur Deus Homo? is to prove the Atonement via the Incarnation is required to be fact[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn3) assuming the absence of a [historical Jesus](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-historicity-of-jesus/).[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn4) This research paper’s thesis will examine the concept of iustitia in the development of Anselm’s Satisfaction theory of atonement and provide evidence proving the validity of the theory in light of three influential modern critiques. The forthcoming study will provide a brief overview of iustitia as a foundational argument of Cur Deus Homo? and systematically disprove the contemporary criticisms that Anselm’s theory is based on secular legal egalitarianism and merit, renders the Incarnation ineffective due to the inability of guilt to be transferred, and is completely speculative with no relation to Scripture. ## AS AN ARGUMENT OF CUR DEUS HOMO? [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 1 3 182x300 - Substitutionary Atonement](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-1-3-182x300.jpg "Substitutionary Atonement - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4j8LFNA)Cur Deus Homo: Why the God-Man? Anselm provides a series of arguments that illuminate the fundamental concept of iustitia in an attempt to explain why God became man.[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn5) At creation humans lived in an environment of original justice,[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn6) which allowed humanity to experience blessedness not accessible in a life with sin[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn7) as reconciliation with God is impossible with sin.[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn8) Sin is defined as not rendering to God what is due.[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn9) Anselm specifically states, “Sin is nothing other than not to give God what is owed to him,” and continues by clarifying that “all the will of a rational creature ought to be subject to the will of God,” which is man’s debt to God.[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn10) More importantly, it is the righteousness of the will that “makes individuals righteous or upright in their heart, that is, their will,” which is the “sole honour, the complete honour, which we owe to God and which God demands from us.”[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn11) The blessedness experienced from original justice mandates the “perfect and voluntary submission of the human will to God – that is, iustitia.”[\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn12) Due to the effects of sin, humanity is in an utter state of destitution, an unreasonable outcome of God’s original plan[\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn13) – that is, iniustitia.[\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn14) Accordingly, either humanity is denied blessedness or it is necessary for the circumstance to be resolved by satisfaction[\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn15) requiring either punitive measures or a form of remuneration,[\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn16) otherwise, God would “not be just to himself.”[\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn17) Furthermore, the remuneration must incorporate what is not due to God as a debtor,[\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn18) that is, the satisfaction is required to go beyond the disobedient act.[\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn19) Anselm illustrates by explaining that larceny is not rectified by simply returning stolen goods, instead, the criminal is required to remit to the injured party remuneration in excess of the value of the seized property.[\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn20) Boso astutely determines that since justice requires complete obedience[\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn21) that even if sin does not occur, there is nothing to give God as compensation for the sin that already exists.[\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn22) In other words, humanity has nothing to offer to God other than what iustitia already demands and “on account of their present iniustitia, they cannot even do that.”[\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn23) Accordingly, Anselm asks, “what, then, will become of you? How will you be saved?”[\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn24) The purpose of God’s creation has been unjustly obstructed and is inconsistent with God’s supreme nature, thus it is an absolute necessity that a method of redeeming mankind exists to restore justice.[\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn25) In order to maintain justice based on the current propositions established, the method of redemption must not restore humanity through forgiveness unless the sinner has “repaid to God what he has taken away from him”[\[26\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn26) and compensated God with something that is not already owed to God.[\[27\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn27) Furthermore, humanity is completely incapable of procuring redemption for itself due to its inability to provide proper satisfaction,[\[28\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn28) accordingly, the payment needs made by someone greater than all that exists separate from God.[\[29\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn29) Logic necessarily concludes that since “there is nothing superior to all that exists which is not God – except God,” payment is required to be paid by no one other than God.[\[30\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn30) Although God solely has the capacity to redeem, the obligation for adequate compensation continues to rest entirely with humanity because “whenever we knowingly do anything, however small, contrary to the will of God,” mankind frustrates God’s justice.[\[31\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn31) In other words, since God has the means to pay but “no one ought to pay except man: it is necessary that a God-Man should pay it,”[\[32\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn32) and an absolute necessity for the Incarnation to occur in order to provide adequate satisfaction.[\[33\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn33) God’s justice is now aligned with God’s mercy and a “greater and juster mercy cannot be imagined”[\[34\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn34) as a result of the Incarnation that occurred as a requirement of God’s supreme justice.[\[35\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn35) ## AS SUPREME JUSTICE The first influential criticism of iustitia in Anselm is provided by followers of the Tübingen school, such as Albrecht Ritschl, who believe Anselm’s satisfaction theory is “quite misdirected.”[\[36\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn36) More specifically, Ritschl believes Anselm’s theory provides an unfounded secular legal egalitarianism between humanity and God due to Anselm’s analogies to civil jurisprudence[\[37\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn37) and concludes that Anselm ultimately “exchanges the idea of satisfaction for the altogether different idea of merit.”[\[38\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn38) Rationally, it would seem highly unlikely that Anselm would have approved of such an overtly superficial humanistic view of secular law to be foundational to his work.[\[39\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn39) Three examples are supportive. First, Anselm does not associate the word “debt” with an archaic and rudimentary system of payback; instead, he utilized the identical word used in the Vulgate to define sin in the Lord’s Prayer.[\[40\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn40) Next, although feudal law did support the concept of an individual making satisfaction for another person’s wrongdoing, if a strict analogy is to be assumed, the act of voluntary satisfaction seems unreasonable,[\[41\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn41) the fact that God does not benefit from the transaction[\[42\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn42) does not compute, and logic is again defied because human’s cannot benefit from satisfaction passively as a feudal recipient, but instead, must actively engage Christ.[\[43\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn43) Finally, historicity suggests Anselm was uninterested in medieval investiture and perceived himself as a monk who would have certainly discovered the context for “honor” in Scripture, not as a way to pacify God, but instead a way to extend worship to his Creator whom he owed his all.[\[44\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn44) In actuality, Anselm does the opposite of what the Tübingen critics claim by disassociating from the finite perception of human justice by scrutinizing a number of different views of iustitia before determining the most relevant form that represents God’s treatment of humanity[\[45\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn45) – “summa iustitia.”[\[46\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn46) Supreme justice, differing from secular justice, is “understood as action directed towards the highest good” based on what is suitable to God, which encompasses the redemption of humanity, not based on the idea that God is rewarding humanity based on their merit.[\[47\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn47) To fully comprehend Anselm’s perspective of justice one must refer to his treatise On Truth, which consociates truth, rectitude and justice[\[48\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn48) and defines justice as the “rectitude of the will that is preserved for its own sake.”[\[49\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn49) The fundamental principle supporting Anselm’s view of justice is rectitude, which includes both truth, the transforming of thoughts into what are right, and justice, the transforming of actions into what are right.[\[50\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn50) Anselm’s supreme justice defined as loving the highest good is appropriated via our thoughts and actions, but is only available to humanity if it is “in a state of no want,” otherwise the will is tainted and, accordingly, the alignment of the will with the highest good would be impossible.[\[51\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn51) For justice to be served, humanity’s state of want must be eradicated, which is only possible “in a person in whom there is such pure righteousness that there is no wrongdoing in him.”[\[52\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn52) The process of restoring humanity to its original “state of blessed happiness”[\[53\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn53) by gifting the righteousness necessary to support God’s supreme justice appears to be a preposterous notion within the human context of “distributive or retributive justice.”[\[54\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn54) Thus, the justice legislating secular human affairs, such as the Ciceronian and Justinian perspective of jurisprudence, can in no way be deemed equivalent to Anselm’s perspective of justice which legislates the affairs between God and humanity.[\[55\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn55) ## AS A NECESSITY OF THE INCARNATION The second significant criticism that attempts to discredit Anselm’s concept of iustitia originates from the work of Jasper Hopkins and Philip Quinn who suggest that “making satisfaction requires being guilty.”[\[56\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn56) According to Hopkins, the Incarnation is rendered ineffective in Anselm’s satisfaction theory by assuming a debt of moral obligation can be assigned in the same manner as a financial obligation and since “guilt cannot be transferred…it cannot be removed by compensation.”[\[57\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn57) Quinn and Hopkins appear to have inadequately investigated Anselm’s perspective of the debt incurred from sin by ignoring the required liberation from two separate debts . [\[58\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn58) In order to fully understand Anselm’s dual view of debt pertaining to justice, a reference to his work, On the Virgin Conception and Original Sin, is required: Indeed, the sin that is contracted at his origin is called ‘original’, which could also be expressed as ‘natural’ sin, not because it comes from the essence of nature, but because it is taken up with corrupted nature. But the sin that each man commits after he has become a person can be called ‘personal’ sin, because it comes about through a fault in the person. We can use the same term to speak of ‘original’ and ‘personal’ justice: so Adam and Eve were ‘originally’ just, that is, they were just as soon as they began to exist as humans. But justice can be called personal, if an unjust man is given justice which he did not originally have.[\[59\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn59) Natural debt is procured by humanity through a genetic connection to the original sin of Adam, which holds all of mankind responsible for the fall, whereas personal debt exists due to personal disobedience that causes actual sin to be committed.[\[60\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn60) Although in order for Anselm’s theory to stand, both debts, natural and personal “must be compensated for by the universal satisfaction of the Deus-homo,” but it is important to note that the strategy deployed to satisfy each type of debt is distinct.[\[61\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn61) The natural debt is resolved and justice is preserved if the obligation is satisfied within the confines of two conditions. First, since God’s honor was taken through man’s disobedience, the natural debt obligation lies solely with man, accordingly, the vindicator must either be Adam, Eve, or a descendent from Adam to provide proper recompense on behalf of mankind.[\[62\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn62) Second, the vindicator must also be qualified, that is, possess a will that infinitely aligns with God’s, without coercion, and provide a satisfaction that exceeds “the value of all created things.”[\[63\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn63) Since Christ has two natures, the natural debt is effectively resolved as His human nature satisfies the requirement of lineage and His divine nature satisfies the requirement of faculty.[\[64\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn64) The strategy employed to resolve personal debt, in contrast to natural debt, does not occur vicariously, that is, on behalf of the guilty, thus, the necessity of a transfer mechanism is eliminated.[\[65\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn65) In fact, the correct strategy evolves from the philosophical argument that because the personal debt is infinite and individuals cannot be held accountable for the innate finiteness that results in an inability to repay the personal debt, justice necessitates that individuals are “not obligated to pay it” and the guilt is retained.[\[66\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn66) Accordingly, though natural debt is satisfied, God is not, per se, required to forgive personal debt, however, because finite individuals have no method of repayment available, justice permits God to extend forgiveness to individuals who repent and request forgiveness.[\[67\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn67) The proper understanding of the two categories of offense keeps Anselm’s satisfaction theory intact and renders the criticisms of Hopkins and Quinn invalid.[\[68\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn68) ## AS A REQUIREMENT OF SCRIPTURE The final notable criticism leveled against Anselm’s concept of iustitia once again emerges from a Tübingen perspective. Specifically, Ritschl suggests that “fundamentally the doctrine of Anselm has no relation to Scripture, but moves entirely amid considerations of the natural reason.”[\[69\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn69) Foley continues the argument by explaining that Anselm’s work may have had a strong apologetic value if Anselm’s doctrine would have “coincided with the Apostolic conceptions of the work of Christ,”[\[70\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn70) and with a reference to Ferdinand Baur, concludes Anselm’s work is “exclusively speculative and rationalistic” with a perspective completely alien to New Testament writers. [\[71\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn71) It is conceded that Anselm’s purpose was to provide a work for unbelievers with an apologetic inclination delivered without the presumption of a historical Christ, but to conclude no Scriptural basis in Anselm’s theory is to go too far.[\[72\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn72) An exploration of the biblical basis of Anselm’s Cur Deus Homo? regarding two primary principles of iustitia in Anselm’s theory – substitution and honor – are presented for consideration. First, regarding the substitutionary aspect of the theory it is difficult to ignore Paul’s letter to the Galatians stating, “Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law, having become a curse for us,”[\[73\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn73) which is considered a powerful assertion of substitutionary atonement.[\[74\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn74) Paul also states that Christ became “sin on our behalf”[\[75\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn75) and that God presents Christ as a “Sacrifice of atonement,” rendered propitiation in the New American Standard.[\[76\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn76) Furthermore, Paul explains that Christ was “delivered over because of our transgressions, and was raised because of our justification,”[\[77\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn77) suggesting Christ’s life was to “pay a redemptive price” for individual’s sins in order that God would be justified in extending forgiveness.[\[78\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn78) Most poignantly, however, may be 1 Peter summarily stating that Christ “died for sins once for all, the just for the unjust, so that he might bring us to God,”[\[79\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn79) with the phrase “just for the unjust” being a clear indication of the substitutionary nature of the death of Christ.[\[80\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn80) Second, Anselm’s biblical basis for honor would have undoubtedly been found in the monk’s daily Scripture reading.[\[81\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn81) Christ’s honor is referenced clearly in 2 Peter, which states that “He received honor, and glory from God the Father,”[\[82\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn82) and Revelation provides a number of references to God’s honor including the declaration that “living creatures give glory and honour and thanks to Him who sits on the throne.”[\[83\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn83) Paul may even have proposed that just recompense[\[84\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn84) may also pertain to humanity’s honor by suggesting it may be a legitimate human aspiration.[\[85\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn85) Although the documentation of a biblical basis for Anselm’s work could be significantly augmented into areas of righteousness, sin, revelation, the Garden, and Adam, for our purposes, it is not necessary. Without a doubt the evidence shows that to conclude that Anselm has “no relation to Scripture,”[\[86\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn86) and that his work is “exclusively speculative”[\[87\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftn87) appears a reckless disregard of reasonable alternatives of exegesis relevant to New Testament Scripture. ## CONCLUSION ## The influence of iustitia in Anselm’s theory of satisfaction cannot be underestimated in either its scope or its impact on the history of doctrine. The concept of iustitia lays the framework for Anselm’s theory in relation to creation, the defining of sin, the necessity of the Incarnation, and in the redemption of humanity. Furthermore, the criticism that iustitia is undermined by an application of secular jurisprudence applied to the relationship of God and humanity in Anselm’s theory has been disproved. The attempt to discredit Anselm’s concept of iustitia by suggesting that a moral obligation is handled in the same manner as a financial obligation, thus, redemption is not available via satisfaction because guilt cannot be transferred has also been rebutted. Finally, the criticism leveled against iustitia accusing Anselm’s work of being exclusively speculative by having no relation to Scripture has been thwarted. Iustitia as a basis of Anselm’s Satisfaction theory of atonement remains intact. For further study on the doctrine of atonement, Alister McGrath’s comprehensiveIustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification is considered to be the most thorough treatment of the history of the doctrine since Albrecht Ritschl’s more liberal treatment in A Critical History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation. # \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref1). Alister E. McGrath, Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification (New York: Cambridge University, 2005), 75. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref2). Brian Davies and Brian Leftow, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Anselm (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2004), 279. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref3). Steven S. Aspenson, “In Defense of Anselm,” History of Philosophy Quarterly 7, no. 1 (07/02/2011). [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref4). Davies and Leftow, The Cambridge Companion to Anselm, 282. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref5). McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 80. [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref6). Ibid. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref7). Brian Davies and G. R. Evans, eds., Anselm of Canterbury: The Major Works (New York: Oxford, 1998), 282. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref8). Davies and Leftow, The Cambridge Companion to Anselm, 281. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref9). Ibid. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref10). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury: The Major Works, 283. [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref11). Ibid. [\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref12). McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 80. [\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref13). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury, 269. [\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref14). McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 80. [\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref15). Ibid. [\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref16). Davies and Leftow, The Cambridge Companion to Anselm, 281. [\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref17). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury, 287. [\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref18). Davies and Leftow, The Cambridge Companion to Anselm, 281. [\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref19). McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 80. [\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref20). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury, 283. [\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref21). Ibid. [\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref22). Ibid., 304. [\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref23). McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 80. [\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref24). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury, 304. [\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref25). McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 80. [\[26\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref26). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury, 286. [\[27\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref27). Davies and Leftow, The Cambridge Companion to Anselm, 282. [\[28\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref28). McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 80. [\[29\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref29). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury, 319. [\[30\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref30). Ibid., 320. [\[31\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref31). Ibid., 306. [\[32\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref32). Ibid., 320. [\[33\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref33). McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 80. [\[34\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref34). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury, 354. [\[35\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref35). McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 80. [\[36\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref36). Albrecht Ritschl, A Critical History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation (LaVergne, TN: General Books, 2010), 20. [\[37\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref37). Ibid., 25. [\[38\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref38). Ibid., 27. [\[39\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref39). Davies and Leftow, The Cambridge Companion to Anselm, 291. [\[40\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref40). Ibid., 292. [\[41\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref41). Ibid., 293. [\[42\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref42). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury, 288. [\[43\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref43). Davies and Leftow, The Cambridge Companion to Anselm, 293-94. [\[44\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref44). Ibid., 294. [\[45\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref45). McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 76. [\[46\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref46). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury, 309. [\[47\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref47). McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 76-77. [\[48\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref48). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury, 166. [\[49\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref49). Ibid., 170. [\[50\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref50). McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 77. [\[51\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref51). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury, 311. [\[52\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref52). Ibid. [\[53\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref53). Ibid., 311. [\[54\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref54). McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 76. [\[55\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref55). Ibid., 77. [\[56\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref56). Aspenson, “In Defense of Anselm. [\[57\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref57). Ibid. [\[58\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref58). Ibid. [\[59\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref59). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury, 359-60. [\[60\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref60). George H. Williams and St. Anselm of Canterbury, “The Sacramental Presuppositions of Anselm’s “Cur Deus Homo”,” Church History 26, no. 3 (07/02/2011). [\[61\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref61). Ibid. [\[62\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref62). Davies and Evans, Anselm of Canterbury, 321-22. [\[63\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref63). Aspenson, “In Defense of Anselm. [\[64\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref64). Ibid. [\[65\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref65). Ibid. [\[66\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref66). Ibid. [\[67\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref67). Ibid. [\[68\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref68). Ibid. [\[69\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref69). Ritschl, A Critical History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation, 21. [\[70\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref70). George C. Foley, Anselm’s Theory of the Atonement (New York: Longmans, Green, and, 1908), 143. [\[71\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref71). Ibid., 143-44. [\[72\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref72). Davies and Leftow, The Cambridge Companion to Anselm, 282-83. [\[73\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref73). Galatians 3:13 (New American Standard). [\[74\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref74). John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck, eds., The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty (Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983), 598. [\[75\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref75). 2 Cor. 5:21. [\[76\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref76). Walvoord and Zuck, The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty, 451. [\[77\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref77). Romans 5:25. [\[78\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref78). Walvoord and Zuck, The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty, 455. [\[79\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref79). I Peter 3:18. [\[80\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref80). Walvoord and Zuck, The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty, 851. [\[81\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref81). Davies and Leftow, The Cambridge Companion to Anselm, 294. [\[82\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref82). 2 Peter 1:17. [\[83\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref83). Rev. 4:9, 4:11, 7:12. [\[84\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref84). Walvoord and Zuck, The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty, 445. [\[85\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref85). Davies and Leftow, The Cambridge Companion to Anselm, 294. [\[86\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref86). Ritschl, A Critical History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation, 21. [\[87\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Graduate%20Studies/Liberty/Classwork%20&%20Classes%20Completed/CHHI%20520/WRITINGS/RESEARCH%20PAPER/Iustitia%20in%20Anselms%20Cur%20Deus%20Homo%20-%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL.docx#_ftnref87). Foley, Anselm’s Theory of the Atonement, 143. ## BIBLIOGRAPHY Aspenson, Steven S. “In Defense of Anselm.” History of Philosophy Quarterly 7, no. 1 (07/02/2011): 33-40. Davies, Brian, and Brian Leftow, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Anselm. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2004. Davies, Brian, and G. R. Evans, eds. Anselm of Canterbury: The Major Works. New York: Oxford, 1998. Foley, George C. Anselm’s Theory of the Atonement. New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1908. McGrath, Alister E. Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification. New York: Cambridge University, 2005. Ritschl, Albrecht. A Critical History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation. LaVergne, TN: General Books, 2010. Walvoord, John F., and Roy B. Zuck, eds. The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty. Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983. Williams, George H., and St. Anselm of Canterbury. “The Sacramental Presuppositions of Anselm’s “Cur Deus Homo”.” Church History 26, no. 3 (07/02/2011): 259-260. # 1 Comment 1. ![Derek Wilder](https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/7061e8f0b177d10e9fc09fd1c16d9c277d599e1561ae234a3ca65ae4f621cde3?s=80&d=mm&r=g) Derek Wilder on June 7, 2011 at 2:39 am An interesting thought, however, Theodore does not provide the complete sentence when referring to Romans 2:13. He provides a phrase at the end of a sentence that starts in verse 12. A classic case of proof-texting, and unfortunately, “going beyond what is written.” The Jews are actually being referred to as the hearers of the Law and if you are living under the Law (instead of the Gospel) you will be judged by the Law (doing it). This explains the context of the entire sentence included in verse 12 and 13. Believers in Christ are not held to this standard, as good works do not save, but are evidence of a changed life. Much of Romans is devoted to this extremely important thesis. Furthermore, if Theodore is correct, he would need to remove Galatians from the cannon as his statement conflicts with the entire book. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Christian Apologetics](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-apologetics/) **Published:** April 1, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** This research brief describes Christian apologetics in the second century. What were the accusations against Christians? How did apologists like Justin respond? What apologetic principles could be used today in a modern context? All these questions and more are answered in this article. **Content:** # Christian Apologetics # CHRISTIAN APOLOGETICS Describe Christian apologetics in the second century. What were the accusations against Christians? How did apologists like Justin respond? What apologetic principles could be used today in a modern context? [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 1 1 182x300 - Christian Apologetics](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-1-1-182x300.png "Christian Apologetics - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4lqAzFZ)Church History, Volume One: From Christ to the Pre-Reformation: The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context Ferguson explains that Christian apologetics of the second century were represented by writers such as Aristides, Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, and Theophilus who referenced a rich Jewish apologetic heritage. The Apologists argued that Hebrew Scripture preceded Greek thought, could be interpreted from a Greek perspective, provided valuable concepts to Greek culture, and supported monotheistic principles embedded in Greek history. (Ferguson, 2005, pp. 71-72, 77) The deep and extensive tradition allowed them to answer important questions regarding the perceived modernism of Christianity, the speculation of an impassible deity, and the dichotomic relationship of demons and martyrs with a benevolent God. (Ferguson, 2005, pp. 77-78) Furthermore, the Apologists transitioned away from a first century focus on Christian insiders by shamelessly utilizing “pagan philosophy and literature to defend and clarify Christian thought” for the benefit of a non-Christian reader. (Ferguson, 2005, p.78) According to Ferguson, the specific accusations against Christians primarily focused on atheism, cannibalism and incest. A Christian atheist may at first appear counter-intuitive, however, during the second century an atheist was defined as an individual who did not follow [the religious tradition](https://www.livestransforming.com/jewish-religious-thought/) of the Greco-Roman culture. The charge of cannibalism may appear even more outrageous without an understanding that the flesh and blood reality of the Eucharist was vehemently argued even by Christians. And unfortunately, language referring to brothers and sisters in Christ sharing a love feast may have been a misunderstanding or simply an excuse for authorities to condemn a religious group not complying with the current cultural identity. (Ferguson, 2005, pp. 66-67) More generally, Christians were accused of criminal activities which included worshipping a man who claimed to be a king and the refusal to participate in certain political activities, both creating a perceived threat to the Roman government. (Ferguson, p. 69) One of the most important Apologists of the second century was Justin Martyr. (Ferguson, 2005, p. 73) Justin, typical of other apologists, responded to the accusations against Christians by using arguments that integrated a Greek perspective of the Logos, cited Hebrew prophecy, and referenced a Greek culture surrounded by false gods. (Roberts & Donaldson, 1999, pp. 163-186) Regarding charges against atheism, Justin argued that even Greek reason (Logos) through Socrates and Reason Himself, the Word (Logos), in the form of Jesus Christ, denied the assertion that pagan gods were anything other than demons. (Roberts & Donaldson, 1999, p. 164) Justin also used Hebrew prophecy to argue that Christ is the incarnate Son of God by referring to Messianic references from various Prophets including Moses and Isaiah. (Roberts & Donaldson, 1999, pp. 173-180) Finally, Justin utilized Greek cultural perspectives that provided analogies between pagan gods and the Son of God, but argued Christian beliefs can stand on their own regardless of any resemblance; and further suggested that demons would be responsible for any misguided pagan anticipation of the incarnation. (Roberts & Donaldson, 1999, pp. 171-172, 181-183) In an evangelical environment that, at times, fears secular perspectives, it is possible to extend empathy, as modeled by the second century Apologists, toward modern worldviews of non-Christians. Furthermore, the rich Christian apologetic heritage continues to expand presenting further opportunity to apply its precepts to modern thought. In summary, the empathy of the apologists of antiquity and the foundation of a deep apologetic heritage continue to provide a backdrop for delivering a message of hope relevant to those with a suspicious and untrusting view of contemporary Christianity. # References Ferguson, E. (2005). Church History: Volume One: From Christ to Pre-Reformation: The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Roberts, A., & Donaldson, J. (Eds.). (1999). Ante-Nicene Fathers Volume 1: The Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Luther Salvation](https://www.livestransforming.com/luther-salvation/) **Published:** October 29, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** This research shows that Luther’s view of the nature God's righteousness culminates in an alien righteousness characterizing Luther’s distinct breakthrough. This study provides a brief etymological introduction of the righteousness of God, followed by an analysis of Luther’s break with the theology of his peers, the via moderna. The distinct nature of Luther’s breakthrough will then be revealed in his divergence with Augustine. An exploration of potential traditional alternatives to Luther’s distinct breakthrough will be reviewed, and finally, a fascinating look into a possible non-traditional alternative embodied in Ritschlian theology will be investigated. **Content:** # Luther Salvation # LUTHER SALVATION # *Iustitia Dei* – The Distinct Breakthrough # INTRODUCTION The doctrine of justification is certainly one of the most influential concepts underlying the Protestant Reformation. Accordingly, the distinct breakthrough Luther experienced regarding iustitia Dei, the righteousness of God, within the context of the Protestant doctrine of justification has been a topic of significant debate. This paper will prove that Luther’s view of the nature of iustitia Dei culminates in an iustitia Christi aliena, which characterizes Luther’s distinct breakthrough. The forthcoming study will provide a brief etymological introduction of iustitia Dei followed by an analysis of Luther’s break with the theology of his peers, the via moderna. The distinct nature of Luther’s breakthrough will then be revealed in his divergence with Augustine. An engaging exploration of potential traditional alternatives to Luther’s distinct breakthrough will be explored, and finally, a fascinating look into a possible non-traditional alternative embodied in Ritschlian theology will be investigated. # IUSTITIA DEI Iustitia Dei is a Latin term defined as the justice or [righteousness of God](https://www.livestransforming.com/martin-luthers-righteousness-of-god/).[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn1) However, the meaning is much less conspicuous than the definition conveys. In fact, Paul’s view of iustitia Dei continues to be debated with no definitive conclusions in sight.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn2) The meaning of iustitia Dei has altered through history as it has transitioned from Hebrew, Greek, and, finally, into the Latin language. However, it plays a crucial role in understanding Luther’s theological developments. According to Alister McGrath the Hebrew terms normally translated ‘righteousness’ are sedeq and sedaqa, which have a plethora of potential meanings, but are based on a “conformity to a norm.” The oldest meaning of sedaqa appears to be ‘victory’ and includes not only a retributive aspect regarding Israel’s enemies, but also a salvific aspect regarding God’s people. The covenantal quality of iustitia Dei in the Old Testament consistently leads to a connection between “moral and salvific orders.”[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn3) The Greek term used in the Septuagint for ‘righteousness’ is dikaiosyne.[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn4) By the time of the LXX dikaiosyne had already been influenced by the Aristotelian thought of iustitia distributive – “giving a person their due.”[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn5) Aristotle’s ethics placed ‘righteousness’ within a political context based on the benefit it brings to a political community.[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn6) Accordingly, the secularized Aristotelian concept of ‘righteousness’ is void of the soteriological implications of the Hebrew term.[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn7) By the time of Jerome’s Vulgate the Latin term iustitia had a legal connotation that would have significant influence on future theological thought.[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn8) The Ciceronian definition of iustitia established by second century AD was “to render to all their due.”[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn9) Again, all Hebraic covenantal connections between God and humanity and any soteriological implications are absent.[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn10) Furthermore, church theologians for the first fifteen hundred years of scholarship relied on the Latin Vulgate and few had access the etymology of iustitia Dei in the original Hebrew.[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn11) It was within this historically juristic backdrop of ‘righteousness’ that Luther experienced his distinct breakthrough of the meaning of iustitia Dei that powerfully impacted the Reformation. # # LUTHER’S BREAK WITH THE VIA MODERNA “I hated that word iustitia Dei.”[\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn12) This candid reflection from Luther’s famous preface to the first volume of an edition of his works written in 1545 was based on the training young Luther had received from his teachers who, consistent with theologians of the Middle Ages, defined iustitia Dei as an active righteousness whereby “God is righteous and punishes the unrighteous sinner.”[\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn13) This early view of iustitia Dei referred to in the Preface is foundational to Luther’s early thought. Luther’s early view of iustitia Dei is connected with the via moderna.[\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn14) The via moderna was based on the idea that once a man meets the requirements of God by doing ‘what lies within him’, quod in se est, then God will confer the gift of justifying grace.[\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn15) The entire theological tradition of medieval theology from the twelfth century to the beginning of the sixteenth century believed justification was obtained in this manner.[\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn16) Unfortunately, the theological view of the via moderna regarding man’s precise obligation to God caused significant uncertainty regarding whether a man had met the requirements.[\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn17) Accordingly, Luther was abundantly grateful for the “wonderful new definition of righteousness” obtained sometime during 1515 that would solve the dilemma.[\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn18) Three theological modifications led to Luther’s break with the via moderna, which included an insistence that humans are passive in their justification, incapable of attaining righteousness without divine grace, and unable to do quod in se est without being considered Pelagian.[\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn19) Luther reflects on his new definition of iustitia Dei later in life that originated from the three theological insights: At last, by the mercy of God, meditating day and night, I gave heed to the context of the words, namely, ‘In the righteousness of God is revealed, as it is written, He who through faith is righteous shall live.’ There I began to understand that the righteousness of God is that by which the righteous lives by a gift of God, namely by faith. And this is the meaning: the righteousness of God is revealed by the gospel, namely, the passive righteousness with which merciful God justifies us by faith, as it is written, ‘He who through faith is righteous shall live.’ Here I felt that I was altogether born again and had entered paradise itself through open gates. There a totally other face of the entire Scripture showed itself to me.[\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn20) Although Luther now understands that iustitia Dei pertains to a righteousness that justifies the ungodly, as opposed to a righteousness that represents a just God, and a significant break had occurred from the theological nature of the via moderna, it is important to note that Luther’s reference in his Preface in 1545 is not distinct.[\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn21) In fact, Luther was pleased to find that in Augustine’s On the Spirit and the Letter the righteousness of God was interpreted “not that whereby He is Himself righteous, but that with which He endows man when He justifies the ungodly.”[\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn22) In order to identify the distinct nature of Luther’s breakthrough it is necessary to turn to the Roman’s Lectures (1515-16). # # LUTHER’S BREAK WITH AUGUSTINE Luther’s break with Augustine is based on the anthropological assertion that a believer is simul iustus et peccator, simultaneously righteous and a sinner.[\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn23) Luther’s understanding of simul iustus et peccator originates from a holistic view of humanity that reaches its logical conclusions in Luther’s distinct breakthrough – iustitia Christi aliena.[\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn24) Although Karl Holl aggressively believed Luther’s doctrine of justification had reached a conclusion by 1516, most would at least agree the foundation of Luther’s thought regarding his doctrine did exist, although in an Augustinian framework, by the time the Roman’s Lectures (1515-16) were complete.[\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn25) Luther believes that “flesh” and “spirit” are not bifurcated, but regarded as unique aspects of the whole person. His belief is well represented in his Roman’s Lectures: But if the mind, the carnal man, dies a spiritual death, we are already dead to the Law in the whole person, and so also we are liberated in our whole person. Whether the apostle now looks at the flesh or at the spirit, we are still the same unit…He does not want to lust, and he judges that it is a good thing not to lust, and yet he lusts and does not carry out his own will, and thus he is fighting with himself; but because the spirit and the flesh are so intimately bound together into one, although they completely disagree with each other, therefore he attributes to himself as a whole person the work of both of them, as if he were at the same time completely flesh and completely spirit.[\[26\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn26) According to Luther, a person cannot be part righteous and part sinner, thus, iustitia Dei is extended to the whole person who is considered iustus et peccator simul – inherently a sinner, but extrinsically righteous.[\[27\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn27) Luther’s holistic view of humanity is noted in the famous reference to the Parable of the Good Samaritan in his Roman’s Lectures: It is similar to the case of a sick man who believes the doctor who promises him a sure recovery and in the meantime obeys the doctor’s order in the hope of the promised recovery and abstains from those things which have been forbidden him, so that he may in no way hinder the promised return to health or increase his sickness until the doctor can fulfill his promise to him. Now is this sick man well? The fact is that he is both sick and well at the same time. He is sick in fact, but he is well because of the sure promise of the doctor, whom he trusts and who has reckoned him as already cured, because he is sure that he will cure him; for he has already begun to cure him and no longer reckons to him a sickness unto death. In the same way Christ, our Samaritan, has brought His half-dead man into the inn to be cared for, and He has begun to heal him, having promised him the most complete cure unto eternal life, and He does not impute his sins, that is, his wicked desires, unto death, but in the meantime in the hope of the promised recovery He prohibits him from doing or omitting things by which his cure might be impeded and his sin, that is, his concupiscence, might be increased. Now, is he perfectly righteous? No, for he is at the same time both a sinner and a righteous man; \[simul iustus et peccator\] a sinner in fact, but a righteous man by the sure imputation and promise of God that He will continue to deliver him from sin until He has completely cured him.[\[28\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn28) In other words, based on Luther’s anthropological assessments, man is neither being made righteous nor treated as if he was righteous, but man, while a sinner, is completely righteous in actuality by the clothing of the iustitia Christi aliena, the alien righteousness of Christ, which, as will be shown, breaks with Augustinian thought.[\[29\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn29) Although Luther’s justifying righteousness is in agreement with Augustine regarding its nature, it departs significantly in regards to its location.[\[30\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn30) For Augustine, operative grace was intrinsic and could move a believer toward “becoming righteous.” [\[31\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn31) Luther disagreed with any notion that a believer could “become righteous,” instead, his view of extrinsic righteousness would actually cause believers to be more aware of their unrighteousness and impel them back to the cross.[\[32\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn32) In fact, iustitia Christi aliena “has no Augustinian parallel.”[\[33\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn33) It has now been shown that Luther’s discovery is distinct from the via moderna in nature and distinct from Augustine in location. Luther’s new Augustinian view of the nature of iustitia Dei, a righteousness that justifies the ungodly, that culminates in the identification of the location of iustitia Dei, a righteousness in iustitia Christi aliena, characterizes Luther’s distinct breakthrough. Although Luther’s distinct breakthrough has been identified, it is necessary to investigate potential alternative views. # ALTERNATIVE VIEWS There are a number of alternative views of iustitia Dei associated with the Reformation that may be examined when attempting to identify Luther’s distinct breakthrough. Three possibilities will be explored including the concept of imputation, the reunification of Christ’s righteousness with God’s justice, and the impact of Christ’s presence. All fall short of fulfilling the requirements to qualify as Luther’s distinct breakthrough, but do fulfill complimentary roles to a traditional analysis of Luther. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 1 4 182x300 - Luther Salvation](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-1-4-182x300.png "Luther Salvation - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3Y7SJC4)Theology of the Reformers: 25th Anniversary First, Timothy George appropriately identifies imputation as one of the essential features of Luther’s new view of justification.[\[34\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn34) More specifically, he explains that the alien righteousness of Christ does not eliminate sin, but it no longer has the power to indict due to the forensic nature of the Christ’s righteousness.[\[35\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn35) George also correctly points out that for Luther a more appropriate interpretation of Paul’s Greek verb was “to declare righteous” as opposed to the Augustinian interpretation, which was “to make righteous.”[\[36\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn36) All the tenants of George are valid, but care must be taken as Luther did not “teach a doctrine of forensic justification in the strict sense.”[\[37\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn37) A strict view of forensic justification requires a distinction between justification and sanctification, which was certainly a characteristic of the Reformation, but “no part of Luther’s thought.”[\[38\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn38) Luther’s extrinsic view of righteousness did lay a foundation for Melanchthon’s strict doctrine of imputation, but to suggest the concept of imputation was distinctly Luther would go further than the evidence supports.[\[39\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn39) Second, Heiko Oberman posits a thought provoking hypothesis suggesting that Luther’s discovery can be summarized in one sentence: “the heart of the Gospel is that the iustitia Christi and the iustitia Dei coincide and are granted simultaneously.”[\[40\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn40) Oberman points out that in the Middle Ages “iustitia Christi” was sacramentally procured, but there continued to be additional requirements in order to obtain “iustitia Dei.”[\[41\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn41) Furthermore, to assist in proving his thesis via elimination, Oberman explains that Luther’s distinct discovery of iustitia Dei could be neither that grace was always prevenient, which was the theme of the medieval anti-pelagian argument, nor could it be that a “sinner is justified through sanctifying grace” and receives iustitia Christi, for the Thomists and Scotists had already furthered this argument.[\[42\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn42) Instead, Luther’s discovery was that iustitia Dei was revealed through iustitia Christi.[\[43\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn43) Without question Oberman makes a valid point and provides appropriate distinctions with medieval theologians, but unfortunately, does not explicitly distinguish his view from Augustine. Oberman’s thesis properly addresses the forensic nature of Luther’s discovery, but ignores the extrinsic location; thus, it falls short of distinguishing itself from Augustine.[\[44\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn44) [](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn44)Finally, a more recent analysis regarding the distinctiveness of Luther’s teaching on justification has arisen from the ‘Finnish School’, which places an emphasis on a believer’s “actual participation in the divine life through union with Christ.”[\[45\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn45) According to the Finnish view, Christ’s presence is identical with the righteousness that exists via faith.[\[46\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn46) The following exemplifies the Finnish School’s emphasis within Luther’s writings: The third incomparable benefit of faith is that it unites the soul with Christ as a bride is united with her bridegroom. By this mystery, as the Apostle teaches, Christ and the soul become one flesh \[Eph. 5:31–32\]. And if they are one flesh and there is between them a true marriage—indeed the most perfect of all marriages, since human marriages are but poor examples of this one true marriage—it follows that everything they have they hold in common, the good as well as the evil. Accordingly the believing soul can boast of and glory in whatever Christ has as though it were its own, and whatever the soul has Christ claims as his own.[\[47\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn47) The Finnish approach certainly accentuates the forensic nature of justification and provides a fresh perspective on its transformational message, but it is not Luther’s distinct breakthrough.[\[48\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn48) Instead, it is a natural extension or result of Luther’s emphasis on the relational aspects of his distinctly extrinsic breakthrough of iustitia Christi aliena. # # RITSCHL ON LUTHER It would be difficult to ignore Albrecht Ritschl, the influential German liberal theologian, in any discussion on iustitia Dei within the context of the Reformation. Ritschl’s goal as a theologian was to complete the Reformation by bringing Protestantism, and especially Luther, to theological maturity through his magnum opus, The Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation.[\[49\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn49) More specifically, Ritschl concludes the basis of Luther’s theology is not the doctrine of justification, but “the thought of the abiding revelation of love as the essence of God in Christ.”[\[50\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn50) A brief explanation of Ritschl’s view will be provided followed by a polemic that disproves that Ritschl adequately encompasses Luther’s distinct breakthrough. According to Ritschl’s interpretation of Luther, iustitia Dei was existentially appropriated to man by living in the love and trust of God, which led to a moral life through a community of believers.[\[51\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn51) In other words, iustitia Dei was not a theological dictum, but an experience of assurance that led to a Christian life of freedom and joy that paradoxically was subject to no man, but morally obligated to all.[\[52\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn52) Furthermore, Ritschl believed Luther’s evolution of thought as a result of mounting Roman Catholic pressure disintegrated and gradually inhabited a cold, rational, and purely forensic doctrine of justification, which led to a distorted pietistic view that made justification dependent on the degree of sanctification that ultimately produced a “revivalist form of legalism.”[\[53\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn53) It is evident that Ritschl reinforced a number of Luther’s essential themes. For example, there is certainly a strong existential element as well as a unity of justification and sanctification, subsequently detached by Melanchthon, central to Luther’s theology.[\[54\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn54) However, according to David Lotz’s work, Ritschl & Luther, Ritschl missed that Luther’s justification spawns a new creature and does not properly emphasize simul justus et peccator.[\[55\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn55) Furthermore, Ritschl’s implication that man can find a moral ideal in Christ appears exceedingly incongruent with Luther’s view of regeneration.[\[56\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn56) Accordingly, Ritschl’s view of Luther’s iustitia Dei is “not only dubious, but patently defective.”[\[57\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn57) To suggest that Ritschl is not a major contributor would be inappropriate, but to connect Ritschl’s understanding of Luther’s iustitia Dei as representative of Luther’s distinct breakthrough would be reckless. # CONCLUSION The influence of Luther’s distinct view of iustitia Dei cannot be underestimated in either its scope or its impact on the history of doctrine of justification. Luther’s concept of iustitia Dei lays the framework for the Reformative development of the doctrine. It has been shown that Luther’s Augustinian view of the nature of iustitia Dei culminated in a righteousness located in iustitia Christi aliena, which characterizes Luther’s distinct breakthrough and aligns with the true soteriological Hebraic meaning of iustitia Dei.[\[58\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftn58) Furthermore, the traditional potential alternatives that include imputation as discussed by George, reunification of Christ’s righteousness with God’s justice as purported by Oberman, and the presence of Christ as maintained by the Finnish School all fall short of fulfilling the requirements of Luther’s distinct breakthrough. Finally, the possibility of Ritschl’s revelation of love perspective qualifying as a distinct breakthrough of Luther has been thwarted. Of course, to suggest that Luther had no additional subsequent breakthroughs would be a grievous mistake, but to conclude that any successive breakthroughs regarding the doctrine of justification are built upon the nature of Luther’s distinct breakthrough that culminated in iustitia Christi aliena is not unreasonable. For further study on the doctrine of the doctrine of justification, Alister McGrath’s comprehensive Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification is considered to be the most thorough treatment of the history of the doctrine since Albrecht Ritschl’s more liberal treatment in A Critical History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref1)Richard A. Muller, Dictionary of Latin and Greek Theological Terms: Drawn Principally from Protestant Scholastic Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1995), 164. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref2)Alister E. McGrath, Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification (New York: Cambridge University, 2005), 21. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref3)Ibid., 8-10. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref4)Muller, Dictionary of Latin and Greek Theological Terms: Drawn Principally from Protestant Scholastic Theology, 93. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref5)McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 14. [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref6)Aristotle, Politics I 1253a 2- 3. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref7)McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 15. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref8)Ibid., 16. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref9)W. Lucas Collins, Cicero: Ancient Classics for English Readers (Middlesex, UK: Echo Library, 2007), 92-93. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref10)McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 17. [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref11)Ibid., 16. [\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref12)Martin Luther, “Preface to the Complete Edition of Luther’s Latin Writings, 1545,” in Career of the Reformer IV, ed. Lewis W. Spitz, trans. Lewis W. Spitz, vol. 34 of Luther’s Works (LW), American ed., ed. Jarosalav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1965), 336. [\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref13)Ibid. [\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref14)McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 219. [\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref15)Alister E. McGrath, Luther’s Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1985), 86. [\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref16)Ibid. [\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref17)Alister E. McGrath, Luther’s Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough, second ed. (United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), 177. [\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref18)McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 221-22. [\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref19)Ibid., 220-21. [\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref20)Luther, “Preface to the Complete Edition of Luther’s Latin Writings, 1545,” LW, 34: 337. [\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref21)McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 222. [\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref22)Saint Augustin, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers Volume 5: Augustin: Anti-Pelagian Writings, ed. Philip Schaff, trans. Peter Holmes and Robert Ernest Wallis (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1999), 88-89. [\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref23)McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 226. [\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref24)McGrath, Luther’s Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough, 182-83. [\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref25)James F. McCue, “”Simul Iustus Et Peccator” in Augustine, Aquinas, and Luther: Toward Putting the Debate in Context,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 48, no. 1 (March 1980): III, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1463542 (accessed May 29, 2011). [\[26\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref26)Martin Luther, “Lectures on Romans,” in Scholia, ed. Hilton C. Oswald, trans. Jacob A. O. Preus, vol. 25 of Luther’s Works (LW), American ed., ed. Jarosalav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1965), 332-33. [\[27\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref27)McGrath, Luther’s Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough, 182-83. [\[28\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref28)Luther, “Lectures on Romans,” LW, 25: 260. [\[29\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref29)Alister E. McGrath, “Forerunners of the Reformation?: A Critical Examination of the Evidence for Precursors of the Reformation Doctrines of Justification,” The Harvard Theological Review 75, no. 2 (April 1982): I, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1509561 (accessed June 7, 2011). [\[30\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref30)Ibid., II. [\[31\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref31)Alister E. McGrath, Luther’s of the Cross: Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough, second ed. (United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), 184. [\[32\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref32)Ibid. [\[33\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref33)McGrath, “Forerunners of the Reformation?: A Critical Examination of the Evidence for Precursors of the Reformation Doctrines of Justification,” II. [\[34\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref34)Timothy George, Theology of the Reformers (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1988), 69. [\[35\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref35)Ibid. [\[36\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref36)Ibid., 70. [\[37\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref37)McGrath, “Forerunners of the Reformation?: A Critical Examination of the Evidence for Precursors of the Reformation Doctrines of Justification,” I. [\[38\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref38)Ibid., I-II. [\[39\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref39)McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 229. [\[40\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref40)Heiko A. Oberman, “”Iustitia Christi” and “Iustitia Dei”: Luther and the Scholastic Doctrines of Justification,” Harvard Theological Review 59, no. 1 (January 1966): 19. [\[41\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref41)Ibid. [\[42\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref42)Ibid., 19. [\[43\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref43)Ibid. [\[44\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref44)McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 213. [\[45\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref45)Ibid., 225. [\[46\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref46)Ibid. [\[47\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref47)Martin Luther, “The Freedom of a Christian,” in Career of the Reformer I, ed. Harold J. Grimm, trans. W. A. Lambert, vol. 31 of Luther’s Works (LW), American ed., ed. Jarosalav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1965), 351. [\[48\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref48)McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 225. [\[49\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref49)David W. Lotz, “Albrecht Ritschl and the Unfinished Reformation,” Harvard Theological Review 73, no. 3-4 (July-October 1980): 339. [\[50\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref50)Terrence Reynolds, “Ritschl’s Appropriation of Luther,” A Reappraisal 55, no. 2-3 (April-July 1991): 106. [\[51\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref51)Ibid. [\[52\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref52)Ibid., 107. [\[53\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref53)Ibid., 109-111. [\[54\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref54)Ibid., 120. [\[55\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref55)David W. Lotz, Ritschl & Luther: A Fresh Perspective on Albrecht Ritschl’s Theology in the Light of His Luther Study (New York: Abingdon, 1974), 98-104. [\[56\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref56)Reynolds, “Ritschl’s Appropriation of Luther,” 121. [\[57\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref57)Lotz, Ritschl & Luther: A Fresh Perspective on Albrecht Ritschl’s Theology in the Light of His Luther Study, 105. [\[58\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/CHHI%20525%20Research%20Paper%20-%20FINAL%20SUBMITTED.docx#_ftnref58)McGrath, “Forerunners of the Reformation?: A Critical Examination of the Evidence for Precursors of the Reformation Doctrines of Justification,” II. **BIBLIOGRAPHY** Augustin, Saint. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers Volume 5: Augustin: Anti-Pelagian Writings. Edited by Philip Schaff. Translated by Peter Holmes and Robert Ernest Wallis. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1999. Collins, W. Lucas. Cicero: Ancient Classics for English Readers. Middlesex, UK: Echo Library, 2007. George, Timothy. Theology of the Reformers. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1988. Lotz, David W. “Albrecht Ritschl and the Unfinished Reformation.” Harvard Theological Review 73, no. 3-4 (July-October 1980): 337-72. ———. Ritschl & Luther: A Fresh Perspective on Albrecht Ritschl’s Theology in the Light of His Luther Study. New York: Abingdon, 1974. Luther, Martin. Luther’s Works. American edition. 55 vols. Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehman. Philadelphia: Muehlenberg and Fortress, and Saint Louis: Concordia, 1955-1986. McCue, James F. “Simul Iustus Et Peccator in Augustine, Aquinas, and Luther: Toward Putting the Debate in Context.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 48, no. 1 (March 1980): 81-96. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1463542 (accessed May 29, 2011). McGrath, Alister E. “Forerunners of the Reformation?: A Critical Examination of the Evidence for Precursors of the Reformation Doctrines of Justification.” The Harvard Theological Review 75, no. 2 (April 1982): 219-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1509561 (accessed June 7, 2011). ———. Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification. New York: Cambridge University, 2005. ———. Luther’s Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough. Second ed. United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. ———. Luther’s Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1985. Muller, Richard A. Dictionary of Latin and Greek Theological Terms: Drawn Principally from Protestant Scholastic Theology. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1995. Oberman, Heiko A. “”Iustitia Christi” and “Iustitia Dei”: Luther and the Scholastic Doctrines of Justification.” Harvard Theological Review 59, no. 1 (January 1966). Reynolds, Terrence. “Ritschl’s Appropriation of Luther.” A Reappraisal 55, no. 2-3 (April-July 1991): 105-30. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Systematic Theology](https://www.livestransforming.com/systematic-theology/) **Published:** October 31, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** What is Systematic Theology and how does it relate to three other disciplines of theology: biblical theology, historical theology, and philosophical theology? Find out the answers in this insightful post. **Content:** # Systematic Theology What is Systematic Theology and how does it relate to three other disciplines of theology: biblical theology, historical theology, and philosophical theology. Which of the four approaches is the most important in your current or future ministry context? [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 24 182x300 - Systematic Theology](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-24-182x300.jpg "Systematic Theology - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3QUMdL6)Christian Theology Dermarest suggests that systematic theology is “the attempt to reduce religious truth to a coherent and relevant whole for the church” (Elwell, 2001, p. 1162). More specifically, the reductionist process utilizes exegetical, biblical and historical theology to formulate and contemporize a theological framework (Elwell, 2001). A brief exploration of the relationship between systematic theology and biblical, historical, and philosophical theology will be provided. Although biblical theology may be overly simplified as a theology that represents the books of the bible in a coherent order, additional explanations aid in shedding light on the phrase’s multiple meanings (Elwell, 2001). Biblical theology may be considered a movement that lasted for approximately two decades starting in the 1940s, a descriptive or normative theology of the Old and New Testaments, or simply a theology that is based on Scripture (Erickson, 1998). In relation to biblical theology, systematic theology extrapolates a normative biblical theology into a contemporary idiom and integrates the work of the biblical theologian into its analysis (Erickson, 1998). W. G. T. Shedd (2003) additionally suggests that systematic theology should be employed to correct biblical theology for two reasons. First, biblical theology is fractional and can lead to an incomplete view of Scripture, and furthermore, the risk of “subjective individual opinions” significantly increases when the entire cannon is not taken into account (p. 50). Historical theology “traces the church’s faith topically through the various eras of its history” (Elwell, 2001, p. 1164). Erickson (1998) shows the important relationship between historical and systematic theology by providing three significant benefits that historical theology provides the systematic theologian. First, historical theology provides alternative interpretations from different historical timeframes that can increase awareness of our own bias or presumptions (Erickson, 1998). Second, by studying great theologians of the past historical theology provides insight into various ways of doing theology (Erickson, 1998). Finally, historical theology has the potential of shedding light on the validity of an idea by referencing analyses of similar ideas in prior periods (Erickson, 1998). Philosophical theology is “theologizing that draws on the input of philosophy rather than using merely biblical materials” (Erickson, 1998, p. 29). Philosophical theology also provides three potential benefits to systematic theology including supplying its content, defending its arguments, and examining the validity of its assertions (Erickson, 1998). Although some theologians such as Karl Barth vehemently argue against philosophy supplying content, Erickson (1998) believes that philosophy can provide a significant benefit in scrutinizing theology’s assertions and cautiously believes it may have the ability to defend certain arguments of systematic theology (p. 29). The most important approach to my current ministry context is systematic theology. The para-church ministry I am involved with utilizes a convergence of cognitive precepts and Christian spiritual principles to inform one’s interpersonal and professional growth. And though correct [biblical interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-history-of-biblical-interpretation/) is crucial, a historical perspective of the patristic and Reformation period is supportive, and philosophical perspectives are integral, each individual perspective is fragmentary. Accordingly, a solid systematic theology is necessary for maximum efficacy of the ministry. ## **References** Elwell, W. A. (Ed.). (2001). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. Erickson, M. J. (1998). Christian Theology (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. Shedd, W. G. T. (2003). In A. W. Gomes (Ed.), Dogmatic Theology (3rd ed.). Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Problem of Evil](https://www.livestransforming.com/problem-of-evil/) **Published:** October 31, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** The problem of evil has perplexed theologians for centuries. What are three common solutions? This article explores three common solutions to the problem of evil? **Content:** # Problem of Evil [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 24 182x300 - Problem of Evil](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-24-182x300.jpg "Problem of Evil - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3QUMdL6)Christian Theology The problem of evil has perplexed theologians for centuries. What are three common solutions? This article explores three common solutions to the problem of evil? Three common solutions to the problem of evil are Finitism, the modification of God’s goodness, and the denial of evil (Erickson 1998, 439-45). Finitism is the repudiation of God’s omnipotence, the modification of God’s goodness regards God as the ultimate cause of sin, and the denial of evil deems the problem of evil irrelevant since it is absent (Erickson 1998, 439-45). The following analysis will evaluate Erickson’s response to these three common solutions. Erickson (1998) addresses Finitism through Edgar S. Brightman’s personal idealism. Brightman’s God is an eternal and finite God who works with the “uncreated laws of reason” and the “uncreated processes of nonrational consciousness” (440). More specifically, Brightman believes surd evil exists not because God is finite, but because God’s will is finite and argues that an evil “something” uncreated by God must exist in order to further humanity’s motivation to overcome it (Erickson 1998, 440-442). Erickson (1998) concedes that Brightman in some ways solves the problem of evil, but appropriately refutes the philosopher’s denial of God’s omnipotence (441-442). Alternatively, Erickson (1998) supports Wieman’s assertion that Brightman’s God is a deity with a bifurcated nature, which questions God’s goodness (442). Finally, it appears Erickson (1998) could have extended his critique of Brightman’s absurd notion that Finitism somehow appropriately motivates humanity to participate in the struggle to overcome evil (440-442). The alteration of God’s goodness as a solution to the problem of evil is addressed by Erickson’s (1998) explanation of Gordon H. Clark’s proposal (442). Clark’s deterministic view of God unabashedly “makes God the cause of sin” (Erickson 1998, 443). Clark clarifies this controversial phrase by suggesting that the procuring cause of a sin event does not necessitate the performance of the event, thus God “does not commit sin” (Erickson 1998, 443). Erickson (1998) refutes Clark’s emphasis on the similar obligations of God and humanity, his suggestion that the will of God is random, and his notion that God “cannot be responsible” (444). Erickson’s (1998) most poignant critique refutes Clark’s inappropriate link between accountability and morality (443-444). However, by acquiescing to the potential efficacy of low level behaviorism, Erickson (1998) does not go far enough (444). Erickson (1998) could have further refuted Clark’s spurious assertion that “man is responsible because God calls him to account” by accentuating that a believer’s pursuit of morality is an extension of goodness powered by God, as opposed to an egocentric act of self-preservation (444). Erickson (1998) spends considerable time addressing [Christian Science’s solution](https://www.livestransforming.com/theology-science-and-philosophy/) to the problem of evil, which simply denies evil exists (445). Christian Science believes that evil is simply “a false belief,” thus even disease is an illusion (445). Erickson (1998) responds to Christian Science by noting that disease continues so evil has obviously not been extinguished, the illusion is not explained by its proponents, and the theories are simply not effective (446). Erickson’s (1998) analysis regarding Christian Science is correct (445-46). # # References Erickson, M. J. 1998. Christian Theology. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Image of God](https://www.livestransforming.com/image-of-god/) **Published:** October 31, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** What does it mean to be made in the image of God? What features of the Creation account explain the relationship of the woman to the man? **Content:** # Image of God [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 24 182x300 - Image of God](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-24-182x300.jpg "Image of God - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3QUMdL6)Christian Theology What does it mean to be made in the image of God? What features of the Creation account explain the relationship of the woman to the man? To be made in the image of God means that “humanity is in certain respects created in the divine likeness” (Elwell 2001, 591). Humanity’s divine likeness is supported by various Scriptures including the famous [Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/) creation account that states, “God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him” (Genesis 1:27). The New Testament further reinforces the creation account both in the writings of Paul and James (I Corinthians 11:7, James 3:9). Three broad views of the image of God will be explored: the substantive, the relational, and the functional (Erickson 1998, 520). The most common substantive view relates the image of God to a psychological or spiritual aspect of humanity that has historically overshadowed other views (Erickson 1998, 520-521). Although certain Church Fathers such as Origen and Irenaeus originally divided the concepts of image and likeness, the distinction was further developed by medieval theologians who suggested “image” pertained to reason whereas “likeness” pertained to morality (Erickson 1998, 522). Luther denied any division between image and likeness, which was consistent with his theology of the cross (Erickson 1998, 523). Similarly, Calvin denied a dualistic perspective and suggested that a “relic of the image remained,” which allowed us to come to know God (Erickson 1998, 523). Regardless of the variations, all substantive views agree that God’s image is in some way inherent in humanity (Erickson 1998, 523). The relational view is a modernized existentialistic perspective supported by theologians such as Brunner and Barth (Erickson 1998, 524-27). Neo-orthodoxy rejects the locus of the image within humanity, and instead, believes the image is exemplified in a relationship with Christ (Erickson 1998, 524-27). Brunner distinguishes between a formal image that all humanity possesses and a material image that exists when humanity turns to God (Erickson 1998, 524). Barth’s transcendent theological emphasis caused an early disconnect with the image of God and humanity (Erickson 1998, 524-25). However, Barthian theology ultimately morphed into a partnership between the Creator and the created, a reflection of the “internal communion and encounter present within God” (Erickson 1998, 525-26). Finally, the functional view suggests that the “image consists in something one does” (Erickson 1998, 527). More specifically, the functional view sees the image to mean an exercise of dominion over creation based on Genesis 1 and Psalms 8 (Erickson 1998, 527-28). The relationship between man and woman is evident within an account of Creation that clearly connects both male and female to the image of God (Genesis 1:27). First, although Adam was created prior to Eve, the equality of the sexes appears evident (Elwell 2001, 1281). Next, the Creation account initiates the inception of monogamous marriage that culminates in the union of the male and female as “one flesh” (Elwell 2001, 1281). Finally, Erickson (1998) appropriately reinforces the equality of the sexes by noting that the word “helper” in Genesis 2:18 actually consists of two separate words in the original Hebrew, the latter meaning “equal to” man (564). # References Elwell, W. A. ed. 2001. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. Erickson, M. J. 1998. Christian Theology. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Revelation and Religion in the Theology of Karl Barth](https://www.livestransforming.com/revelation-and-religion-in-the-theology-of-karl-barth/) **Published:** October 31, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Journal Article Critique of “Revelation and Religion in the Theology of Karl Barth" by Veitch **Content:** # Revelation and Religion in the Theology of Karl Barth Journal Article Critique of “Revelation and Religion in the Theology of Karl Barth” by Veitch # BRIEF SUMMARY In the journal article, “Revelation and Religion in the Theology of Karl Barth,” J. A. Veitch demonstrates “the basic homogeneity of Barth’s thinking on the relationship between Divine self-disclosure and Religion.”[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Journal%20Article%20Critique%201%20-%20FINAL%20GRADED.docx#_edn1) Veitch utilizes Barth’s early commentary on Romans, the first volume Church Dogmatics, and the fourth volume of Church Dogmatics to prove the continuity of Barthian thought regarding the relationship of Revelation and Religion. In The Epistle to the Romans Revelation is an event always initiated by God and made possible only through the resurrection by which the unknown Father becomes known, while true Religion simply points to the presence of God, and notably, is contrasted with ‘false’ religion that is given an absolute value that leads to idolatry. The author then describes the significant influence of Anselm on Barth that led to a compartmentalization of God as Revealer, Revelation, and Revealedness in volume one of Church Dogmatics. The Incarnation then becomes the focus of Revelation, and True Religion is described as Religion ‘elevated’ by Revelation while ‘false’ religion is explained as a “divine work by a human manufacture.”[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Journal%20Article%20Critique%201%20-%20FINAL%20GRADED.docx#_edn2) The thought development clarified in volume of Church Dogmatics is then connected back to The Epistle to the Romans. Finally, in volume four of Church Dogmatics the emphasis of the Incarnation as the locus of Revelation is further developed through our redeemed humanity. In other words, Religion points to the Incarnate Word, and accordingly, man’s fallen nature is transformed into its true nature in Christ, linking the Revelation explored in volume one to the insights pertaining to reconciliation in volume four of Barth’s magnum opus. # CRITICAL INTERACTION J. A. Veitch appears to provide an objective analysis of Barthian theology utilizing an unbiased perspective. The author’s primary goal is to “explore the relationship between Revelation and Religion” in Barth’s theology.[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Journal%20Article%20Critique%201%20-%20FINAL%20GRADED.docx#_edn3) The only weakness evidenced within the work was a brief tangential analysis of Barth’s relationship of Revelation and Religion in other world religions. However, the strengths far outweigh this minor departure. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 1 5 182x300 - Revelation and Religion in the Theology of Karl Barth](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-1-5-182x300.jpg "Revelation and Religion in the Theology of Karl Barth - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/41Z7doU)The Barthian Revolt in Modern Theology: Theology without Weapons The strengths include effective thesis development, strong organizational structure, and persuasive argumentation. First, Veitch’s thesis is unmistakable and goals are clearly communicated and other than the very brief digression noted above, Veitch stays extraordinarily focused on exploring the relationship between Revelation and Religion while simultaneously connecting the chronological thread of Barthian thought in order to prove its homogeneity. Second, the organizational structure revolves around the sequential introduction of Barth’s most influential works of The Epistle to the Romans and Church Dogmatics. Furthermore, by focusing on the locus of Revelation and its relationship to Religion in each of these respective works, and then skillfully illuminating their compatibility, the author was able to convincingly support his thesis. Finally, the author’s synthesis of decades of Barthian thought displayed persuasively in the conclusion argues that Barth’s theology, which at times appears to shift if read in isolation, actually represents a cohesive whole when the relationships are appropriately highlighted. The author’s content directly applies and appropriately contributes to the reinterpretation of Balthasar and Torrance who advocated a Barthian break with dialectical methodology.[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Journal%20Article%20Critique%201%20-%20FINAL%20GRADED.docx#_edn4) # CONCLUSION Although the brief tangent regarding worldly religions did detract, J. A. Veitch’s article is an excellent example of strong thesis development, structure, and argumentation to [reveal theological relationships](https://www.livestransforming.com/theological-research/), which may have been previously hidden. By utilizing strong sources and insightful observation the author is able to provide significant value to any Barthian scholar. Finally, a significant question that still remains is whether Barth’s concept of Revelation has meaning detached from a Barthian framework or if the perspectives identified by the author are built on a biblical foundation. # BIBLIOGRAPHY Dorrien, Gary. The Barthian Revolt in Modern Theology. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000. Veitch, J. A. “Revelation and Religion in the Theology of Karl Barth.” Scottish Journal of Theology 24, no. 1 (1971). [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Journal%20Article%20Critique%201%20-%20FINAL%20GRADED.docx#_ednref1). J. A. Veitch, “Revelation and Religion in the Theology of Karl Barth,” Scottish Journal of Theology 24, no. 1 (1971): 1. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Journal%20Article%20Critique%201%20-%20FINAL%20GRADED.docx#_ednref2). Ibid., 13. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Journal%20Article%20Critique%201%20-%20FINAL%20GRADED.docx#_ednref3). Ibid., 1. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Journal%20Article%20Critique%201%20-%20FINAL%20GRADED.docx#_ednref4). Gary Dorrien, The Barthian Revolt in Modern Theology (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2000), 4. **Categories:** Book Reviews --- ### [Barth on Revelation](https://www.livestransforming.com/barth-on-revelation/) **Published:** October 31, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Journal Article Critique of “Barth on Revelation" by T. H. L. Parker **Content:** # Barth on Revelation **Journal Article Critique of “Barth on Revelation” by T. H. L. Parker** # **BRIEF SUMMARY** In the journal article, “Barth on Revelation” T. H. L. Parker examines Barth’s complete repudiation of natural theology and concludes that an absence of biblical evidence necessary to prove the existence of God is supportive. The author begins by noting Barth’s distinction as a theologian who dares to abjure natural theology, and then continues with an exploration of Barth’s revelatory perspective that God reveals Himself solely in Jesus Christ. Three aspects of this objective possibility of revelation are then further discussed. First, God’s revelation of Himself occurs in Jesus Christ, the locus of the Word Incarnate, to the exclusion of other loci. Second, God’s genuine self is revealed in Jesus Christ in totality as our Creator and Redeemer. Finally, in Jesus Christ God is revealed, thus, apart from Christ God is unknown. An analysis of how each of these aspects of revelation specifically denies natural theology ensues, followed by a clarifying statement that sharpens the purpose of the author’s efforts – a proposed investigation of the existence of God. More specifically, Barth’s perspective is juxtaposed against the historical perspective of Calvin and Aquinas who required a rationale for the existence of God as a requirement for the procurement of knowledge. Alternatively, Barth suggests that to attempt to prove God’s existence prior to His [revelation in Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/barth-revelation/) is a reverse dialectic. Finally, the author supports Barth’s polemic by stating that the Bible speaks of God simply as “One who needs no proof.”[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Journal%20Article%20Critique%202%20-%20GRADED.docx#_edn1) # **CRITICAL INTERACTION** Although Parker gives some credence to evangelical perspectives, a clear rejection of liberal theology’s emphasis of God’s immanence clearly exists. The author’s conclusions appear to support a neo-orthodox perspective with a definitive goal of validating certain Barthian constructs. The primary strength of the work lies in the author’s ability to clearly and concisely communicate a complete rebuttal of natural theology utilizing Barth’s view that God’s revelation exists solely in the Word Incarnate. Unfortunately, the weaknesses appear to outweigh this particularly powerful quality. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 24 182x300 - Barth on Revelation](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-24-182x300.jpg "Barth on Revelation - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/42558YD)Christian Theology The weaknesses include deficiencies in thesis development, biblical evidence, and logic. First, structurally the anecdotal introduction masks any resemblance of a thesis that is ultimately connected to the author’s final arguments. Furthermore, the abrupt transition from the exploration of revelation to the existence of God highlights the absence of a clear thesis direction. Second and more importantly, the author argues that the Bible is void of any necessity to prove the existence of God, which supports the Barthian view that revelation is solely in Christ. Although the biblical analysis may be true, the biblical evidence that also suggests a limited form of natural theology is cast within general revelation is completely ignored.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Journal%20Article%20Critique%202%20-%20GRADED.docx#_edn2) Finally, a gap in logic particularly regarding the author’s conclusion exists. Specifically, the author concludes that natural theology is predicated on the necessity that God’s existence can be proven. Thus, if no proof is required then natural theology fails, but the author does not show how natural theology relies specifically on the proof of God’s existence. In other words, the author does not address how an assumed existence of God without proof negates the possibility of God revealing Himself in ways other than the Word Incarnate. # **CONCLUSION** Regardless of the weaknesses enumerated, T. H. L. Parker’s article is worth the read for the straightforward exploration of Barth’s rebuttal of natural theology alone. Regrettably, the author seems to face significant challenges when attempting to transition into the argument pertaining to the requirement, or lack of a requirement, of proof for the existence of God. Finally, other relevant questions pertaining to significant aspects of Barthian theology including the relationship that both revelation as a miracle and revelation as a Trinitarian event have to natural theology were left unanswered in this particular journal article. [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Journal%20Article%20Critique%202%20-%20GRADED.docx#_ednref1). T. H. L. Parker, “Barth on Revelation,” Scottish Journal of Theology 13, no. 4 (1960): 382. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Journal%20Article%20Critique%202%20-%20GRADED.docx#_ednref2). Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1998), 191-96. # **BIBLIOGRAPHY** Erickson, Millard J. Christian Theology. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1998. Parker, T. H. L. “Barth on Revelation.” Scottish Journal of Theology 13, no. 4 (1960). **Categories:** Book Reviews --- ### [Barth Revelation](https://www.livestransforming.com/barth-revelation/) **Published:** October 31, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** This research will show that Barthian revelation is manifested in a transcendent, operative, and triune God. First, it will be shown how God exists in Barthian revelation by exploring God’s transcendence. Second, the question of how God is known in revelation will be investigated by exploring the specific forms of God’s operative work. Third, the topic of how God is present within revelation will be addressed by exploring the triune nature of God. Finally, an analysis of two notable critiques will be provided followed by a brief defense of each accusation. **Content:** # Barth Revelation # Karl Barth and Revelation **REVELATION IN A TRANSCENDENT, OPERATIVE, AND TRIUNE GOD** # INTRODUCTION Karl Barth is considered by many to be the most important theologian of the twentieth century. Numerous attempts at labeling Barth’s theology exist, but a “Word of God theology” may best exemplify the totality of Barth’s enormous output. Although Barthian theology has often been domesticated and even contorted, the fractionalized nature of contemporary theology is causing a second look at potential applications of Barth’s perspectives.[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn1) This particular research paper will attempt to contribute to the conversation by showing that Barthian revelation is manifested in a transcendent, operative, and triune God. The forthcoming study will first show how God exists in Barthian revelation by exploring God’s transcendence. Second, the question of how God is known in revelation will be investigated by exploring the specific forms of God’s operative work. Third, the topic of how God is present within revelation will be addressed by exploring the triune nature of God. Finally, an analysis of two notable critiques will be provided followed by a brief defense of each accusation. # THE POSSIBILITY OF REVELATION It will be shown that Barth’s view of revelation is built on a foundation of God’s transcendent nature. According to Barth, the starting point of all theological activity is God revealing himself to humanity by the communication of his Word – the Word of God.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn2) Theology is not simply the science of God but a theanthropology, a study of God as God relates to man and the study of man as a man of God.[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn3) Accordingly, a brief review of Barth’s view of natural theology will be provided as a backdrop to Barth’s perspective of God’s transcendence in his theology of revelation. Once a basic understanding of Barth’s opposition to natural theology is obtained, the impossibility of humanity’s knowledge of God will be addressed. Next, the paradoxical possibility of humanity’s knowledge of God through the agency of miracles will be considered. Finally, the requirement that miraculous events must live in perpetuity for revelatory communication to be sustained will be discussed. It was difficult to imagine a reputable theologian completely abandoning natural theology until Barth.[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn4) However, in Barth’s exposition of Romans he emphatically states that God’s existence “is distinguished qualitatively from men and from everything human, and must never be identified with anything which we name, or experience, or conceive, or worship, as God.”[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn5) Barth continues by explaining that God is the “‘Yes’ in our ‘No’ and the ‘No’ in our ‘Yes’, the First and the Last, and, consequently, the Unknown, who is never a known thing in the midst of other known things.”[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn6) Barth’s language eliminates any possibility of an inherent human faculty to know God.[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn7) One may appropriately acknowledge that Barth’s repudiation of natural theology was because of his theology of revelation, but more convincingly, it appears his theology of revelation already denied natural theology from inception.[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn8) In other words, any form of natural theology would significantly undermine Barth’s theology of revelation. There are two primary reasons for Barth’s assertion that humanity’s knowledge of God is impossible. First, sinful humanity is not capable of comprehending God’s holiness.[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn9) Barth even contends that “it is quite impossible to interpret human talk as such as talk about God.”[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn10) Talking about God is not intended to be a reference to spiritual experience any more than the talk about an explosive taste of a ripe strawberry is meant to speak of taste receptor cells sending information from ion channels to the gustatory area of the brain; the intent of the focus is directed toward the source of the explosion, not the anthropological minutia.[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn11) Second, when humanity experiences the God of the universe, a completely transcendent God is encountered in a shroud of mystery.[\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn12) Accordingly, Barth concludes that “we have no organ or capacity for God.”[\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn13) However, to stop at this juncture would be an egregious mistake. A vast divide must be bridged in order to overcome the impossibility of humanity’s ability to know God. In other words, reconciliation and revelation both must occur prior to God pulling humanity into his circle of knowledge.[\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn14) According to Barth, revelation means “the knowledge of God through God and from God,” more specifically, “it means that the object becomes the subject” and to the extent “we receive God’s address…it is God’s work in us.”[\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn15) Humanity’s faith and obedience are created in a God initiated revelatory moment when a person responds to God’s self-disclosure.[\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn16) Barth identifies the moment when God speaks as a “Moment of Miracle.”[\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn17) Accordingly, humanity’s objective knowledge of God, which is quite certainly anthropologically impossible, is also divinely possible through miraculously created revelatory events initiated by a transcendent God. [![03 15 182x300 - Barth Revelation](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/03-15-182x300.jpg "Barth Revelation - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4j5Qbgx)How to Read Karl Barth: The Shape of His Theology Critical to Barth’s theology of revelation is the dynamic nature of the revelatory events.[\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn18) In particular, a significant and distinctive motif of all Barthian theology is actualism.[\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn19) Actualism means that Barth’s theological thought is conveyed through events and relationships that stress the sovereignty of grace, incapacity of humanity, and miraculous collision of grace with humanity’s incapacity, for the purpose of love and freedom.[\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn20) Barth’s actualism suggests that revelation can never be initiated by humanity; instead, it always originates from God.[\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn21) Specifically, the Church is not “that which they want to be and should be, as theologically relevant entities, as realities of revelation and faith,” thus they must continually “come into being as this.”[\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn22) In other words, even as recipients of revelation who perpetually encounter God’s self-disclosure, God continues to exist as a wholly other transcendent God upon which dependence is required.[\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn23) The impact of God’s transcendent nature on Barth’s view of revelation is momentous. First, natural theology is completely denied, which highlights the significant gulf between the limitations of humanity and a transcendent God. Second, any potential capacity inherent within humanity to know a wholly other God is deemed an impossibility. Third, the only possibility of knowing God is initiated entirely by the object who becomes the subject – God. Finally, even the perpetually miraculous events necessary to know God are completely outside the scope of humanity and rest entirely upon a transcendent God. It is clear that God’s transcendence is the foundation upon which Barthian revelation sits. The question of how God exists in Barth’s theology of revelation has been answered, now the question of how God comes to be known may be considered. # THE FORM OF REVELATION It will be shown that Barth’s theology of revelation is based on an operative God who manifests himself in three distinct forms. The forms are the bridge by which humanity comes to know God. The three forms that Barthian revelation takes will be introduced followed by an exploration of the form’s synergistic relationships. Finally, an explanation of the reasonableness of their synergistic reality will be developed utilizing a thoughtful analysis of the forms’ distinctions. God’s revelation, the Word of God, appears in three forms in Barthian theology.[\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn24) First, the Word of God appears in the form of Jesus Christ, the ‘revealed’ Word of God as spoken by the prophets and apostles.[\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn25) Second, the Word of God appears in the form of the Holy Scriptures, the ‘written’ Word of God as a witness to Jesus Christ.[\[26\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn26) Finally, the Word of God appears in the form of Christian preaching, the ‘proclaimed’ Word of God as an attestation to the Holy Scriptures.[\[27\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn27) The nature of Barth’s revelation as manifested in the revealed, written, and proclaimed forms is deeply personal, exemplifying an ongoing motif of personalism noted throughout Barthian theology.[\[28\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn28) Barth explains the profoundly intimate nature of God’s revelation, especially when contrasted with God’s transcendence, by stating that “God always has something specific to say to each man, something that applies to him and to him alone.”[\[29\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn29) However, to conclude that the words in Scripture or the words in Christian preaching that result from human activity are necessarily the Word of God would be a serious mistake.[\[30\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn30) Accordingly, an investigation of the dialectical relationships between the three forms is required in order to determine exactly when these forms are operative as the Word of God. The synergistic relationship of the threefold form of God’s revelation should not be underestimated. Barth asserts that there is absolutely no difference in the qualitative nature of the revealed, written, and proclaimed forms of the Word of God.[\[31\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn31) In other words, to the extent the proclaimed word is a God ordained revelatory event, it is no less the Word of God than the written form, that of the Holy Scriptures.[\[32\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn32) Furthermore, to the extent the written word is a God ordained revelatory event, it is no less the Word of God than the revealed form, that of Jesus Christ.[\[33\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn33) In each case the speakers are different in that Christ is the speaker in the revealed form, the biblical writers are the speakers in the written form, and an unlimited number of speakers in the proclaimed form may exist, but in each of the three forms the Word of God is one and the same.[\[34\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn34) Barth refers to the synergy of the relationship as an analogical perichoretic reality in that it is possible to replace the words revealed, written, and proclaimed with the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and vice versa, so “that in the one case as in the other we shall encounter the same basic determinations and mutual relationships.”[\[35\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn35) The synergies between the revelatory forms in Barthian theology are evident. However, it would seem prudent to question the assertion that the proclaimed form of Christian preaching occurs on the same level as the revealed form of Jesus Christ, thus their synergies must be further analyzed.[\[36\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn36) The veracity of Barth’s synergetic relationship between the revealed, written, and proclaimed forms may be supported with the bifurcation of their human and potentially divine aspects. First, all three forms have a duality in unity; in other words, they contain humanity while inhabiting the potentiality of becoming fully divine.[\[37\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn37) Each one of the forms of revelation has a completely human aspect: the revealed form has a Chalcedonic human aspect in Christ, the written form has a human aspect in the biblical writers, and the proclaimed form has a human aspect in the preacher.[\[38\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn38) However, it is impossible for these human forms to reveal God; an infused activity of God is required in each form in order for a revelatory encounter to exist.[\[39\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn39) Barth’s polemic explains that as the forms “become God’s Word in the actuality of revelation they are God’s Word.”[\[40\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn40) Accordingly, when God acts the forms may be considered divine as they all incorporate God’s initiative and simultaneously maintain their synergy because the revelatory event is the same regardless of the form.[\[41\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn41) However, an important clarification is required at this time regarding the distinctive way in which the form’s become divine. The revealed form ‘becomes’ God’s Word because it already is permanently God’s Word, the Word Incarnate, while the written and proclaimed forms become God’s Word because the same Word that is in Christ enters them in a temporary revelatory encounter.[\[42\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn42) Now, in order to completely address whether the proclaimed form of Christian preaching can be considered equivalent to the revealed form of Christ, their distinctive order of authority requires examination. The reasonableness of Barth’s synergetic relationship of the forms can be further supported by recognizing the forms’ distinctive order. Although the three forms of revelation are not separable, a clear authoritarian order exists.[\[43\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn43) The forms can be viewed as three concentric circles with the revealed form, Christ, in the center, the written form, Scripture, in the middle ring, and the proclaimed form, Christian preaching, in the outermost ring.[\[44\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn44) The proclaimed form is subordinate to the written form, the written form is subordinate to the revealed form, but in no way does the subordination diminish their effectiveness as they are all the synergistic Word of God.[\[45\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn45) However, the distinctive nature of the revelatory forms actually runs deeper than the overly simplified concentric circle metaphor. In Barth’s language, “The first, revelation, \[the revealed form\] is the form that underlies the other two,” but then he adds that the revealed form “is the very one that never meets us anywhere in abstract form.”[\[46\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn46) In other words, we only know the revealed form indirectly through the written and proclaimed form.[\[47\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn47) In contrast to the method of revealing, the method of knowing begins with proclaimed revelation, through preaching, and behind it lies the written form, which must be based on the revealed form, that of the life, death, and resurrection of Christ.[\[48\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn48) Hart succinctly characterizes the relational order by suggesting that “the ontic order, the order of being, is the precise reverse of the noetic.”[\[49\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn49) It has been unequivocally shown that an operative God is absolutely critical to Barth’s perspective of revelation. First, the forms of God’s operative revelation become the bridge by which God’s activity has the potential to traverse. Second, the synergistic nature of the forms allows an operative God to reveal himself wholly and completely through all manifestations of the forms. Third, the duality of the revelatory forms provides the potential for the human aspects of the forms to be transformed by God into their divine aspects. Finally, the distinctive order of the forms provides guidance for both the ontic and noetic direction of God’s pipeline of activity. It may not be an overstatement to suggest that without Barth’s operative God, his transcendent God may be eternally concealed from the humanity he dearly loves. With the importance of a transcendent and operative God established, the questions of how God exists and how God is known have been answered. The final and possibly most complex aspect of Barth’s revelatory theology pertains to how God is present in revelation, thus God’s Triunity must now be explored. # THE TRIUNITY OF REVELATION It will be shown that Barth’s view of revelation hinges on the Triunity of God. A brief account of the Trinity’s relationship to Barth’s theology of revelation will be provided followed by an exploration of Barth’s understanding of the objective nature of revelation within the Trinity. Also, Barth’s complex dialectical perspective of God’s indirect identity manifested within revelation will be introduced in light of God’s subjective revelation within the Trinity. The Trinity is how God is present in Barth’s revelation.[\[50\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn50) More specifically, the Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit are not considered attributes of God, but instead, by staying true to his actualistic motif, Barth suggests the triune nature of God is that of Revealer, Revelation, and Revealedness.[\[51\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn51) God the Father is the Revealer who decided to reveal himself to His Son.[\[52\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn52) The Father does not take form.[\[53\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn53) God the Son objectifies the Revelation in His person.[\[54\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn54) The Son does take form.[\[55\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn55) God the Holy Spirit is the Revealedness who consummates Revelation by opening humanity to receive it.[\[56\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn56) The Spirit “enables our recognition and response.”[\[57\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn57) In order to launch into an expanded discourse of Barthian revelation in light of the Trinity it is crucial to realize that the wholly transcendent Revealer is “identical with the act in revelation and also with its effect.”[\[58\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn58) It is based on this fact that “we must begin the doctrine of revelation with the doctrine of the triune God.”[\[59\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn59) By establishing this very basic triune foundation, a discussion of Barth’s objective and subjective aspect of revelation may commence. Barth’s trinitarian structure is first based on revelation proceeding from God, the Revealer, and then being fulfilled objectively in the Son, the Revelation.[\[60\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn60) Since it is not possible for a wholly transcendent Revealer to inhabit the world of ‘objects’, it would also be impossible for God to be known in the world since he is not a part of it.[\[61\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn61) However, if God’s Word, his Revelation, became an object, then a point of contact with humanity would exist, which is why Barth insists that “revelation takes place in the fact that God’s Word became a man and that this man has become God’s Word.”[\[62\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn62) Accordingly, the Second Person holds the key-position in Barth’s doctrine of the Trinity as the objective reality of revelation and explains why Barth claims that “the incarnation of the eternal Word, Jesus Christ, is God’s revelation.”[\[63\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn63) Once the objective reality is established, a revelatory encounter between the Revealer and humanity embodied by the Revelation, Jesus Christ, is now an “objective possibility.”[\[64\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn64) T. H. L. Parker provides some helpful insights by providing three aspects of Christ’s objective revelation. First, “it is in Jesus Christ that God reveals Himself;” it is here the focus is on God’s revelatory activity ‘in’ the world.[\[65\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn65) Second, “God reveals His genuine Self in Jesus Christ;” it is here the focus changes to God’s ‘Self’ being revealed.[\[66\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn66) Finally, “in Jesus Christ God genuinely reveals Himself;” it is here the focus shifts to a concern with the word ‘reveals’ in the sense that something veiled becomes unveiled.[\[67\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn67) Once God’s objective revelation is a reality, his subjective revelation is emancipated, and its complex application to Barth’s theology may be considered. Although Christ Incarnate encompasses the objective revelation of God, revelatory events for humanity remain only an objective possibility, thus Barth concludes that theology must not become too Christocentric.[\[68\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn68) Across the span of Barth’s career he maintained a dialectical methodology within God’s revelatory nature.[\[69\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn69) More specifically, Barth conveys the idea of “indirect identity” whereby God becomes indirectly identical with the human forms of revelation.[\[70\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn70) To clarify, the indirectness is a requirement in order to eliminate any possible “divinization” of the human forms.[\[71\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn71) Although the indirect identity is consummated within the human forms by an infusion of God’s complete Self-revelation, paradoxically the “whole being of God” is also “hidden in a creaturely veil” and nothing is known directly.[\[72\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn72) Barth puts an exclamation mark on this concept by stating that “to deny the hiddenness of revelation even in scripture is to deny revelation itself, and with it the Word of God.”[\[73\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn73) However, in a miracle of subjective revelation by the work of the Holy Spirit the veil is tore away in a revelatory event that makes the opaque transparent.[\[74\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn74) Thus, through the activity of the Holy Spirit, which “straddles objectivity and subjectivity,” a miraculous revelatory event is initiated within the revealed, written, and proclaimed forms whereby the creaturely veil is lifted and the words become the recognizable Word of God.[\[75\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn75) It is without question that Barth’s view of revelation is significantly influenced by his doctrine of the Trinity. First, the actualistic nature of the Revealer, the Revelation, and the Revealedness lays the framework for the Trinity’s revelatory influence. Second, the objective revelation realized in the Incarnate Word, Jesus Christ, creates the point of contact between the Revealer and humanity. Finally, the subjective revelation powered by [the Holy Spirit](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-holy-spirit-common-grace-and-secular-psychotherapy-review/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=the-holy-spirit-common-grace-and-secular-psychotherapy-review) lifts the creaturely veil to allow the Word of God to be comprehensible. It is within the inner sanctum of God’s trinitarian structure that Barth’s revelation is present, where humanity is drawn to know “God as Father through the sharing of the Son” and is “empowered and sustained by the anointing Spirit.”[\[76\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn76) # THE CRITIQUES OF REVELATION Karl Barth may have had the greatest single impact on theological thought since the Reformation, and though his influence is certainly considered monumental by many, others have been highly critical. A very brief exploration of two rather famous critiques of Barthian revelation by will be discussed followed by short rebuttals. The first analysis will address Gustaf Wingren’s and Alister McGrath’s similar critiques of Barth’s revelatory theology. Second, will be an examination of Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s charge of revelatory positivism. An entire chapter in Wingren’s book asserts that Barth neglects an adequate exploration of salvation.[\[77\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn77) In particular, Wingren accuses Barth of shifting his theology away from the cross and resurrection to the incarnation, thus communicating that humanity’s problem is ignorance rather than alienation.[\[78\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn78) In a similar vein, Alister McGrath accuses Barth of regarding “humanity’s predicament as being ignorance of the true situation.”[\[79\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn79) The Christological emphasis of Barth’s theology is not to be argued. However, two additional observations may add value to the conversation. First, suggesting a shift from the resurrection to the incarnation appears to ignore the fact that Barth’s revelation theology is not limited to the incarnation of Christ, but also includes the passion, death, and resurrection of Christ as well.[\[80\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn80) Second, to suggest Barth underestimates the reality of the human predicament is to ignore the graphic depiction of the doctrine of the Fall exemplified in Barth’s work, The Epistle to the Romans.[\[81\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn81) The more famous critique was Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s accusation of ‘revelatory positivism’ against Barth in a letter from prison.[\[82\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn82) Although scholars do not appear to agree on the specific interpretation of the accusation, the language used by Bonhoeffer proposed that Barthian doctrine was a “Like it or lump it” approach to theology. Specifically, Barth is accused of overemphasizing the positivity or controlling nature of divine revelation and applying unnecessary equal weight to parts of theology that “must be swallowed whole or not at all.”[\[83\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn83) It must first be conceded that Bonhoeffer’s observations were not systematically developed, but instead, were fragmentary.[\[84\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn84) However, it does not appear that Barth fell into an “unimpeachable given” that one could take or leave.[\[85\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn85) Although Barth did eliminate a metaphysically-based religion, he replaced it with an “actualistic (divine and human) ontology” that allowed meaning to be acquired “in a new and different way.”[\[86\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn86) # CONCLUSION The influence of Barth’s theology cannot be underestimated in its scope or impact on the theology of revelation. It has been shown how God exists in Barth’s view of revelation – God exists first and foremost in his transcendence, which lays the foundation for Barth’s doctrine. It has also been shown how God is known in revelation – God’s operative nature manifests itself in three distinct yet synergistic forms that provide a bridge for God to be comprehended. Furthermore, it has been shown how God is present in Barthian revelation – God’s trinitarian structure draws humanity to God, the Revealer, through the connection of Christ, the Revelation, by the power of the Holy Spirit, the Revealedness. Finally, two notable critiques have been analyzed and defended. Although certainly not all aspects of Barth’s view of revelation could possibly be elucidated in a short work, the evidence clearly supports the position that Barthian revelation is manifested in a transcendent, operative, and triune God. For further study, valuable works by Hans Urs von Balthasar and Thomas F. Torrance emphasize the motifs of Barth’s thought development, while strong reinterpretations are provided by the efforts of Bruce L. McCormack and George Hunsinger.[\[87\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftn87) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref1)Gary Dorrien, The Barthian Revolt in Modern Theology (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2000), 12. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref2)Trevor Hart, “The Word, the Words and the Witness: Proclamation as Divine and Human Reality in the Theology of Karl Barth,” Tyndale Bulletin 46, no. 1 (1995): 81. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref3)Herbert Hartwell, The Theology of Karl Barth (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1964), 41. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref4)T. H. L. Parker, “Barth on Revelation,” Scottish Journal of Theology 13, no. 4 (1960): 367. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref5)Karl Barth, The Epistle to the Romans, trans. Edwyn C. Hoskyns, 6th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University, 1968), 330-31. [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref6)Ibid., 331. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref7)J. A. Veitch, “Revelation and Religion in the Theology of Karl Barth,” Scottish Journal of Theology 24, no. 1 (1971): 2. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref8)Parker, “Barth on Revelation,” 368. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref9)Trevor Hart, “Revelation,” in The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth, ed. John Webster (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2000), 41. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref10)Karl Barth, The Doctrine of the Word of God , ed. G. W. Bromiley and T. F. Torrance, trans. G. W. Bromiley, 2nd ed. vol. 1 of Church Dogmatics (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1975), 47. [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref11)Hart, “The Word, the Words and the Witness: Proclamation as Divine and Human Reality in the Theology of Karl Barth,” 82. [\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref12)Hart, The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth, 42. [\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref13)Barth, Church Dogmatics, 1.1:168. [\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref14)Hart, The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth, 42. [\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref15)Karl Barth, Göttingen Dogmatics (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1991), 1:12. [\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref16)Veitch, “Revelation and Religion in the Theology of Karl Barth,” 2. [\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref17)Barth, The Epistle to the Romans, 422. [\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref18)Trevor Hart, Revelation, ed. John Webster (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2000), 45. [\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref19) George Hunsinger, How to Read Karl Barth: The Shape of His Theology (New York: Oxford University, 1991), 30-31. [\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref20) Ibid. [\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref21)Veitch, “Revelation and Religion in the Theology of Karl Barth,” 3. [\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref22)Barth, Church Dogmatics, 1.1:88. [\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref23)Hart, The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth, 46. [\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref24)Barth, Church Dogmatics, 1.1:88. [\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref25)Hartwell, The Theology of Karl Barth, 62. [\[26\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref26)Ibid. [\[27\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref27)Ibid., 62. [\[28\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref28)Hunsinger, How to Read Karl Barth, 40. [\[29\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref29)Barth, Church Dogmatics, 1.1:140. [\[30\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref30)Hartwell, The Theology of Karl Barth, 62. [\[31\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref31)Barth, Church Dogmatics, 1.1:120. [\[32\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref32)Ibid., 1.1:121. [\[33\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref33)Ibid. [\[34\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref34)Dorrien, The Barthian Revolt in Modern Theology, 77. [\[35\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref35)Barth, Church Dogmatics, 1.1:121. [\[36\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref36)Hart, “The Word, the Words and the Witness: Proclamation as Divine and Human Reality in the Theology of Karl Barth,” 87. [\[37\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref37)Ibid., 85. [\[38\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref38)Ibid., 87. [\[39\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref39)Ibid. [\[40\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref40)Barth, Church Dogmatics, 1.1:121. [\[41\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref41)Hart, “The Word, the Words and the Witness: Proclamation as Divine and Human Reality in the Theology of Karl Barth,” 89. [\[42\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref42)Ibid. [\[43\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref43)Dorrien, The Barthian Revolt in Modern Theology, 194. [\[44\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref44)Scott C. Saye, “The Wild and Crooked Tree: Barth, Fish, and Interpretive Communities,” Modern Theology 12, no. 4 (October 1996): 443. [\[45\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref45)Ibid. [\[46\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref46)Barth, Church Dogmatics, 1.1:121. [\[47\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref47)Ibid. [\[48\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref48)Hart, “The Word, the Words and the Witness: Proclamation as Divine and Human Reality in the Theology of Karl Barth,” 86. [\[49\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref49)Ibid. [\[50\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref50)Barth, Church Dogmatics, 1.1:347. [\[51\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref51)Ibid., 361. [\[52\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref52)Hartwell, The Theology of Karl Barth, 68. [\[53\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref53)Hart, The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth, 49. [\[54\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref54)Hartwell, The Theology of Karl Barth, 68. [\[55\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref55)Hart, The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth, 49. [\[56\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref56)Hartwell, The Theology of Karl Barth, 68-69. [\[57\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref57)Hart, The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth, 49. [\[58\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref58)Barth, Church Dogmatics, 1.1:296. [\[59\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref59)Ibid. [\[60\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref60)Bruce L. McCormack, Orthodox and Modern: Studies in the Theology of Karl Barth (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008), 168. [\[61\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref61)Hart, The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth, 51. [\[62\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref62)Barth, Church Dogmatics, 1.2:1. [\[63\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref63)Ibid. [\[64\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref64)Ibid., 1.2:25. [\[65\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref65)Parker, “Barth on Revelation,” 372. [\[66\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref66)Ibid. [\[67\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref67)Ibid., 373. [\[68\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref68)Barth, Göttingen Dogmatics, 1:91. [\[69\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref69)Hart, “The Word, the Words and the Witness: Proclamation as Divine and Human Reality in the Theology of Karl Barth,” 94. [\[70\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref70) McCormack, Orthodox and Modern: Studies in the Theology of Karl Barth, 110. [\[71\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref71)Ibid. [\[72\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref72)Ibid., 110. [\[73\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref73)Barth, Göttingen Dogmatics, 1:59. [\[74\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref74)Hart, “The Word, the Words and the Witness: Proclamation as Divine and Human Reality in the Theology of Karl Barth,” 95. [\[75\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref75)Ibid., 97. [\[76\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref76)Ibid., 100. [\[77\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref77)Gustaf Wingren, “Chapter 6,” in Theology in Conflict: Nygren, Barth, Bultmann (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1958). [\[78\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref78)Ibid. [\[79\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref79)Alister E. McGrath, Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification (New York: Cambridge University, 2005), 405. [\[80\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref80)Hartwell, The Theology of Karl Barth, 68. [\[81\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref81)Hart, The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth, 54. [\[82\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref82)Simon Fisher, Revelatory Positivism?: Barth’s Earliest Theology and the Marburg School (Oxford: Oxford University, 1988), 311. [\[83\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref83)Ibid. [\[84\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref84)Ibid., 312. [\[85\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref85)McCormack, Orthodox and Modern, 132. [\[86\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref86)Ibid. [\[87\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Research%20Paper%20Graded.docx#_ftnref87) Dorrien, The Barthian Revolt in Modern Theology, 4. **BIBLIOGRAPHY** Barth, Karl. Church Dogmatics. Edited by G. W. Bromiley and T. F. Torrance. Translated by G. W. Bromiley. 2nd ed. Vol. 1 of The Doctrine of the Word of God. Peabody: Hendrickson, 1975. ———. Dogmatics in Outline. Translated by G. T. Thomson. New York: Harper & Row, 1959. ———. The Epistle to the Romans. Translated by Edwyn C. Hoskyns. 6th ed. Oxford: Oxford University, 1968. ———. Gottingen Dogmatics. Vol. 1. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1991. Dorrien, Gary. The Barthian Revolt in Modern Theology. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2000. Fisher, Simon. Revelatory Positivism?: Barth’s Earliest Theology and the Marburg School. Oxford: Oxford University, 1988. Hart, Trevor. “Revelation.” In The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth, edited by John Webster. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2000. ———. “The Word, the Words and the Witness: Proclamation as Divine and Human Reality in the Theology of Karl Barth.” Tyndale Bulletin 46, no. 1 (1995): 81-102. Hartwell, Herbert. The Theology of Karl Barth. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1964. Hunsinger, George. How to Read Karl Barth: The Shape of His Theology. New York: Oxford University, 1991. McCormack, Bruce L. Orthodox and Modern: Studies in the Theology of Karl Barth. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008. McGrath, Alister E. Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification. New York: Cambridge University, 2005. Parker, T. H. L. “Barth on Revelation.” Scottish Journal of Theology 13, no. 4 (1960): 366-82. Saye, Scott C. “The Wild and Crooked Tree: Barth, Fish, and Interpretive Communities.” Modern Theology 12, no. 4 (October 1996): 435-58. Veitch, J. A. “Revelation and Religion in the Theology of Karl Barth.” Scottish Journal of Theology 24, no. 1 (1971): 1-22. Wingren, Gustaf. “Chapter 6.” In Theology in Conflict: Nygren, Barth, Bultmann. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1958. **Categories:** Research --- ### [C. S. Lewis Psalms](https://www.livestransforming.com/c-s-lewis-psalms/) **Published:** October 31, 2011 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** The Reflections on the Psalms may be C. S. Lewis’ most forthright attempt at Biblical commentary and theology. This article reviews C. S. Lewis' most famous book on the Psalms. **Content:** # C. S. Lewis Psalms # REFLECTIONS ON THE PSALMS # by C. S. Lewis # INTRODUCTION AND AUDIENCE The Reflections on the Psalms may be C. S. Lewis’ most forthright attempt at Biblical commentary and theology. In typical understated fashion, Lewis introduces himself to the reader as one unlearned amateur to another. Any seasoned Lewis reader may be tempted to wonder if the author was utilizing tapeinosis to enhance the obvious and foreshadow the literary devices he soon explores. Lewis continues by announcing the work as a non-apologetic, non-instructive discussion among friends comparing notes. The author astutely recognizes the definition of friend may be suspect in a community as dangerous as one labeled theological, and determines it necessary to clarify an expectation of a diverse audience extending from Roman Catholic to Fundamentalist. And with a possible hint of priggery, which he so faithfully opposes, Lewis cleverly suggests his riskiest opposition may be those believers who are not completely believers, but tension is quickly relieved through Lewis’ characteristic self-deprecation. # CONTEXT The Reflections on the Psalms provides a unique perspective by examining several overarching themes of the Psalms and exploring their theological and practical implications through the lens of literary device and background. In contrast, Robert Alter’s The Book of Psalms and Derek Kidner’s dual volume Psalms: An Introduction and Commentary present a passage-by-passage interpretation of the text. Hermann Gunkel, however, presents a form critical approach emphasizing genres of the Psalms in his Introduction to the Psalms. A framework for modern Psalms study is provided by Mowinckel with an exploration of various types and connections to ancient festivals in The Psalms in Israel’s Worship. Claus Westermann’s work, Psalms, has provided a foundation of study based on praise and lament. Praying the Psalms by Thomas Merton and Answering God by Eugene Peterson both focus on utilizing the Psalms as a tool for prayer, while Tremper Longman’s How to Read the Psalms describes the Psalms’ relationship to Hebrew worship and the rest of the canon. Finally, and potentially most similar to the Reflections on the Psalms is Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s Meditations on Psalms which attempts to grapple with the eternal truths of the Psalter and apply them to life. # SUMMARY Like a disciplined child plunging a fork into spinach as soon as his dinner plate lands, Lewis is prompted to begin with the darkest and possibly most difficult topics which include judgment, cursings, and death. The contrast between the Jewish and Christian view of judgment is addressed first using the analogy of a court. Christians perceive judgment as a defendant in a criminal trial fearing the worst, while Jews identify with the plaintiff in a civil case hoping for a large payoff. And although it may be troublesome for modern day Christians to comprehend the excitement and longing for judgment against Jewish enemies, it may also be difficult for them to deeply appreciate God as a champion without a near eastern historical perspective. However, Lewis insightfully highlights the inherent risks associated with the Jewish perspective by recognizing the ease with which it leads to the self-righteousness evident in future Jewish sects. [](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftn1) [![03 16 182x300 - C. S. Lewis Psalms](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/03-16-182x300.jpg "C. S. Lewis Psalms - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4l6Qqco)Reflections on the Psalms [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftn1)The difficulty of understanding the hatred in the Psalter may tempt one to ignore the topic altogether. Alternatively, various insightful observations are offered such as the subtlety of Christian hate which is possibly more damaging than the unbridled honesty of the ancient Hebrews. And although Christians may blame Jewish hatred on the ignorance of a Christian moral ethic, it would hold little weight in light of the clear direction of the Torah. Lewis furthers his argument by purporting that Jewish hatred appears at times to surpass the pagans, but quickly explains the reasonableness of the irony by illuminating the seriousness by which the Jews viewed right and wrong.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftn2) And though Lewis suggests a divine thread of reason within the Psalmists’ hate by extrapolating it to sin and not the sinner, a clear warning of false justification is also announced by proclaiming that, “of all bad men, religious bad men are the worst.”[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftn3) The final discussion of the dark beginning reminds the reader that a belief in a resurrected afterlife did not exist in much of the Old Testament. Instead, a belief in Sheol, a dark destination for the dead, was considered unavoidable. However, it appears the Jews’ belief in life after death progressed as the time of Christ approached. Lewis hypothesizes God may have intentionally withheld the revelation of a next life from ancient history to emphasize the complete reliance on God in the present, without risking an unintended diversion of attention to the future.[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftn4) The dimly lit room appears to brighten significantly as a discussion ensues regarding the beauty of the Lord and the sweetness of honey, but the topic of false worship and the definition of honey soon paint a more serious portrait than what one first expects. First, Lewis references the importance of learning which took place in the synagogues and then highlights the delight of God, comparable to the joy of a child at Christmas, which was experienced in the Temple.[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftn5) However, a warning associated with separating sacrifice from celebration ensues as Lewis explains that God abhors stiff commercial transactions for the sake of compliance at the expense of relational appreciation and desire for God.[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftn6) A sweet discussion of God’s Law soon commences and the possibility of delighting in the Law as a scholar would delight in the subject of history is proposed which, of course, also risks potential condescension and possible contempt for those of lesser educational means. The Law may also be tasty in the sense that it leads one to get things meticulously correct, like the order of a newly cleaned garage or closet. However, the sweetest result of the Law may be likened to the solid footings beneath a house that create a feeling of enormous security in the stability of the structure. But the Law, or rather the lack thereof, can become downright devilish when attempting to procure the wisdom necessary to respond to its absence in modern day celebrities. For the Psalter clearly conveys hate toward the vanity of such individuals, which appears honorable until it naturally morphs into Pharisaism which then tempts the reader to diabolically judge the judger. Alternately, Lewis suggests silence and avoidance are reasonable responses to lawless individuals, not, of course, because we are too good, but “because we are not good enough.”[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftn7) Better yet, an unpretentious disagreement may be an optimal response – if not enjoyed too much. An optimistic tone finally becomes a reality as the majesty of nature and the topic of praise are confronted. Two aspects of nature are prevalent in the Psalms. First, the Psalmists’ heightened emotional sensitivity, seemingly indigenous to the writer’s agrarian environment, strikes the reader as instinctive as breathing. Secondly, with the exception of Plato, the distinctness between God and nature is illuminated in the Psalms in a way practically nonexistent in the ancient near east. And although nature is not divine, it no doubt exudes the presence of God and is delightfully savored when the adult eye has the courage to lose a few decades of maturity. It would seem at first glance, the majesty of nature would lead one to naturally emit praise, but Lewis observes that in one’s natural self it seems quite challenging even for him.[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftn8) Respect is difficult to maintain when the apparent neediness of an infinite God seems to require praise for the purpose of propping up an omnipotently low self-esteem. But alas, the revelation of misguided logic relinquishes to the type of adoration an adolescent school boy may experience as a goddess with shimmering blonde hair and Abercrombie jeans emerges from a lunch line. Accordingly, not being awestruck by the magnificent Creator of the blonde creature would likely be the most unnatural and potentially ridiculous response. The finale moves into deeper waters as multiple meanings and the validity of Scripture are examined in Lewis’ fireside chats. The focus now shifts from the original meaning of the Psalter to meanings that extend far beyond the Psalmists’ day; and although mere coincidence is always a simplistic alternative to potentially more penetrating thought, Lewis does not shy away from a challenge. The author concedes the awareness of future meanings may not have originally existed, but contends the truth conveyed by the Psalmists had the power to reach far beyond the moment the words were first conceived. Thus, future events are intimately connected to the original words of the Psalter which Lewis considers holy, inspired, and even enhanced by the miracles which cannot be proved in any historical or scientific sense to be untrue.[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftn9) In fact, the pagan historical influences and potential scientific or historical improprieties of Scripture may actually add to the elusiveness necessary for truth to be conveyed by a God uninterested in tempting creation with black and white rules wholly inadequate for the complexity of the universe he created. Finally, and maybe most importantly, Lewis explains that Jesus himself is the definition of the second meaning, as both Sufferer and King, which is not simply revealed by God’s prompting of thought, but revealed through a fully divine and completely human being.[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftn10) And the Second Meaning is manifested to cure the aching wounds of humanity in “one day” which, according to Lewis, may have the most practical double meaning of current relief from the present and the ultimate relief soon to be experienced in thousands of years of eternity.[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftn11) # STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES The breadth of knowledge and depth of wisdom exhibited by Lewis’ insightful commentary seems to provide Lady Wisdom in a three dimensional view to study like the Cullinan diamond in the center of a heavenly museum. The discerning [historical context](https://www.livestransforming.com/bible-interpretation-historical-context/) and penetrating literary backdrop provides a solid framework for the practical theological insights. Furthermore, the strength of argument applied to each individual theme is convincing enough to force the reader to believe the undeniable truth of the polemic just in time to realize the proposition taken to an extreme is no longer wise or true. Weaknesses may be more difficult for some to identify but are as evident as the strengths to others. Using the words diabolical and terrible in reference to the Psalmists’ cursings certainly concern many readers who consider the Holy Scriptures to be without such characteristics. The reliance on pagan myths and the comfort with human aspects of authorship may potentially be interpreted as a slap in the face to the inerrancy of Scripture. Finally, Lewis’ ability to naturally weave assiduously through complex concepts can confound readers who, after a third reading of the same sentence, are still perplexed. However, upon reviewing the work as a whole, the weaknesses appear to pale in comparison to the strengths. # CONCLUSION The tightrope of thematic analysis may perhaps be Lewis’ single greatest achievement as a thinker and author. For instance, he accentuates the importance of judgment at the risk of Pharisaism, the necessity of hate at the risk of obliterating love, the importance of eternity if not too important, and the significance of worship if not undermined by transactional devices. Additionally, he highlights the sweetness of Law though impossible to keep or convince others to keep, the majesty of nature if absent of divinity, the delight in a God who does not need it, the holiness of Scripture if properly elusive, and the emphasis of a primary message overcome only by its secondary meaning. The cohesiveness of sagacious thought and disarming intellect provide a firm God given framework to whom some consider a legend. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftnref1). C. S. Lewis, Reflections on the Psalms: The Celebrated Musings on One of the Most Intriguing Books of the Bible (Orlando, FL: A Harvest Book/Harcourt, Inc., 1958), 17. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftnref2). Ibid., 28, 30. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftnref3). Ibid., 32. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftnref4). Ibid., 40. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftnref5). Ibid., 48. [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftnref6). Ibid., 49. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftnref7). Ibid., 71. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftnref8). Ibid., 90. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftnref9). Ibid., 109. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftnref10). Ibid., 120-121. [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/dwilder/Desktop/Psalms%20Book%20Review%20FINAL%20.docx#_ftnref11). Ibid., 137. BIBLIOGRAPHY Lewis, C. S. Reflections on the Psalms: The Celebrated Musings on One of the Most Intriguing Books of the Bible. Orlando, FL: A Harvest Book/Harcourt, Inc., 1958. **Categories:** Book Reviews --- ### [Freedom Communities](https://www.livestransforming.com/freedom-communities/) **Published:** July 30, 2013 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Freedom Communities **FREEDOM COMMUNITIES** The Three Purposes Freedom Communities are intentionally limited to three purposes. The three purposes encompass growing, sharing, and serving. Although the concepts may seem overly familiar, the execution strategy of Freedom Communities is unique to modernity, relevant to postmodernity, and aligned with the wisdom of Scripture. **Growing** [![grow - Freedom Communities](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/grow.png "Freedom Communities - Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/grow.png)First, the concept of “growing” within the context of modernity consists primarily of reading the Bible, engaging in prayer, learning didactically in Bible studies, and listening to a sermon on Sunday morning. The inherent risk associated with the modern view of growth is not a lack of information, but a lack of integration. A postmodern society is not only thirsty for knowledge, but also desires assimilation of the knowledge to address issues of meaning and purpose.1 Accordingly, the strategies for growth must address both information and assimilation. Freedom Communities address the concern in two ways. First, Bible study is not didactically based information disseminated from a human teacher to a recipient: an outside – in approach. Rather, in Freedom Communities, the individual reads the Bible in light of an orthodox commentary and then a facilitator asks questions regarding the Holy Spirit’s teaching of the recipient: an inside – out approach. Second, Freedom Communities do not ignore, outsource, or combatively confront issues around the unhealthy actions of believers: an outside – in approach. Instead, facilitators extend empathy and inquiry to assist individuals in discovering the unhealthy beliefs and thoughts that lead to the unhealthy emotions and actions. Once the believer re-aligns the unhealthy beliefs and thoughts with Gospel message that a believer’s [identity is in Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-identity-markers-of-self/), then God’s Truth provides the power to resolve the unhealthy emotions and actions (Luke 6:43-45). In other words, God’s Truth sanctifies the believer (John 17:17). Charles Colsen and Nancy Pearcey support the approach by answering the question, “How do we redeem a culture? …from the inside out. From the individual to the family to the community, and then outward in ever widening ripples.” Accordingly, the overarching inside – out approach to growth in Freedom Communities not only appropriately addresses the procurement of orthodox information, but also the assimilation necessary for transformational living to impact the world.2 **Sharing** [![share - Freedom Communities](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/share.png "Freedom Communities - Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/share.png)The second purpose of Freedom Communities is sharing. Sharing the Gospel message is a critical part of the Great Commission. Jesus commands each believer to “Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit” (Matthew 28:19). Unfortunately, the vast majority of evangelism over the last couple of centuries has centered on institutionalized programmed events, which have included evangelistic crusades, revivals, concerts, special Sunday morning services etc. However, the Institute of American Church Growth (IACG) suggests that only 17 percent of all conversions occur from evangelistic events, yet the organized church continues to spend more financial and human capital on evangelistic institutional programming than others form of evangelism.3 The research provided by the IACG also shows that between 75 and 90 percent “of new believers come to Christ through a friend or acquaintance who explains the Good News on a one-to-one basis.”4 Accordingly, Freedom Communities take a decentralized approach to sharing the Gospel. Granted, the prospects of sharing one’s faith can be daunting, but Freedom Communities eliminate the fear by employing a no-argument approach to purposeful evangelism. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 8 182x300 - Freedom Communities](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-8-182x300.jpg "Freedom Communities - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/41SNdpr)The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture Within modernity, personal evangelism historically focused on scaring nonbelievers out of hell and using reason to overcome objections by employing sound argumentation.5 Both approaches entail significant risk. First, regarding scaring nonbelievers out of hell, imagine a man courting a wife by putting a gun to her head and telling her that if she does not join him in a an eternal relationship, then he will kill her. Of course, she would likely concede, but the risks associated with building any form of healthy future relationship are significant. Thus, it seems reasonable that the Apostle Paul “never in his letters explicitly uses hell as a means of stimulating unbelievers to repent.”6 Second, the problem with using argumentation to convince a nonbeliever to believe is that, not only is it quite uncomfortable for the believer, but it also causes the interlocutor’s defense mechanisms to increase, which actually undermines the chance for evangelistic success. Alternatively, Freedom Communities utilize a no-argument approach to sharing the Gospel that addresses life’s meaning and purpose. It utilizes empathy and inquiry to assist the nonbeliever in discovering an identity in Christ and thus, experience the fruit of the Spirit (i.e. joy and peace). In other words, by emphasizing inquiry over argumentation and significance over threats, the method and the Gospel effectively address the questions a postmodern world is asking.7 **Serving** [![serve - Freedom Communities](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/serve.png "Freedom Communities - Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/serve.png)The third purpose of Freedom Communities is serving. Christian service has historically aligned with the organization in two specific ways. First, and the most lethal, is the expectation that it is solely the job of paid clergy to serve. The unspoken (and sometimes adamantly spoken) rule is that serving is the responsibility of the pastor and tithing is the responsibility of the congregation. Unfortunately, neither solution is working. The clergy make hospital visits and care for hurting people, while the laity attends church programming and 94% admit to not tithing.8 The devastating result is a perpetuation of consumerism while simultaneously contributing to the high-risk nature of pastoral employment.9 A second way serving aligns with the organization is through sanctioned programs such as community projects, food banks, or servant evangelism initiatives. These projects are often beneficial to the community and to the participants. However, the risk exists that church members only identify service with institutionally approved programs. Alternatively, the serving initiatives modeled by Jesus were significantly different in that neither was His service contingent upon funding nor was His service authorized by an institution. Christ’s service was a denial of self that served both believers, as shown in Jesus’s example of washing the disciple’s feet in John 13, and nonbelievers, as shown in the story of the woman at the well in John 4. Jesus’s method to determine the type of service to render consisted of joining God in the initiatives the Father had already begun as evidenced by His comments: “Truly, truly, I say to you, the Son can do nothing of Himself, unless it is something He sees the Father doing” (John 5:19). Accordingly, Freedom Communities do not look to the institution to serve them or to a sanctioned program to serve other believers and nonbelievers. Instead, the individuals within the Freedom Communities look to join God in His initiatives while simultaneously connecting the Gospel when serving others. In other words, not only is service another way of growing through intentionally denying self, but also another way of sharing the Gospel. The method of service within a Freedom Community focuses on both the external and internal needs of society. Externally, the focus pertains to the practical and physical needs of believers and nonbelievers. Examples may include offering transportation, providing financial assistance, or helping create a resume. Internally, the focus pertains to addressing the spiritual and emotional needs of both believers and nonbelievers. Examples may include taking time to listen, extending empathy, and providing encouragement. The powerful implications of decentralized service are a Spirit directed deployment of millions of Christians to a hurting world. All three purposes of the Freedom Communities, growing, sharing, and serving, are highly focused in order to engage action and avoid the passivity of consumerism. All three purposes relate to a postmodern world by joining God in His initiatives. Finally, all three purposes support a Scriptural view of a body of believers that actively live and breathe as an organism rather than an organization.10 [![get involved - Freedom Communities](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/get-involved.png "Freedom Communities - Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/contact-us-freedom-communities/) 1 McRaney, The Art of Personal Evangelism, 127. 2 Charles Colsen and Nancy Pearcey, How Now Shall We Live? (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House, 1999), 308. 3 William Fay and Linda Evans Shepherd, Share Jesus Without Fear (Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999), 12. 4 Ibid. 5 Will McRaney Jr., The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003), 116-18. 6 Douglas J. Moo, “Paul on Hell,” in Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment., ed. Christopher W. Morgan and Robert A. Peterson (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004), 109. 7 For a comparison between modern and postmodern evangelistic approaches, see McRaney, The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture, 127-31. 8 Barna, Maximum Faith: Live Like Jesus, 39. 9 For a plethora of statistical evidence regarding the high-risk nature of pastoral employment, see H. B. London and Neil B. Wiseman, Pastors at Greater Risk (Ventura, CA: Gospel Light, 2003), 20, 86, 172. 10 For more information, see G. Bulley, “What Is Church,” in Introduction to Church Planting (Alpharetta, GA: North American Mission Board, 2000). **Categories:** Uncategorized --- ### [Pastoral Counseling - Dichotomy of Faith and Reason](https://www.livestransforming.com/pastoral-counseling-faith-and-reason/) **Published:** December 30, 2013 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** One practical example of the dichotomy of faith and reason facing Christianity today is in the sphere of pastoral counseling. **Content:** # Pastoral Counseling – Dichotomy of Faith and Reason In the book, A Little Book for New Theologians, Kelly Kapic identifies a number of potential false dichotomies or theological divides that can arise in one’s approach to theology.[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftn1) In particular, one may observe the false dichotomies of life and theology, faith and reason, exegesis and revelation, prayer and theological reflection, grace and obedience, vertical and horizontal relationships, tradition and community, as well as Biblicism and liberalism within the life of the Church. Jennie Penn-Lewis astutely illuminated the risk of false dichotomies that plague [Christianity](https://www.livestransforming.com/christianity-and-hellenism/) in her statement, “The enemy pushes truth too far, so that it becomes error.”[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftn2) One practical example of the dichotomy of faith and reason facing Christianity today is in the sphere of pastoral counseling. On the one hand, John MacArthur suggests, “Psychology and Christianity have been enemies from the beginning.”[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftn3) Alternatively, Alexis Trader claims, “cognitive psychotherapy has a deep consanguinity with the disciplines engaged by the Christian fathers.”[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftn4) Overemphasizing either faith, to the exclusion of sound cognitive reasoning and analysis, or cognition, to the exclusion of faith-based principles, creates significant risks. An overemphasis on faith, to the exclusion of all forms of psychotherapy, leaves some convinced that MacArthur is culpable for an unfortunate tragedy in a family living Southern California. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 1 8 182x300 - Pastoral Counseling - Dichotomy of Faith and Reason](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-1-8-182x300.jpg "Pastoral Counseling - Dichotomy of Faith and Reason - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4hWzDpR)Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity, 4th edition: An Introduction to Worldview Issues, Philosophical Foundations, and Models of Integration The family of a young man, Kenneth Nally, filed a wrongful death lawsuit against MacArthur’s church and its pastors implicating them in Nally’s suicide by asserting that the “church was negligent in several ways including discouraging Nally from receiving psychological or psychiatric care.”[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftn5) Alternatively, an overemphasis on reasoned cognitive approaches to psychotherapy, devoid of faith, risks a form of secular humanism that may build on the constructs of evolution, determinism, philosophical naturalism, and post-modern relativistic thought. David Entwistle assists in reconciling the tension that exists between the apparent dichotomies of faith and reason within an environment of pastoral counseling by suggesting, “All truth is God’s truth, so that wherever and however truth is discovered, its author is God.”[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftn6) In other words, an integrationist perspective to pastoral counseling does not require a rejection of faith or reason. Finally, by examining the dichotomy through the lens of Kapic’s book, it appears the author would resolve the tension by asserting the necessity that faith must precede reason.[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftn7) Cornelius Van Til contributes nicely to the conversation by metaphorically reminding the reader that Solomon employed the assistance of the Phoenicians in building the great Hebrew Temple as servants, not as architects.[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftn8) Likewise, Kapic would recognize the value in cognitive psychotherapy as a servant, but not an architect of one’s faith. [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftnref1) Kelly M. Kapic, A Little Book for New Theologians: Why and How to Study Theology (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012), 9. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftnref2) Jessie Penn-Lewis, The Spiritual Warfare (Fort Washington, PA: Christian Literature Crusade, 1998), 44. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftnref3) John MacArthur, Wayne A. Mack, and the Master’s College Faculty, Introduction to Biblical Counseling: A Basic Guide to the Principles and Practice of Counseling (Dallas: Word, 1994), xiii. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftnref4) Alexis Trader, Ancient Christian Wisdom and Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Therapy: A Meeting of Minds (New York: Peter Lang, 2011), ix. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftnref5) David N. Entwistle, Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity: An Introduction to Worldview Issues, Philosophical Foundations, and Models of Integration (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2010), 172. [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftnref6) Ibid., 13. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftnref7) Kapic, A Little Book for New Theologians: Why and How to Study Theology, 51. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%201.docx#_ftnref8) Cornelius Van Til, Christian Theistic Evidences (Philadelphia: Westminster Theological Seminary, 1961), 67. Bibliography Entwistle, David N. Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity: An Introduction to Worldview Issues, Philosophical Foundations, and Models of Integration. Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2010. Kapic, Kelly M. A Little Book for New Theologians: Why and How to Study Theology. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012. MacArthur, John, Wayne A. Mack, and the Master’s College Faculty. Introduction to Biblical Counseling: A Basic Guide to the Principles and Practice of Counseling. Dallas: Word, 1994. Penn-Lewis, Jessie. The Spiritual Warfare. Fort Washington, PA: Christian Literature Crusade, 1998. Trader, Alexis. Ancient Christian Wisdom and Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Therapy: A Meeting of Minds. New York: Peter Lang, 2011. Van Til, Cornelius. Christian Theistic Evidences. Philadelphia: Westminster Theological Seminary, 1961. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [A Rulebook for Arguments- God's Existence](https://www.livestransforming.com/a-rulebook-for-arguments-gods-existence/) **Published:** December 30, 2013 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** In his book, A Rulebook for Arguments author Anthony Weston explains the rules for good argumentation. The following analysis provides three examples of the author undermining his own recommendations followed by a brief analysis of David Hume’s argumentation against the teleological argument for God’s existence. **Content:** # A Rulebook for Arguments- God’s Existence [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 1 7 182x300 - A Rulebook for Arguments- God's Existence](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-1-7-182x300.jpg "A Rulebook for Arguments- God - Lives Transforming's Existence")](https://amzn.to/43PJZ7B)A Rulebook for Arguments In his book, A Rulebook for Arguments author Anthony Weston explains the rules for good argumentation. However, at times, Weston has difficulty following his own advice. Accordingly, the following analysis provides three examples of the author undermining his own recommendations followed by a brief analysis of David Hume’s argumentation against the teleological argument for God’s existence. First, Weston refers to a famous argument for the existence of God, which states that houses must have designers, and since the world is a like a house, the world must have a designer.[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftn1) Hume attempts to undermine the teleological argument by suggesting the world is not relevantly similar to a house.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftn2) In response to Hume’s argument Weston agrees and further claims the “universe as a whole may contain its cause within itself.”[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftn3) Unfortunately, Weston’s logic is a non sequitur in that his conclusion does not follow the evidence. In other words, Weston argues that the world, which does exist, may cause itself to exist within itself ex nihilo. Weston appears to be suggesting the possibility that a rock, for instance, may have the ability to create itself. The irony is that by Weston suggesting the opposite of a designer and arguing a cause within itself, his conclusions lead to a reductio ad absurdum resulting in the silly notion that a beautiful house may create itself, thus actually proving the very thing he opposes – a designer.[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftn4) Second, Weston continues his attempt to support Hume by stating that it is possible that the world “has some kind of cause unique to universes.”[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftn5) First, Weston’s comment is a red herring because it has nothing to do with Hume’s assertion that a cause is absent. Second, by Weston suggesting a unique cause to the universes, he undermines his previous assertion that world possibly created itself. Finally, by suggesting a unique cause, Weston’s attempt to support Hume’s argument actually undermines it by supporting the possibility of a designer, even an Intelligent Designer, who may fulfill the role of a unique cause. Finally, Weston appropriately encourages researchers to seek impartial sources.[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftn6) The author then concludes, “The truth as one honestly sees it can still be biased.”[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftn7) Certainly, it is possible for bias to occur within the constructs of individual opinions. However, if objective truth exists, then truth becomes a reality and not a perspective based on the way one perceives it, which then eliminates bias. In fact, Weston’s statement against bias actually exemplifies a biased approach toward truth by assuming a relativism that assumes all truth “as one honestly sees it can still be biased.”[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftn8) Although the deconstruction of Weston’s assertions is rather straightforward, Hume makes argumentation more difficult. First, in response to the teleological argument for God’s existence, Hume argues, “Is part of nature a rule for the whole?”[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftn9) It is possible that part of nature is not a rule for the whole. However, if part of nature, a house, requires a creator, it seems that the whole of nature would require something more of a creator, not less. In other words, it appears illogical to conclude that more sophistication requires less of a designer. Accordingly, even if Hume’s argument against the analogy is effective, it is possible Hume finds himself in an ad ignorantiam by arguing that an Intelligent Designer does not exist just because an Intelligent Designer has not been proven by analogy. In fact, William Paley later proves that Hume’s myopic focus on disproving the teleological argument for God caused the philosopher to overlook alternatives that support an Intelligent Designer. Specifically, Paley’s famous watchmaker analogy undermined Hume’s argument just a few decades after Hume’s death.[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftn10) Finally, as Christians, it is difficult to ignore the [biblical](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-word-studies/) evidence supporting the teleological argument for God’s existence in Psalms 19, Acts 14:17 and 17:24-27. [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftnref1) Anthony Weston, A Rulebook for Arguments, 4th ed. (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2009), 22. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftnref2) Ibid. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftnref3) Ibid. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftnref4) Ibid. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftnref5) Ibid. [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftnref6) Ibid., 26-27. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftnref7) Ibid., 26. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftnref8) Ibid. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftnref9) Ibid., 22. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Brief%202.docx#_ftnref10) William Lane Craig, Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics, rev. ed. (Wheaton: Crossway, 1994), 86-88. **Bibliography** Craig, William Lane. Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics. Rev. ed. Wheaton: Crossway, 1994. Weston, Anthony. A Rulebook for Arguments. 4th ed. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2009. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Martin Luther's Righteousness of God](https://www.livestransforming.com/martin-luthers-righteousness-of-god/) **Published:** December 30, 2013 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** One of the most theologically rich phrases in the corpus of the Apostle Paul’s writings is the “righteousness of God.” In many ways, Martin Luther’s breakthrough interpretation of the phrase provided the impetus for the Protestant Reformation. However, modern scholars have disputed Luther’s interpretation, which has potentially put a core construct of Protestant theology at risk. **Content:** # Martin Luther’s Righteousness of God # LUTHER’S “RIGHTEOUSNESS OF GOD” IN ROMANS 1:17 **Introduction** One of the most theologically rich phrases in the corpus of the Apostle Paul’s writings is the “righteousness of God.” In many ways, Martin Luther’s breakthrough interpretation of the phrase provided the impetus for the Protestant Reformation. However, modern scholars have disputed Luther’s interpretation, which has potentially put a core construct of Protestant theology at risk. Accordingly, it is necessary to understand whether Luther’s interpretation of the contested phrase is valid. The purpose of this paper is to define Luther’s breakthrough interpretation of the phrase and to determine whether it has biblical and contextual support. The research will first define Luther’s breakthrough and then investigate the biblical and contextual support for his interpretation. Based on the research provided, this paper will prove that biblical and contextual evidence does exist to support Luther’s interpretation of the phrase, the righteousness of God, in Romans 1:17. Definitional Support for Luther’s Breakthrough The Background In order to understand Luther’s breakthrough, it is necessary to identify the doctrinal framework that Luther reacted against. Scholastic theology in the Thomistic tradition viewed the concepts of righteousness and justification in light of two distinct types of grace.[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn1) First, actual grace provided forgiveness of actual sins through the process of confession, but was not powerful enough to remove original sin.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn2) Accordingly, an infusion of a second type of grace, habitual grace, was necessary through the sacramental system of the church.[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn3) In light of the Scholastic doctrine, Luther was obsessed with whether his confessions were comprehensive enough to forgive all of his actual sins. Luther’s obsession over the forgiveness of sin led him to additional study, all of which provided support for his future breakthrough. First, Luther studied the works of Gabriel Biel, a nominalist theologian and a proponent of the via moderna, the modern way.[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn4) The theologians of the via moderna concluded that habits in justification were not necessary.[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn5) Second, Luther devoured the works of Augustine, who accentuated the personal nature of God, which shifted Luther’s emphasis from a created grace to an uncreated grace in the form of the [Holy Spirit](https://www.livestransforming.com/holy-spirit-in-revelation/).[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn6) Third, in 1513, Luther began an important study of the Psalms called the Dictata super Paslterium, which led him to conclude that an arrangement, or pactum, between God and humanity must exist in order for God to be “able to justify the sinner.”[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn7) At this point, Luther’s understanding of justification aligned directly with the via moderna, which suggested that God was obligated to fulfill his part of the agreement if humanity met a quod in se est – a “minimum condition for justification.”[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn8) The challenge for Luther was identifying the exact nature of quod in se est. Alister McGrath suggests that, during the time just prior to Luther’s breakthrough, humility was Luther’s early understanding of quod in se est.[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn9) However, upon returning to the Psalms, a significant shift occurred. By 1519, Luther had determined that the idea of quod in se est was “nothing more and nothing less than Pelagian.”[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn10) The Breakthrough In 1545, Luther writes an important “autobiographical fragment” in a preface to the complete edition of his Latin writings that provides significant insight into his breakthrough regarding his interpretation of the “righteousness of God.”[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn11) Due to the critical importance of the fragment in understanding Luther’s perspective, it is important to quote the passage at length: Meanwhile, I had already during that year \[1519\] returned to interpret the Psalter anew. I had confidence in the fact that I was more skillful, after I had lectured in the university on St. Paul’s epistles to the Romans, to the Galatians, and the one to the Hebrews. I had indeed been captivated with an extraordinary ardor for understanding Paul in the Epistle to the Romans. But up till then it was not the cold blood about the heart,[\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn12) but a single word in Chapter 1\[:17\], “In it the righteousness of God is revealed,” that had stood in my way. For I hated that word “righteousness of God,” which, according to the use and custom of all the teachers, I had been taught to understand philosophically regarding the formal or active righteousness, as they called it, with which God is righteous and punishes the unrighteous sinner…. At last, by the mercy of God, meditating day and night, I gave heed to the context of the words, namely, “In it the righteousness of God is revealed, as it is written, ‘He who through faith is righteous shall live.’ ” There I began to understand that the righteousness of God is that by which the righteous lives by a gift of God, namely by faith. And this is the meaning: the righteousness of God is revealed by the gospel, namely, the passive righteousness with which merciful God justifies us by faith, as it is written, “He who through faith is righteous shall live.” Here I felt that I was altogether born again and had entered paradise itself through open gates. There a totally other face of the entire Scripture showed itself to me.[\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn13) Three important concepts arise from Luther’s famous fragment identifying his breakthrough interpretation of the important phrase. First, Luther identifies the “righteousness of God” as a gift.[\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn14) In other words, Luther recognized God’s righteousness as something other than the wrath that punishes sinners, which caused him so much consternation. Second, faith was the sole vehicle that pronounced the individual righteous.[\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn15) Stephen Westerholm poetically expounds on the connection between faith and righteousness by explaining that Luther’s perspective is not that God overlooks sin, but that Christ bore it, and through a form of “marriage” relationship, “the righteousness of the divine Groom becomes theirs \[the believers\].”[\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn16) Third, the righteousness identified by Luther was passive. To understand Luther’s perspective of passive righteousness, it is necessary to recognize that Luther identified two types of righteousness. The first type is that of a passive or alien righteousness instilled by Christ through faith, whereby all that Christ has, including his righteousness, occupies the believer.[\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn17) The second type of righteousness is a “proper righteousness,” a righteousness that works in conjunction with the passive or alien righteousness.[\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn18) To provide a fair representation of Luther’s perspective against his antinomist critics, a proper understanding of the relationship between the two types of righteousness is crucial. Luther’s book Treatise on Christian Liberty may best represent the important chronological connection between the two types of righteousness. Luther begins by referring to the Gospel of Matthew and quotes, “A good tree cannot produce bad fruit, nor can a bad tree produce good fruit” (Matt. 7:18, \[NASB\]).[\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn19) Accordingly, Luther concludes, “Good works do not make a good man, but a good man does good works.”[\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn20) In other words, good works follow a good person, but the reverse is no more possible than roots growing on fruit.[\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn21) Thus, the chronology of the two types of righteousness is critical to a proper understanding of Luther. As Luther explains, a man must first be good via a passive righteousness before he can do good – a proper righteousness.[\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn22) Biblical Support for Luther’s Breakthrough Analysis of the Grammatical Construction Without question, Luther’s interpretation of the phrase “righteousness of God” made a lasting impact on Protestantism. However, the question remains whether biblical support exists for Luther’s interpretation. This section provides a brief analysis of the grammatical construction of the phrase followed by additional interpretive support within the book of Romans. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 1 6 182x300 - Martin Luther's Righteousness of God](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-1-6-182x300.jpg "Martin Luther - Lives Transforming's Righteousness of God")](https://amzn.to/4423Pwc)The Epistle to the Romans (New International Commentary on the New Testament (NICNT)) The Greek phrase for the righteousness of God in Romans 1:17 is dikaiosuvnh qeou:, which is in the genitive case that, in English, is similar to the preposition “of” indicating possession.[\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn23) The Greek genitive case has important exegetical significance due to the variety of interpretations it may convey.[\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn24) N. T. Wright provides four potential ways of interpreting the genitive in Romans 1:17: an objective genitive, a subjective genitive, a possessive genitive, and a genitive of origin.[\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn25) However, Douglas Moo suggests that only three primary options exist. First, the objective genitive that refers to a “status given by God,” the subjective genitive that refers to “an activity of God,” and finally, the possessive genitive that refers to “an attribute of God.”[\[26\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn26) Luther’s breakthrough aligns closely with the objective genitive interpretation, not in a strict transformative sense, but rather in an alien or passive sense of righteousness whereby the believer’s status modifies forensically.[\[27\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn27) Alternatively, Ernst Käsemann makes the case that, in light of the Old Testament evidence, a proper biblical understanding of the phrase supports a subjective genitive interpretation, which conveys the divine activity of the Creator.[\[28\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn28) Finally, in alignment with early church interpretation, Denny Burk argues that from a linguistic perspective the subjective and objective genitives both need eliminated.[\[29\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn29) Burk proposes that nouns, such as dikaiosuvnh, that end in –suvnh “indicate the qualities or defects of a person’s character.”[\[30\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn30) In other words, Burk persuasively contends the possessive genitive is the only alternative. With a number of reasonable options provided, it appears the inspired words of Paul should have been clearer, but additional clarity was not required. For only a God who possessed an attribute of righteousness would have the capacity to extend the activity necessary to declare the status of a believer righteous. In other words, it appears unlikely that Luther misunderstood God’s attribute of righteousness or discounted God’s ability to act, but recognized that the culmination of God’s attribute and activity provided the gift of righteousness, a forensically declared new status, which caused Luther to feel “altogether born again.”[\[31\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn31)Analysis within the Book of Romans The difficulty of limiting the interpretation of the phrase “righteousness of God” in Romans 1:17 to a definition that excludes the possibility of a gift that declares the status of the believer righteous is heightened by the numerous references to a forensic righteousness throughout the book of Romans. John Piper references Romans 4 as an important passage that supports the concept that the righteousness of God is a declared righteousness.[\[32\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn32) For example, Paul states, “Abraham believed God, and it was credited to him as righteousness” (Rom. 4:3). Piper asserts that the righteousness credited to Abraham is an imputed righteousness that inhabits the believer via faith.[\[33\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn33) Piper continues by suggesting that Paul’s metaphorical reference in verse 4 to the external nature of wages supports the idea that imputed righteousness originates externally, or in Luther’s words – an alien righteousness.[\[34\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn34) Piper also references Romans 5:12-17 and explains that Paul desires believers to understand that Christ’s righteousness is imputed in a way analogous to humanity’s relationship with Adam: “As we were in him and share in his sin, so we are in Christ and share in his righteousness.”[\[35\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn35) Finally, it would be difficult to avoid the possibility that God’s righteousness is an externally generated gift in light of Romans 5:17: “The gift of righteousness will reign in life through the One, Jesus Christ.” Douglas Moo also references Romans 3:21-22 and 10:3 stating that the verses “include references to the status of righteousness ‘given’ to the believer by God.”[\[36\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn36) Granted, it is possible for the exegesis of individual texts to undermine the idea that the righteousness of God resides within an objective genitive interpretation. However, it appears overwhelming grammatical and scriptural evidence exists to support Luther’s perspective that the righteousness of God may refer to a forensically declared status given by God to the believer. Contextual Support for Luther’s Breakthrough The Context in Light of the Old Testament Certainly, grammatical and scriptural evidence exists to support Luther’s interpretation of the phrase “righteousness of God.” However, it is also necessary to consider whether contextual support exists for Luther’s breakthrough interpretation. This section provides an exploration of the context that Paul communicated the phrase to first century readers. Sam Williams proposes that since Paul does not give a comprehensive explanation of dikaiosuvnh qeou: in Romans 1:17, one can reasonably conclude that Paul assumed his readers would be familiar with the phrase based on their familiarity with the Old Testament.[\[37\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn37) More specifically, James Ropes contends that the primary meaning of the Hebrew verb “to be in the right” (ṣādaq) has a forensic connotation whereby an individual is “pronounced to be in the right.”[\[38\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn38) Ropes provides a supportive example from Genesis 38:26 where Judah says of Tamar, “She is more righteous than I,” not suggesting an ethical righteousness, but a strength of her case – “she is in the right” (cf. Exod. 9:17, 23:7; Deut. 25:1).[\[39\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn39) However, even more striking are the passages where “God’s vindication of man can be described either as the righteousness of man or the righteousness of God.”[\[40\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn40) Ropes cites an example of when God supplied his righteousness to Israel: “This is the heritage of the servants of the Lord, and their righteousness is of me, saith the Lord” (Isa. 54:17, KJV; cf. Isa. 41:10; Ps. 69:28).[\[41\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn41) Without a doubt, the Old Testament refers to “righteousness” in other senses, which include a form of moral excellence, an attribute of God, and an activity of God. However, Ropes suggests that Paul knew the variegated perspectives of the righteousness of God referenced in Isaiah and the Psalms; thus, “It is possible to think of it as an attribute and activity of God and as a state \[status\] of man resulting therefrom.”[\[42\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn42) The Context in Light of the Greco-Roman Culture Frank Thielman proposes that, in addition to investigating the first century readers understanding of the Old Testament, Greco-Roman contextual support for understanding the “righteousness of God” is available from Origen of Caesarea’s commentary on Romans.[\[43\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn43) Origen appears to have understood the righteousness of God in light of the Greco-Roman culture as meaning to treat people – Jew, Greek, or barbarian – fairly.[\[44\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn44) In other words, righteousness traverses all social boundaries. Thielman suggests the fairness of God referenced by Origen was “not equity in meeting out justice but in saving everyone who believes no matter what their social group.”[\[45\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn45) Accordingly, Thielman proposes that, in light of Origen’s cultural perspective, God fairly and impartially extends the righteousness of God to those who believe in the gospel because of the “atoning nature of Christ’s death.”[\[46\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftn46) Thus, it appears the Greco-Roman cultural interpretation of the righteousness of God, as exposited by the first interpreter of Romans, also supports the idea of a righteous status given impartially by God to all those who believe. Conclusion Luther’s breakthrough interpretation of the “righteousness of God” in Romans 1:17 in the early 1500s was that of a gift given to the believer by faith. Although valid arguments for other interpretative stances exist, these views do not mitigate the potential for a forensically declared new status, but in fact, empower Luther’s interpretation. Furthermore, it appears strong grammatical evidence exists for the possibility of an objective genitive interpretation especially as the culmination of a possessive and subjective genitive view of the phrase. In addition, significant scriptural evidence exists in Romans 3; 4; 5 and 10 that appear to reference a forensic righteousness given to a believer by God. Finally, based on the varied understandings of Old Testament references, strong contextual evidence exists that support an interpretation by first century readers that the righteousness of God, at times, refers to a status given by God. Moreover, even the Greco-Roman cultural view of righteousness, which aligns with the notion of impartiality, conceptually supports a righteousness given to all who believe regardless of social or economic boundaries due to Christ’s atoning death. Accordingly, the research has unequivocally proven that biblical and contextual evidence exists to support Luther’s interpretation of the phrase “the righteousness of God” in Romans 1:17. Bibliography Burk, Denny. “The Righteousness of God (Dikaiosune Theou) and Verbal Genitives: A Grammatical Clarification.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 34, no. 4 (June 2012): 346-60. Accessed October 31, 2013. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost. George, Timothy. Theology of the Reformers. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1988. Luther, Martin. Luther’s Works. American edition. 55 vols. Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehman. Philadelphia: Muehlenberg and Fortress, 1955-1986. Logos. ———. Luther’s Works, Vol. 26: Lectures on Galatians, 1535, Chapters 1-4. Edited by Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehman. Vol. 26. Saint Louis: Concordia, 1999. ———. Luther’s Works, Vol. 31: Career of the Reformer I. Edited by Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann. Vol. 31. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999. ———. Luther’s Works, Vol. 34: Career of the Reformer IV. Edited by Jaroslav Jan Pelikan. Vol. 34. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999. McGrath, Alister E. Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification. New York: Cambridge University, 2005. ———. Luther’s Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough. 2nd ed. United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. Moo, Douglass J. The Epistle to the Romans. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996. Piper, John. Counted Righteousness in Christ: Should We Abandon the Imputation of Christ’s Righteousness? Wheaton: Crossway, 2002. Logos. Ropes, James Hardy. “’Righteousness’ and ‘The Righteousness of God’ in the Old Testament and in St. Paul.” Journal of Biblical Literature 22, no. 2 (1903): 211-27. Accessed November 1, 2013. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3259199. Thielman, Frank. “God’s Righteousness as God’s Fairness in Romans 1:17: An Ancient Perspective on a Significant Phrase.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 54, no. 1 (March 2011): 35-48. Accessed October 31, 2013. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost. Wallace, Daniel B. Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996. Westerholm, Stephen. Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2004. Williams, Sam K. “The ‘Righteousness of God’ in Romans.” Journal of Biblical Literature 99, no. 2 (June 1980): 241-90. Accessed October 31, 2013. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3265815 Wright, N. T. What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity? Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1997. [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref1) Timothy George, Theology of the Reformers (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1988), 64. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref2) Ibid. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref3) Ibid. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref4) Ibid., 65. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref5) Alister E. McGrath, Luther’s Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough, 2nd ed. (United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), 114. [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref6) Ibid., 113. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref7) Ibid., 110. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref8) Ibid., 116. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref9) Alister E. McGrath, Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification (New York: Cambridge University, 2005), 220. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref10) Ibid., 220. [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref11) McGrath, Luther’s Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough, 127. [\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref12) Cf. Virgil, Georgics, 2.483-89. [\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref13) Martin Luther, Luther’s Works, Vol. 34: Career of the Reformer IV, ed. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999), 34:336-38. [\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref14) Ibid. [\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref15) Martin Luther, Luther’s Works, Vol. 26: Lectures on Galatians, 1535, Chapters 1-4, ed. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehman (Saint Louis: Concordia, 1999), 26:137. [\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref16) Stephen Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2004), 32. [\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref17) Martin Luther, Luther’s Works, Vol. 31: Career of the Reformer I, ed. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999), 31:297-98. [\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref18) Ibid., 299. [\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref19) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the New American Standard Bible (La Habra, CA: Lockman Foundation, 1995). [\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref20) Luther, Luther’s Works, Vol. 31, 361.Career of the Reformer I, 297-98. [\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref21) Ibid. [\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref22) Ibid. [\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref23) Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 73-74. [\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref24) Ibid., 74. [\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref25) N. T. Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity? (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1997), 101. [\[26\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref26) Douglass J. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996), 70-71. [\[27\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref27) Ibid., 71. [\[28\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref28) Denny Burk, “The Righteousness of God (Dikaiosune Theou) and Verbal Genitives: A Grammatical Clarification,” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 34, no. 4 (June 2012): 348, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 31, 2013). [\[29\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref29) Ibid., 349. [\[30\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref30) Ibid., 351. [\[31\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref31) Luther, Luther’s Works, Vol. 34: Career of the Reformer IV, 336-38. [\[32\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref32) John Piper, Counted Righteousness in Christ: Should We Abandon the Imputation of Christ’s Righteousness? (Wheaton: Crossway, 2002), 54. [\[33\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref33) Ibid., 56. [\[34\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref34) Ibid. [\[35\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref35) Ibid., 93. [\[36\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref36) Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, 73. [\[37\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref37) Sam K. Williams, “The ‘Righteousness of God’ in Romans,” Journal of Biblical Literature 99, no. 2 (June 1980): 260, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3265815 (accessed October 31, 2013). [\[38\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref38) James Hardy Ropes, “’Righteousness’ and ‘The Righteousness of God’ in the Old Testament and in St. Paul,” Journal of Biblical Literature 22, no. 2 (1903): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3259199 (accessed November 1, 2013). [\[39\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref39) Ibid. [\[40\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref40) Ibid., 218. [\[41\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref41) Ibid., 219. [\[42\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref42) Ibid., 220; emphasis added. [\[43\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref43) Frank Thielman, “God’s Righteousness as God’s Fairness in Romans 1:17: An Ancient Perspective on a Significant Phrase,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 54, no. 1 (March 2011): 39, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 31, 2013). [\[44\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref44) Origen, Romans, Books 1-5 87. [\[45\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref45) Thielman, “God’s Righteousness as God’s Fairness in Romans 1:17: An Ancient Perspective on a Significant Phrase,” 44. [\[46\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/Research%20Paper.docx#_ftnref46) Ibid., 47. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Paul's Perspective on “Works of the Law”](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-perspective-on-works-of-the-law/) **Published:** June 25, 2014 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Since 1977, when E. P. Sanders’s Paul and Palestinian Judaism landed on traditional Pauline scholarship with a thud, a raging debate over Paul’s perspective of the Law ensued. Central to the ongoing debate is the interpretation of the Pauline phrase “works of the Law.” **Content:** # Paul’s Perspective on “Works of the Law” # Introduction Since 1977, when E. P. Sanders’s Paul and Palestinian Judaism landed on traditional Pauline scholarship with a thud, a raging debate over Paul’s perspective of the Law ensued. Central to the ongoing debate is the interpretation of the Pauline phrase “works of the Law.” The important phrase appears eight times in the New Testament including three times in Galatians 2:16, once in Galatians 3:2, 5, 10, and once in Romans 3:20, 28. However, no theological consensus exists for the reason why “works of the Law” cannot justify. Until a clear understanding of Paul’s meaning of the phrase exists, a key construct of Protestantism, sola fide or justification by faith alone, is at risk. The question remains: Why is it that the Law cannot justify? Five different interpretive perspectives exist that attempt to answer the question. First, the traditional view suggests the Law cannot justify because it is impossible for humans to fulfill and it is legalistic even to try procuring righteousness through works. Second, the idolatrous view suggests the Law cannot justify because even attempting to obey the law to achieve righteousness is sinful. Third, the imperfection view suggests the Law cannot justify because it is not possible for humanity to obey the law perfectly. Fourth, the subjective genitive view suggests the Law cannot justify because the Law is an active agent of destruction. Fifth, the exclusivist view suggests the Law cannot justify because it constructs social boundaries that lead to ethnic exclusivism between Jews and Gentiles. However, this particular paper proves that the reason why “works of the Law” cannot justify is that the Law is incapable of propelling sinners towards righteousness. Accordingly, an exploration of various scholarly interpretations of “works of the Law” ensues, followed by an exegesis of the phrase with primary consideration given to Galatians 2:16 within its historical and literary context. # # The Traditional View Paul’s understanding of ‘works of the law’ is foundational to the protest that led to Protestantism, thus, a proper grasp of the traditional view is critical in order to assess it in light of its modern opponents. Thomas Schreiner briefly summarizes the traditional view by stating that some “claim that ‘works of the law’ do not justify because no one can fulfill the law perfectly, and it is legalistic to try to gain righteousness by doing good works.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The traditional view coequally emphasizes both assertions, which provides its distinctiveness from other views. John Calvin and Martin Luther both represent the traditional view. ## John Calvin Calvin acknowledges the difficulty of defining “works of the Law,” and recognizes two competing views; one view suggests that “works of the Law” pertain only to ceremonial Law, while the second view suggests that “works of the Law” pertain to whole Law.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Calvin is adamant that Paul is referring to the whole Law and states, “Let them maintain, if they dare, that these things apply to ceremonies, and not to morals, and the very children will laugh at their effrontery.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) To bolster his argument, Calvin contends that Romans 3:20; 7:7; and 5:20 mean that the Law is far beyond human capacity, and that God provided the Law in order to prove humanity’s utter inability to keep the Law.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Calvin clearly asserts that “works of the Law” do not justify because humanity is unable to fulfill the Law perfectly, but an additional nuance exists. Irrespective of Calvin’s caustic temperament, the theology within his writing vehemently opposes legalistic perspectives. For this research, the definition of legalism is “one who achieves righteousness by law keeping.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) In particular, commenting on Galatians 2:16, Calvin accused the Roman Catholic Church of legalism by stating, “Paul was unacquainted with the theology of the Papists, who declare that a man is justified by faith, and yet make a part of justification to consist of works. Of such half-justification Paul knew nothing.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Calvin’s polemic against legalism continues by suggesting the believer must first be free from the bondage of the Law prior to being compelled to consider obedience as an option.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Without question, Calvin claimed that “works of the Law” do not justify as no one can fulfill the law perfectly, and even trying to fulfill the Law without being free from it is legalistic. However, it seems impossible to leave the traditional view without exploring the complementary views of the most famous protestor. ## Martin Luther Stephen Westerholm suggests there was no more important passage to Luther than the phrase in Galatians 2:16: “A man is not justified by faith in Christ and not by works of the law.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Like Calvin, Luther insists the Law is not limited to the ceremonial Law, but instead, the Law “includes a lot.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Again, aligned with Calvin, Luther opposes legalism and demands that justification is solely by faith opposing any notion that justification can occur through his broad definition of the works of the Law or in combination with faith.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) However, the specific reasons why the Law cannot justify is more nuanced in Luther than Calvin. Westerholm details six specific reasons why Luther believes that one cannot be justified by works of the law. First, due to God’s almighty power, any attempt to satisfy God would be completely futile leading individuals to misery and pain.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Second, God is the source of everything that is good, which includes the Law, so any attempt for humanity to justify themselves with works diminishes the God’s glory.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Third, in order to meet the requirements of the Law, complete obedience is necessary, but Luther’s own experience proved the impossibility of meeting God’s standards.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Fourth, even good works are offensive without faith.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Fifth, regardless of human effort, Luther believes that humanity remains in bondage to Satan, and works are ineffective against the power of evil.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Finally, if humanity believes “works of the Law,” not the cross, can absolve them from sin, then Christ died in vain.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) In other words, according to Luther, works of the Law have absolutely no power in light of the cross.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Both Protestant stalwarts clearly support the view that Paul claimed in Galatians 2:16 that “works of the Law” do not justify because no one can perfectly fulfill the law and that attempting to gain righteousness through works is legalistic and fruitless. However, not all theologians align with Luther and Calvin. Next, with overtones of Luther, Rudolf Bultmann takes center stage. # The Idolatrous View Schreiner explains that Rudolf Bultmann aligns with Luther and Calvin regarding the impossibility of keeping the Law.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) However, the inability for humanity to keep the Law is not the primary focus of Bultmann’s polemic.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) In fact, Schreiner notes that Bultmann, along with Ernst Käsemann, believe, “The very attempt to obey the law as a means of justification is sinful, even if people were to obey it perfectly.”[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Accordingly, unlike Luther, Westerholm notes the idolatrous view considers “works of the Law” as “something…bad.”[\[21\]](#_ftn21) ## Rudolf Bultmann Bultmann presumes that all individuals are creatures and denying creatureliness is to deny God, thus all human pursuits are pursuits of life in the created world and not God.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Specifically, it is not only delusional for man to attempt, in his own efforts, to procure life; it is the ultimate sin of idolatry.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Accordingly, although the original intent of the Law was to abdicate self-reliance, Bultmann contends that the Jews attempted to establish a righteousness through their own self-reliant pursuits, which is a fleshly, idolatrous, and sinful attempt to rule the self.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Accordingly, Bultmann identifies two primary reasons why “works of the Law” cannot justify. First, “works of the Law” cannot justify because “there is no true fulfilment of the Law.”[\[25\]](#_ftn25) In other words, for Bultmann, Paul’s language that no man will be justified by “works of the Law” in Galatians 2:16 means that no man can; it is impossible for man to procure his own righteousness.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Second, works of the Law cannot justify because “man’s effort to achieve his salvation by keeping the Law only leads him into sin, indeed this effort itself in the end is already sin.”[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Accordingly, for Bultmann, the ultimate reason why “works of the Law,” whether ceremonial or moral, cannot justify is that any human pursuit leads to self-reliance and then to boasting and “man must not have any boast before God” (Rom. 3:27; 4:2).[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Bultmann is not the only scholar who holds the idolatrous view. Ernst Käsemann holds a similar view, but places additional emphasis on the Law’s relationship to boasting. ## Ernst Käsemann Käsemann claims that the Law thrusts an individual “into the existing world of anxiety about oneself, self-confidence, and unceasing self-assurance.”[\[29\]](#_ftn29) Furthermore, Käsemann asserts that faith and boasting are incongruous.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Deductive logic suggests that since the Law leads to boasting, and boasting is incompatible with faith, then the Law is incompatible with faith. The incompatibility is due to the essence of the Law itself. By its very nature, the Law in Judaism points to transgressions, prompts the individual to repent, and then drives the sinner to pursue the Law with more vehemence.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) Accordingly, the reason the Law cannot justify is that “it simply pushes one deeper into the vicious circle of demand and effort from which Paul breaks free.”[\[32\]](#_ftn32) For Käsemann, instead of justifying, the Law “simply provokes the possibility of boasting.”[\[33\]](#_ftn33) # # The Imperfection View In many ways, the imperfection view stands in stark contrast to the idolatrous view of Bultmann and Käsemann. Schreiner explains that scholars who hold the imperfection view, such as Ulrich Wilckens and Frank Thielman, argue that the reason why the Law cannot justify is simply “because no one obeys the law perfectly.”[\[34\]](#_ftn34) However, similar to the traditional view, the imperfection view believes it is impossible to obey the law perfectly and that the Law is inherently good, but in contrast to the traditional view, it ignores the suggestion that it is legalistic to try to gain righteousness by doing good works. ## Ulrich Wilckens Westerholm suggests the foundation for Wilckens’ view rests on a uniquely literal reading of Romans 2:13: “For it is not the hearers of the Law who are just before God, but the doers of the Law will be justified.”[\[35\]](#_ftn35) Westerholm explaines that for Wilckens, “God does promise salvation to those whose works show them to be righteous.”[\[36\]](#_ftn36) Accordingly, Wilckens believes that the works of the Law in Galatians 2:16 cannot justify because in Galatians 2:17 all have “been found sinners.”[\[37\]](#_ftn37) Wilckens finds no indication in Paul’s theology that attempting to keep the Law is sinful or idolatrous.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) Accordingly, Westerholm succinctly summarizes that for Wilckens “there is one reason – and one reason only – why no one can be justified by works of the law: all have sinned, and where works are the decisive criterion by which righteousness is assessed…the sin of all bring all humankind under the wrath of God.[\[39\]](#_ftn39) Frank Thielman also supports the imperfection view and agrees with the basic tenets of Wilckens’ perspective. However, Thielman places further distance between the imperfection view and the traditional view of the Reformers. ## Frank Thielman Similar to Wilckens, Thielman claims that Paul’s primary concern in Galatians 2:16 pertains to the impossibility of keeping the Law.[\[40\]](#_ftn40) However, Thielman insists the Reformers erred by contending that Paul thought the Jews and Jewish Christians were believing that “works of the Law” would justify.[\[41\]](#_ftn41) According to Thielman, Paul was not accusing the Jews of legalism, but instead, reminding the Jews of what they already knew, which was to deny Gentiles justification “unless they do something other than put their faith in God is to deny the commonly accepted Jewish teaching that God justifies the sinner because God is gracious.”[\[42\]](#_ftn42) A common denominator of all previous views is an emphasis on the inability for humans to obey the “works of the Law.” However, Lloyd Gaston and Paul Owen suggest an entirely different interpretation of the disputed phrase. # The Subjective Genitive View Gaston and Owen provide a unique view of the Greek genitive phrase ἔργωv νόμου, “works of the Law,” by interpreting it in the subjective sense.[\[43\]](#_ftn43) Owen notes that scholars normally translate the important phrase in the objective sense, which would render the meaning as human “works that fulfill the Law.”[\[44\]](#_ftn44) However, the subjective genitive, as defined by Daniel Wallace, functions as “the subject of the verbal idea implicit in the head noun.”[\[45\]](#_ftn45) For example, instead of translating “works of the Law” as “works that fulfill the Law,” the subjective genitive would translate the phrase as “the works produced by the Law.” ## Lloyd Gaston Gaston’s thesis admits that “works of the Law” in Galatians undermines the grace of God, but more importantly, the Law has a power that leads to catastrophic results.[\[46\]](#_ftn46) As proof that the Law in an active vehicle, Gaston references Romans 4:15, which states, “The Law brings about wrath.”[\[47\]](#_ftn47) Furthermore, the Law causes guilt (Rom. 3:19), reveals sin (Rom. 3:20), convicts (Rom. 5:13), increases sin (Rom. 5:20), deceives (Rom. 7:11), and kills (Rom. 7:11).[\[48\]](#_ftn48) Accordingly, the reason why the Law cannot justify is that it is an agent of destruction. An interesting distinctive of Gaston’s perspective is that he limits the damaging effects of the Law to Gentiles, which he believes create circumstances that reveal the need for redemption.[\[49\]](#_ftn49) Owen similarly embraces a subjective genitive interpretation of “works of the Law” but repudiates the Gentile limitation imposed by Gaston.[\[50\]](#_ftn50) ## Paul Owen For Owen, humanity’s inability to fulfill the Law resides within the meaning of the phrase “works of the Law,” which indicates the consequences of the Law’s action.[\[51\]](#_ftn51) However, Owen refutes Gaston by explaining that the Law also “condemns Jews within the covenant who fail to comply with its demands.”[\[52\]](#_ftn52) For Owen, Galatians 2:16 is not referring to what humans must do to obtain justification, but rather, to the Law’s inability to produce the righteousness necessary for justification in either Jew or Gentile due to its destructive nature.[\[53\]](#_ftn53) The subjective genitive view certainly minimizes the phrase’s emphasis on human effort highlighted by the Reformers, but pales in comparison to the assault the exclusivist view levels against the traditional view. # The Exclusivist View E. P. Sanders professes that one of his goals is to destroy the Christian view of Judaism “as a religion of legalistic works-righteousness.”[\[54\]](#_ftn54) Although Sanders’s influence spurred a massive literary response, Thomas Schreiner succinctly summarizes three common denominators of what James Dunn coined the “new perspective.” First, “works of the Law” technically refer to the whole law, but is contextually limited to the entire Law of the covenant, not works in general.[\[55\]](#_ftn55) Second, Paul attacks the Law because it promotes ethnic exclusivism by demanding Gentiles convert to Judaism for salvation rather than procuring salvation through Christ.[\[56\]](#_ftn56) Finally, the new perspective denies that Paul rejects “works of the Law” because of legalism or boasting.[\[57\]](#_ftn57) The following analysis briefly describes the specific aspects of both Sanders’s and Dunn’s influential views in order to address why the Law cannot justify. ## E. P. Sanders Sanders’s most prominent work focuses on comparing Paul with Palestinian Judaism in light of “patterns of religion,” by which Sanders means the perception by its members of “how getting in and staying in are understood.”[\[58\]](#_ftn58) Sanders concludes that early Judaism’s pattern of religion relies on “covenantal nomism,” which asserts that “one’s place in God’s plan is established on the basis of the covenant and that the covenant requires as the proper response of man his obedience to its commandments.”[\[59\]](#_ftn59) In other words, Judaism understood God’s election as the method for “getting in” but also understood that obedience to the Law was necessary for “staying in” the religion. Sanders acknowledges that Paul disagrees with Judaism in that his soteriology depends on a new life in Christ, not the covenant.[\[60\]](#_ftn60) However, Sanders maintains that Paul agrees with Judaism regarding the relationship between grace and works: “Salvation is by grace but judgment is according to works; works are the condition of remaining ‘in,’ but they do not earn salvation.”[\[61\]](#_ftn61) According to Sanders, Paul denies that “works of the Law” justify because he is limiting the phrase to the concept of “getting in,” whereas Judaism asserts that “works of the Law” do justify because it is referring to the concept of “staying in.”[\[62\]](#_ftn62) For Sanders, Paul and Judaism both agree that “works of the Law” do not justify initially but do justify continually, thus the debate about “works of the Law” is simply a result of “the different usage of the ‘righteous’ word-group.”[\[63\]](#_ftn63) Dunn also supports the exclusivist view but attempts to clarify Paul’s objection assuming the Apostle was not opposing legalism. ## James Dunn Dunn concludes that Sanders’s “covenantal nomism” actually aligns with orthodox Protestantism as both claim, “Grace is always prior; that human effort is ever the response to divine initiative; that good works are the fruit and not the root of salvation.”[\[64\]](#_ftn64) However, if Dunn is correct, then why did Paul so forcefully communicate that “works of the Law” cannot justify. Before answering the question, Westerholm notes that the majority of Dunn’s theology aligns with orthodox Protestantism, including humanity’s sin nature, God’s grace initiative, the required response of faith, and finally, that love powered by the Spirit aligns with the law of Christ.[\[65\]](#_ftn65) Additionally, Dunn deviates from Sanders regarding the necessity of works to “stay in” by stating, “If entry into the covenant is by faith, the same principle should apply to life within the covenant…it should depend solely on faith.”[\[66\]](#_ftn66) Accordingly, one may question what impact Dunn may have on the new perspective. Westerholm explains that Dunn’s distinctive contribution is that Paul’s opponents were Jews who did not focus on human works for justification but required adherence to specific Jewish laws, such as circumcision and food laws, as a requirement for justification.[\[67\]](#_ftn67) Accordingly, Schreiner appropriately summarizes Dunn’s view by stating, “‘Works of the Law’ must be repudiated as a way to salvation because they create a social boundary between Jews and Gentiles, limiting salvation to a certain ethnic group.”[\[68\]](#_ftn68) Although Dunn’s perspective as well as all previous views have merit, a solid exegesis of the phrase “works of the Law” is necessary to investigate a proper interpretation. # The Gospel view The views summarized above all claim strong exegetical support. However, in order to provide a proper defense as to why “works of the Law” do not justify, the background and exegesis of Galatians 2:16 are important. Following a brief exposition of the verse, the research summarizes the weaknesses of each of the five views examined above and defends the fact that the reason why “works of the Law” cannot justify is that the Law is incapable of propelling sinners towards righteousness. ## Exegesis Thomas Lea and David Black represent the majority of evangelical scholars who agree that the phrase “works of the Law” in Galatians 2:16 resides within a letter written by the Apostle Paul to a specific church planted by Paul and Barnabas in either North or South Galatia around AD 50.[\[69\]](#_ftn69) Paul’s letter specifically addresses certain false teachers leading the Galatian church astray by suggesting that in some way “works of the Law” could justify.[\[70\]](#_ftn70) Douglas Moo explains that none of the parties involved questioned the necessity of faith in Christ; the theological question at hand was whether faith in Christ plus “works of the Law” was necessary for justification.[\[71\]](#_ftn71) The specific Greek phrase, ἔργωv νόμου, is most commonly translated “works of the Law” in Galatians 2:16 and has no significant textual variants.[\[72\]](#_ftn72) Furthermore, the overarching literary context of the letter appears to represent a form of persuasive argumentation. [![03 24 182x300 - Paul's Perspective on “Works of the Law”](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/03-24-182x300.jpg "Paul - Lives Transforming's Perspective on “Works of the Law”")](https://amzn.to/427zmKN)Galatians, Volume 41 (41) (Word Biblical Commentary) Richard Longenecker interprets the letter as an apologetic and Galatians 2:16 as the propositio, that section that sets up the argument.[\[73\]](#_ftn73) Similarly, Timothy George points out that G. A. Kennedy claims that Galatians is deliberative rhetoric, which attempts to persuade an audience to action.[\[74\]](#_ftn74) Regardless of the specific nuances, it seems clear that Paul is attempting to influence his readers through persuasive language. Next, the definition of the words “works” and “Law” are critical to understanding the phrase. Johannes Louw and Eugene Nida define the Greek word for “works,” ἔργωv, as “that which one normally does…giving the responsibility to his servants, to each one his particular work (to do).”[\[75\]](#_ftn75) Regarding the Greek word for “Law”, νόμου, Louw and Nida supply two definitions. The first definition is “the first five books of the Old Testament called the Torah (often better rendered as ‘instruction’).”[\[76\]](#_ftn76) A second definition for the Law consists of the sum of the sacred writings and “is not restricted to the first five books of the Old Testament.”[\[77\]](#_ftn77) The challenges of interpreting the two key words within Galatians 2:16 are significant even within the definitions. Specifically, the word “works” refers to both what one “normally” does and to “particular” works to do. Furthermore, the definition of the word “Law” refers to both the first five books of the Bible and the entire corpus of the holy writings. The ambiguity lies at the heart of the disparate views identified above. Finally, even an analysis of the syntax defies consensus. Although ἔργωv and νόμου are both in the genitive case, ἔργωv is a prepositional object, but, as noted above, according to Moo, νόμου may be objective genitive or subjective genitive depending on the context.[\[78\]](#_ftn78) Accordingly, an analysis of each of the five views and a broader literary context are necessary to determine why “works of the Law” cannot justify. ## Defense The five views presented all have merit, but all contain weaknesses as well. First, the traditional view suggests that “works of the Law” cannot justify because it is impossible for humans to fulfill the Law and attempting to gain righteousness through works is legalism. The primary weakness in the traditional view is that it overemphasizes “works” and minimizes “Law” when interpreting the phrase.[\[79\]](#_ftn79) Certainly, Paul would oppose legalism if defined as achieving righteousness by keeping the Law, but when the traditional view assumes that Paul used “works of the Law” to mean that Palestinian Judaism was legalistic in the sense that it completely ignored God’s gracious election, then the traditional view goes too far.[\[80\]](#_ftn80) Galatians 2:15-16 states, “We are Jews by nature…knowing that a man is not justified by the works of the Law but through faith in Christ Jesus.” The context clearly shows that Paul understood that his Jewish audience knew that grace, not works, justified. Second, the idolatrous view suggests that “works of the Law” cannot justify because it is impossible to for humans to fulfill the Law and attempting to do so is sinful. Although the idolatrous view also has much to offer, the most significant challenge it faces is that the Law is something bad.[\[81\]](#_ftn81) It is difficult to disagree with Bultmann’s assertion that, “Man’s effort to achieve his salvation by keeping the Law only leads him into sin.”[\[82\]](#_ftn82) However, Romans 7:12 states, “The Law is holy.” Accordingly, to indict the holy Law seems as reckless as blaming Christ for sin (Gal. 2:17). The problem appears to be an anthropological predicament, not a concern with the “goodness” of the Law. In other words, the Law is not “bad,” but humankind’s use of the Law can be bad; effort to keep the Law is not bad, but humankind’s motivation in keeping the Law can be bad. Humanity’s sin nature is the issue, not the Law.[\[83\]](#_ftn83) Third, the imperfection view suggests that “works of the Law” cannot justify because it is impossible for humans to fulfill the Law, but attempting to do so is not legalistic and the Law is inherently good. In light of the weaknesses of the previous two views, the imperfection view seems to resolve the concerns. However, if the reason why Paul believes “works of the Law” cannot justify is that it is impossible to fulfill the Law, then the imperfection view must assert, as Schreiner claims, “If someone could obey the law perfectly, then that person would be righteous.” However, Paul’s soteriology does not rest on whether humanity can do enough to be righteous. Paul’s concern is the inner core of humanity, not the exterior deeds. In fact, Paul considered the doing of the Law rubbish even though “as to the righteousness which is in the Law, \[he was\] found blameless” (Phil. 3:5).[\[84\]](#_ftn84) In other words, although it is true that it is impossible for humans to fulfill the Law, this is not Paul’s primary concern. The reason Paul believes that “works of the Law” cannot justify is because humanity’s nature needs replaced, not because humanity’s work needs improved. Fourth, the subjective genitive view suggests that the “works of the Law” cannot justify because the Law is an active agent of destruction that causes humanity to “seek liberation from sin through Christ, apart from the Law.”[\[85\]](#_ftn85) The most significant challenge facing the subjective genitive view is the implication that the law is evil because of its activity. Schreiner explains the subjective genitive view results in the following translation, “No one can be righteous by doing the evil deeds produced by the law.”[\[86\]](#_ftn86) Although Schreiner’s view may exaggerate the subjective genitive view, observing the phrase through the lens of the Law’s evilness contradicts the goodness of the Law proved above. Although one must concede that the Law does reveal the need for redemption, to suggest that “evil means” justify “redemptive ends” moves beyond Paul’s intent. Finally, the exclusivist view suggests that the “works of the Law” cannot justify because Paul is limiting the phrase to the soteriological concept of “getting in,” thus the real issue is that “works of the Law” create a social boundary between [Jews and Gentiles](https://www.livestransforming.com/jewish-attitudes-toward-gentiles/), limiting salvation to a certain ethnic group. First, against Sanders, if legalism is achieving righteousness by keeping the law, then the assertion that Judaism is not legalistic because “works of the Law” do not initially justify appears reasonable. However, Sanders admits that for Palestinian Judaism keeping the Law does continually justify, but maintains that legalism is absent from Judaism – a non sequitur. Second, Dunn denies Sanders’s conclusion that the Law continually justifies, but regardless, attempts to build on Sanders’s illogical conclusion. Dunn’s response is that Paul’s primary concern was ethnic exclusivism through the enforcement of specific Jewish laws (Gal. 2:11-14; 5:2-6). However, in contrast to the traditional view, Dunn’s weakness is that he overemphasizes “Law” and minimizes “works” by suggesting that the “works of the Law” cannot justify “because they are torah works.”[\[87\]](#_ftn87) By focusing solely on specific laws for justification, Dunn misses the importance of Paul’s critique of human works against the background of the whole law at the end of Galatians 2:16, which states, “By the works of the Law no flesh will be justified.” The weakness of Dunn is in underestimating the anthropological issues of humanity’s flesh that Paul refers to within the verse.[\[88\]](#_ftn88) Granted, all the stated views contribute to Paul’s concern regarding “works of the Law.” However, the reason that “works of the Law” cannot justify reveals itself within the broader literary context of Paul’s Gospel message exhibited in the remainder of Galatians chapter two. Paul explains that justification can occur only “in Christ” (Gal. 2:17). Furthermore, Paul explains that a new state of existence occurs because “Christ lives in me” resulting from being “crucified with Christ” (Gal. 2:19-20). In other words, justification can only occur through a new nature, which is why Paul explains, “If righteousness comes through the Law, then Christ died needlessly” (Gal. 2:21). Christ is the exclusive and comprehensive cause of the justification. Accordingly, the reason why Paul so adamantly claims that “works of the Law” cannot justify is that the Law is incapable of propelling sinners towards righteousness. # # Conclusion Today’s Christians continue to face the temptation of finding identity in moral achievements, performance, and various other “works,” instead of “in Christ.” Accordingly, a proper understanding of “works of the Law” in light of the Gospel view is highly relevant by providing Good News for both evangelism and discipleship ministries. The tenets of the Gospel view include the following: the Law is comprehensive, not particular; the Law is not a problem, but humanity can make it a problem; the Law is impossible to “do”, but “doing” is not Paul’s focus; the Law leads to redemption, but is not the cause of the destruction often required for redemption; and the Law has both anthropological and salvation-historical implications. Furthermore, although it is impossible to offer a comprehensive look at each of the alternative views in a brief study, the traditional, idolatrous, imperfection, subjective-genitive, and exclusivist views in some way all fall short of offering an adequate answer to the question of “why works of the Law” cannot justify. However, by evaluating the broader literary context, the Gospel view asserts that Paul’s primary purpose in maintaining that “works of the Law” cannot justify rests on the Christocentric focus of believers’ new creation status within Paul’s Gospel message. Accordingly, the reason why “works of the Law” cannot justify is that the Law is incapable of propelling sinners towards righteousness. Finally, issues for further study include extrapolating the Gospel view beyond Galatians 2:16 through an examination of other Scripture references specifically and generally related to “works of the Law” as well as performing exegetical analysis for Scripture within the broader context of Paul’s message to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the Gospel view. # Bibliography Ash, Anthony Lee. Philippians, Colossians, & Philemon. The College Press NIV Commentary. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1994. Logos. Bultmann, Rudolf. Theology of the New Testament: Complete in One Volume. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1951. Calvin, John. Commentaries on the Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans. Translated and edited by John Owen. Calvin’s Commentaries, vol. 19. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009. ———. Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, I & II Thessalonians, I & II Timothy, Titus, Philemon. Translated by William Pringle. Calvin’s Commentaries, vol. 21. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009. ———. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Translated by Henry Beveridge. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2008. Dunn, James D. G. “The Justice of God: A Renewed Perspective on Justification by Faith.” Journal of Theological Studies 43, no. 1 (April 1992): 1-22. ———. The Partings of the Ways between Christianity and Judaism and Their Significance for the Character of Christianity. Philadelphia: Trinity, 1991. Gaston, Lloyd. “Works of Law as a Subjective Genitive.” Studies in Religion 13, no. 1 (January 1984): 39-46. George, Timothy. Galatians. The New American Commentary, vol. 30. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994. Logos. Käsemann, Ernst. Commentary on Romans. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980. Lea, Thomas D., and David Alan Black. The New Testament Its Background and Message. 2nd ed. Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003. Longenecker, Richard N. Galatians. Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word, 1998. Logos. Louw, Johannes P., and Eugene Albert Nida. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Based on Semantic Domains. New York: United Bible Societies, 1996. Luther, Martin. Galatians. The Crossway Classic Commentaries. Edited by Alister McGrath and J. I. Packer. Wheaton: Crossway, 1998. ———. Table Talk. Edited by Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehman. Vol. 54 of Luther’s Works. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999. Logos. Metzger, Bruce M. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament: A Companion Volume to the United Bible Societies’ Greek New Testament (Fourth Revised Edition). 2nd ed. Stuttgart, Germany: German Bible Society, 1994. Moo, Douglas J. Galatians. Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013. Owen, Paul. “The ‘Works of the Law’ in Romans and Galatians: A New Defense of the Subjective Genitive.” Journal of Biblical Literature 126, no. 3 (September 2007): 553-77. Sanders, E. P. Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977. Logos. Schreiner, Thomas R. “’Works of Law’ in Paul.” Novum Testamentum 33, no. 3 (July 1991): 217-44. Thielman, Frank. From Plight to Solution: A Jewish Framework for Understanding Paul’s View of the Law in Galatians and Romans. Leiden: Brill, 1989. Wallace, Daniel B. Greek Grammar beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996. Westerholm, Stephen. Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2004. [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Thomas R. Schreiner, “’Works of Law’ in Paul,” Novum Testamentum 33, no. 3 (July 1991): 218. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) John Calvin, Commentaries on the Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans, trans. and ed. John Owen, Calvin’s Commentaries, vol. 19 (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009). [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2008), 489. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 201. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Anthony Lee Ash, Philippians, Colossians, & Philemon, The College Press NIV Commentary (Joplin, MO: College Press, 1994), Phil. 3:6. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) John Calvin, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, I & II Thessalonians, I & II Timothy, Titus, Philemon, trans. William Pringle, Calvin’s Commentaries, vol. 21 (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009), 69. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, 551. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Stephen Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2004), 30. Unless otherwise, noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the New American Standard Bible (La Habra, CA: The Lockman Foundation, 1995). [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Martin Luther, Galatians, The Crossway Classic Commentaries, ed. Alister McGrath and J. I. Packer (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 1998), 86. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Martin Luther, Table Talk, ed. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehman, vol. 54 of Luther’s Works (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999), 10. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics, 35. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 35. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid., 36. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid., 36. . [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Luther, Galatians, The Crossway Classic Commentaries, 92. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Schreiner, “’Works of Law’ in Paul,” 219. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Ibid., 219-20. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics, 150. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Rudolf Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament: Complete in One Volume (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1951), 232. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Ibid., 232, 239. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Ibid., 240, 250. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Ibid., 263. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Ibid. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Ibid., 264. ‘[28] Ibid., 283. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Ernst Käsemann, Commentary on Romans, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1980), 102. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Ibid. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Ibid., 89. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Ibid. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Ibid., 103. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Schreiner, “’Works of Law’ in Paul,” 220. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics, 154. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Ibid., 155. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Ibid. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Ibid., 155. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) Ibid. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Frank Thielman, From Plight to Solution: A Jewish Framework for Understanding Paul’s View of the Law in Galatians and Romans (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 1989), 62. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) Ibid. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Ibid., 62; emphasis added. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Paul Owen, “The ‘Works of the Law’ in Romans and Galatians: A New Defense of the Subjective Genitive,” Journal of Biblical Literature 126, no. 3 (September 2007): 553-54. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Ibid., 554n5. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 113. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) Lloyd Gaston, “Works of Law as a Subjective Genitive,” Studies in Religion 13, no. 1 (January 1984): 44. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) Ibid. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48) Ibid., 44. [\[49\]](#_ftnref49) Ibid., 45. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50) Owen, “The ‘Works of the Law’ in Romans and Galatians: A New Defense of the Subjective Genitive,” 554n4. [\[51\]](#_ftnref51) Ibid., 554. [\[52\]](#_ftnref52) Ibid., 554n4. [\[53\]](#_ftnref53) Ibid., 562. [\[54\]](#_ftnref54) E. P. Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977), 59. [\[55\]](#_ftnref55) Schreiner, “’Works of Law’ in Paul,” 222-23. [\[56\]](#_ftnref56) Ibid., 223. [\[57\]](#_ftnref57) Ibid. [\[58\]](#_ftnref58) Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion, 17. [\[59\]](#_ftnref59) Ibid., 75. [\[60\]](#_ftnref60) Ibid., 514. [\[61\]](#_ftnref61) Ibid., 543. [\[62\]](#_ftnref62) Ibid., 544. [\[63\]](#_ftnref63) Ibid. [\[64\]](#_ftnref64) James D. G. Dunn, “The Justice of God: A Renewed Perspective on Justification by Faith,” Journal of Theological Studies 43, no. 1 (April 1992): 7-8. [\[65\]](#_ftnref65) Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics, 188-89. [\[66\]](#_ftnref66) James D. G. Dunn, The Partings of the Ways between Christianity and Judaism and Their Significance for the Character of Christianity (Philadelphia: Trinity, 1991), 133. [\[67\]](#_ftnref67) Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics, 189. [\[68\]](#_ftnref68) Schreiner, “’Works of Law’ in Paul,” 222. [\[69\]](#_ftnref69) Thomas D. Lea and David Alan Black, The New Testament Its Background and Message, 2nd ed. (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003), 364-69. [\[70\]](#_ftnref70) Ibid., 364-66. [\[71\]](#_ftnref71) Douglas J. Moo, Galatians, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013), 157. [\[72\]](#_ftnref72) Bruce M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament: A Companion Volume to the United Bible Societies’ Greek New Testament (Fourth Revised Edition), 2nd ed. (Stuttgart, Germany: German Bible Society, 1994), 522-24. [\[73\]](#_ftnref73) Richard N. Longenecker, Galatians, Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas: Word, 1998), 82. [\[74\]](#_ftnref74) Timothy George, Galatians, The New American Commentary, vol. 30 (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994), 82n168. [\[75\]](#_ftnref75) Johannes P. Louw and Eugene Albert Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Based on Semantic Domains (New York: United Bible Societies, 1996), 514; emphasis added. [\[76\]](#_ftnref76) Ibid., 394. [\[77\]](#_ftnref77) Ibid., 394-95. [\[78\]](#_ftnref78) Moo, Galatians, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament, 158. [\[79\]](#_ftnref79) Ibid., 160. [\[80\]](#_ftnref80) Thielman, From Plight to Solution: A Jewish Framework for Understanding Paul’s View of the Law in Galatians and Romans, 62. [\[81\]](#_ftnref81) Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics, 150. [\[82\]](#_ftnref82) Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament: Complete in One Volume, 264. [\[83\]](#_ftnref83) Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul, 333-34. [\[84\]](#_ftnref84) Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics, 312, 403. [\[85\]](#_ftnref85) Owen, “The ‘Works of the Law’ in Romans and Galatians: A New Defense of the Subjective Genitive,” 563. [\[86\]](#_ftnref86) Schreiner, “’Works of Law’ in Paul,” 231. [\[87\]](#_ftnref87) Moo, Galatians, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament, 158. [\[88\]](#_ftnref88) Ibid., 159. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Book of Acts- Author & Date](https://www.livestransforming.com/book-of-acts-author-date/) **Published:** June 25, 2014 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Present an overview of the evidence for determining the date Acts was written. What indicators of historical reliability are found in Acts? What role does Luke as author play? Why are the issues of date and author important to a proper interpretation of Acts? **Content:** # Book of Acts- Author & Date Evidence for determining the date Acts was written. What indicators of historical reliability are found in Acts? What role does Luke as author play? Why are the issues of date and author important to a proper interpretation of Acts? Scholars date the writing of the book of Acts from AD 62 to AD 130 in light of three different perspectives. First, W. Ward Gasque suggests that the influential scholar of the T*ü*bingen School, F. C. Baur, promotes the view of an early Christian faith divided between a Jewish Petrine Christianity and a Gentile Pauline Christianity.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 21 182x300 - Book of Acts- Author & Date](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-21-182x300.jpg "Book of Acts- Author & Date - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3FMDf01)An Introduction to the New Testament Accordingly, Baur hypothesizes a later second-century date for Acts written by a Paulinist “in order to defend the mission of Paul to the Gentiles against the criticisms of the Jewish Christian party.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Jimmy Dukes also notes that some scholars assume a second-century date due to an assumption that the author utilized Josephus as a source.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Second, D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo explain that most scholars believe a date in the 80s is most reasonable for the book of Acts.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The logic supporting a date in the 80s includes the assumptions that the writing occurred after the Gospel of Luke, during a time supportive of the Roman government and without the author’s knowledge of the Pauline corpus.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Finally, Carson and Moo also point out that some scholars believe the sudden conclusion of the book supports a date before AD 70.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) In other words, Luke simply finished writing the book of Acts in accordance with the current chronology of events – Paul under house arrest in Rome around AD 62.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Carson and Moo also provide additional support for a date in the 60s including Luke’s lack of knowledge of Paul’s letters, representation of Judaism as an organized religion, silence regarding Nero, and colorful explanation of Paul’s shipwreck.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Accordingly, the preponderance of the evidence appears to support a date in the mid-60s. Carson and Moo recognize that certain scholars doubt the historical reliability of the book of Acts by questioning Luke’s historical accuracy, contesting his theological accuracy in relationship to Paul, and doubting Luke’s accuracy in recording the speeches of Acts.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) First, regarding the historical accuracy of Acts, Carson and Moo reference a number of ancient historians, such as Polybius, Lucian, and Thucydides, who supported very high standards of historical documentation in antiquity.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Furthermore, W. M. Ramsay notes that when Acts is read without prejudice, Luke is recognized as highly authoritative when read in light of current scholarship regarding Asia Minor’s “topography, social conditions, political divisions, municipal institutions, etc.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Second, Gasque notes that beginning with numerous nineteenth century German scholars, many theologians viewed the theology of Acts as representing a post-apostolic age, and thus, unintentionally misrepresenting Paul in Acts.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) However, Carson and Moo point out that any alleged contradictions between the theology of Acts and Paul’s theology involve ideas where Paul is ambiguous or where the purposes of the two authors diverge.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Finally, Carson and Moo explain that any question regarding the reliability of the [speeches in Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/historicity-of-the-speeches-in-acts/) is swiftly resolved by conceding that, although Luke may not have penned the exact words, his paraphrases have the ability to convey accurate content.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Regarding Luke’s role as the author of Acts, Joseph Fitzmyer succinctly explains that Luke’s role is to provide “a historical monograph with a proclamation.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) In other words, Luke contextually weaves the story of Jesus’s life and ministry into the Roman, Palestinian, and Church history.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Furthermore, Gasque summarizes Luke’s role in providing a theological proclamation by noting the author’s emphasis on the centrality of God, salvation, Christology, ecclesiology, and the Holy Spirit.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Carson and Moo agree with Fitzmyer and Gasque while adding that the ultimate purpose of the narrative is to edify Christians.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Beyond the primary role of Luke and the purpose of his work, the author also provides a conciliatory attitude toward any tension between Jewish and Gentile Christians, an apologetic within the context of Roman influence, as well as various theological themes and sub-themes such as the Word of God and the people of God.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Luke’s foci have a practical implication and modern Christians would do well to integrate into ministry the author’s primary themes, which include edification, conciliation, salvation, God’s Word, the Holy Spirit, and the body of Christ. Finally, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of accurately identifying the date and author of Acts for a proper interpretation of the work. For example, if the dating of Acts is incorrect, the reader may place the context of the author’s polemic within a form of second century Gnosticism or within a later political context, which may significantly alter the message. Furthermore, if the reader incorrectly identifies the author as a non-eyewitness or redactor, then the reader may not value the intimate relational component necessary for a proper interpretation of the book. Accordingly, a proper identification of both date and author are critical for proper modern day exegesis. [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). W. Ward Gasque, “The Historical Value of the Book of Acts,” The Evangelical Quarterly 41 (1969): 74. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). Ibid., 77. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3). Jimmy W. Dukes, “Introduction to Acts,” Theological Educator, no. 42 (September 1990): 52, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 12, 2014). [\[4\]](#_ftnref4). D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), 297. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5). Ibid., 298. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6). Ibid. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7). Ibid., 299. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8). Ibid., 300. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9). Ibid., 317-20. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10). Ibid., 317-18. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11). W. M. Ramsay, The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1915), 85. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12). Gasque, “The Historical Value of the Book of Acts,” 70-71. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13). Carson and Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 319. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14). Ibid., 320. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15). Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Acts of the Apostles: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 2010), 56. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16). Ibid., 57. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17). W. Ward Gasque, “A Fruitful Field: Recent Study of the Acts of the Apostles,” Interpretation 42, no. 2 (April 1988): 123-28, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 12, 2014). [\[18\]](#_ftnref18). Carson and Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 321. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19). Ibid., 302-305, 321-325. **Bibliography** Carson, D. A., and Douglas J. Moo. An Introduction to the New Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005. Dukes, Jimmy W. “Introduction to Acts.” Theological Educator, no. 42 (September 1990): 49-61. Accessed May 12, 2014. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost. Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Acts of the Apostles: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. New Haven, CT: Yale University, 2010. Gasque, W. Ward. “A Fruitful Field: Recent Study of the Acts of the Apostles.” Interpretation 42, no. 2 (April 1988): 117-31. Accessed May 12, 2014. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost. ———. “The Historical Value of the Book of Acts.” The Evangelical Quarterly 41 (1969): 68-88. Ramsay, W. M. The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1915. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Luke as Author of the Book of Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/luke-as-author-of-the-book-of-acts/) **Published:** June 27, 2014 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Give the evidence to support Luke as author of Acts. How could Luke become aware of privileged information such as found in Acts 23:25–30, 25:14–22, and 26:30–32? How important are the "we" passages in Acts to determining authorship? **Content:** # Luke as Author of the Book of Acts Give the evidence to support Luke as author of Acts. How could Luke become aware of privileged information such as found in Acts 23:25–30, 25:14–22, and 26:30–32? How important are the “we” passages in Acts to determining authorship? [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 21 182x300 - Luke as Author of the Book of Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-21-182x300.jpg "Luke as Author of the Book of Acts - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3FMDf01)An Introduction to the New Testament Four significant factors point to a Lucan authorship of the book of Acts. First, although D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo note that both Luke and Acts are anonymous, the prologue to Luke-Acts alludes to an author who is well educated, not an apostle, versed in the [Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/), and knowledgeable of first century society, which all align with a current understanding of Luke.[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn1) Second, Joseph Fitzmyer explains that Luke appears as Paul’s fellow worker in Philemon 24, as the beloved physician in Colossians 4:14, and as Paul’s sole companion in 2 Timothy 4:11, which may provide support for the shift from third person to the first person plural in Acts and further support for Luke as author.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn2) Third, Jimmy Dukes cite the Muratorian fragment, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, Jerome, and Eusebius as additional external evidence supporting Lucan authorship.[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn3) Fourth, Dukes notes that the author’s use of medical language in the book of Acts also supports Lucan authorship in light of Colossians 4:14.[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn4) Acts 23, 25, and 26 all refer to either written or verbal correspondence between four government officials of Rome – Claudius Lysias, Felix, Festus, and King Agrippa. The natural question arises as to how Luke could have possibly gained access to such privileged and, at times, confidential information. Three explanations provide potential answers to this provocative question. First, Luke admits in the prologue to his Gospel that he was not an eyewitness to all he writes, but claims he obtained his information from credible sources so the reader would “know the exact truth” (Luke 1:4, [NASB]). Second, although Fitzmyer admits that defining Luke’s sources with complete accuracy is impossible, he suggests potential sources for the passages in question include a copy of the letter referred to in Acts 23, a potential Pauline source, and actual discussions with Paul himself.[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn5) Finally, A. N. Sherwin-White supports the historical authenticity of Acts by referencing the famous Roman legal historian, Theodor Mommsen, who states that Luke’s account of Paul’s trial before Felix and Festus is “an exemplary account of the provincial penal procedure.”[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn6) Accordingly, it appears Luke took great pains to use credible sources and provide accurate information even when documenting privileged information. From a practical perspective, modern Christians would do well to follow Luke’s lead in learning and providing accurate information and interpretations of God’s message to a modern audience. Carson and Moo identify four passages where the author of Acts shifts to a first person plural suggesting the author was present at these events (See Acts 16:8-10; 20:5-15; 21:1-18; 27:1-28:16).[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn7) Accordingly, the internal evidence suggests the author must be an individual not mentioned in these four passages and a person Paul would likely mention in his letters if a close companionship existed.[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn8) Since Luke meets both of these criteria, it is probable that the “we” passages are an important ingredient in supporting Lucan authorship. Alternatively, Fitzmyer summarizes two alternative explanations for the “we” passages originating from modern commentators, which include a possible eyewitness account other than the author or the possibility that the author used the first person plural as a literary device to enhance the writing.[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn9) Todd Penner expands on Fitzmyer’s observation by arguing for a complex fusion of genres to support the “we” passages including the possibility that Luke wrote a “scientific treatise, a historical or biographical composition, a novel, and/or an apologetic text.”[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn10) However, Martin Hengel endorses the more likely scenario that highlights the importance of the “we” passages in determining the authorship of Acts, which is that the “we” passages appear “in the travel accounts because Luke simply wanted to indicate that he was there.”[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn11) [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref1). D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), 290. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref2). Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Acts of the Apostles: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 2010), 50. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref3). Jimmy W. Dukes, “Introduction to Acts,” Theological Educator, no. 42 (September 1990): 51, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 12, 2014). [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref4). Ibid., 51-52. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref5). Fitzmyer, The Acts of the Apostles: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, 80, 85-8. [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref6). A. N. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 1963), 48. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref7). Carson and Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 290. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref8). Ibid., 290-91. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref9). Fitzmyer, The Acts of the Apostles: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, 99-100. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref10). Todd C. Penner, “Madness in the Method?: The Acts of the Apostles in Current Study,” Currents in Biblical Research 2, no. 2 (April 2004): 239-40, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 12, 2014). [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%201.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref11). Martin Hengel, Acts and the History of Earliest Christianity (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2003), 66. **BIBLIOGRAPHY** Carson, D. A., and Douglas J. Moo. An Introduction to the New Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005. Dukes, Jimmy W. “Introduction to Acts.” Theological Educator, no. 42 (September 1990): 49-61. Accessed May 12, 2014. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost. Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Acts of the Apostles: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. New Haven, CT: Yale University, 2010. Hengel, Martin. Acts and the History of Earliest Christianity. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2003. Penner, Todd C. “Madness in the Method?: The Acts of the Apostles in Current Study.” Currents in Biblical Research 2, no. 2 (April 2004): 223-93. Accessed May 12, 2014. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost. Sherwin-White, A. N. Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 1963. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Paul's meaning of in Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-meaning-of-in-christ/) **Published:** June 27, 2014 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Paul's theology behind the meaning of being "in Christ." What he means and the authority he uses to explain the terminology. **Content:** # Paul’s meaning of in Christ An overview of Paul’s theology of the person and work of Christ and a summary of what Paul meant by being “in Christ.” What were Paul’s sources for his theology and his authority? How would you explain Paul’s view of being “in Christ” to a curious non-believer? Paul’s theology recognizes both the full humanity and the full deity of Christ as critical components of his personhood. Millard Erickson observes that Paul provides evidence of Jesus’s humanity in the Apostle’s letter to the Romans by using the phrase “one man” three times in regards to Jesus (Romans 5:15, 17, 19 [NASB]).[\[1\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn1) Paul also references Jesus appearing in bodily form in 1 Timothy 3:16 further supporting Christ’s humanity. Paul also references Jesus’ deity. For example, Paul’s letter to the Colossians explicitly states, “For in Him all the fullness of Deity dwells in bodily form” (Colossians 2:9). [![03 22 182x300 - Paul's meaning of in Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/03-22-182x300.jpg "Paul - Lives Transforming's meaning of in Christ")](https://amzn.to/3XC9RzO)Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free Although the person of Christ is crucial to orthodox theology, the work of Christ is also critically important. In fact, Erickson notes that the person of Christ and the work of Christ are indivisible.[\[2\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn2) F. F. Bruce summarizes Paul’s perspective of Christ’s work by referencing his letter to the Corinthians, which states that “Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, and that He was buried, and that He was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures” (1 Corinthians 15:3-4).[\[3\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn3) Justyn Terry expands on Bruce’s observation by explaining that what Christ died for was the forgiveness of sins, which “lies at the heart of God’s gracious reconciling work in Christ.”[\[4\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn4) Ultimately, Christ’s work in Paul’s theology includes his sacrifice, propitiation, and substitution that results in the reconciliation of believers to God.[\[5\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn5) Paul’s meaning of “in Christ” has both a personal and a communal aspect. The personal element is beautifully summarized by Adolf Deissmann who states, “Christ is Spirit; therefore He can live in Paul and Paul in Him. Just as the air of life which we breathe is ‘in’ us and fills us, and yet we at the same time live and breathe ‘in’ this air, so it is with St. Paul’s fellowship of Christ: Christ in him, he in Christ.”[\[6\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn6) The result of the incorporation of the believer into Christ and Christ into the believer is the manifestation of “every spiritual blessing” necessary for the believer’s spiritual health (Ephesians 1:3).[\[7\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn7) Additionally, F. F. Bruce summarizes the communal element by explaining that being “in Christ” breaks down social and racial barriers between Jews and Gentiles.[\[8\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn8) In other words, just as the Hebrew of Hebrews obtained new life in Christ through faith and not the law, Gentiles also have the opportunity to participate in God’s community through faith and not the law.[\[9\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn9) However, even beyond the Jew and Gentile community, Craig Keener notes that Paul’s emphasis on a corporate unity in Christ necessarily expands to “all ethnic, cultural, and earthly kinship connections.”[\[10\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn10) Two primary sources of Paul’s theology and authority are revelation and tradition. In one sense, Paul did not receive the gospel from man, but directly from God (Galatians 1:12). More specifically, F. F. Bruce notes that Paul received the revelation of the gospel when he encountered the risen Christ on the road to Damascus where he received the revelation of the mystery of the gospel – “Christ in you, the hope of glory” (Colossians 1:27).[\[11\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn11) In another sense, Paul did receive the gospel from man; he received information from Peter in Jerusalem a few years after his Damascus experience.[\[12\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn12) In Jerusalem, Paul confirmed the reality and implications of the death, burial, and resurrection of Christ.[\[13\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn13) Furthermore, D. A. Caron and Douglas Moo provide additional sources of Paul’s theology and authority, which include early Christian traditions, such as creeds and hymns, the teachings of the earthly Jesus, the Old Testament, Paul’s Jewish upbringing, and, to a lesser extent, the Greek world of Paul.[\[14\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn14) An explanation of “in Christ” to a curious non-believer starts with an understanding of the inner self. Every human has a body, but humans are also born with a spirit and when individuals confess their need for a Savior, then God, in the form of the [Holy Spirit](https://www.livestransforming.com/holy-spirit-in-revelation/), joins their spirit through faith (Romans 8:16). The incorporation of God into the individual’s life provides the inner power to live healthily from the inside-out due to the righteousness of God residing within the new believer (Romans 3:22). The implications of receiving the gift of God’s righteousness are staggering (Romans 5:17). Specifically, the new believer no longer needs to attempt to find their value and worth from outside themselves in the things of the world such as their performance, other people’s opinions, or external circumstances. Instead, believers can rely on the righteousness of God within them to complete them (Colossians 2:10). The result is that the new believer has the opportunity to experience true freedom for the first time in their life (Galatians 5:1). [\[1\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref1). Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 728. [\[2\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref2). Ibid., 692. [\[3\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref3). F. F. Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1977), 88. [\[4\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref4). Justyn C. Terry, “The Forgiveness of Sins and the Work of Christ: A Case for Substitutionary Atonement,” Anglican Theological Review 95, no. 1 (December 2013): 23, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 13, 2014). [\[5\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref5). Erickson, Christian Theology, 829-33. [\[6\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref6). Adolf Deissmann, St. Paul: A Study in Social and Religious History, trans. Lionel R. M. Strachan (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1912), 128. [\[7\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref7). Harold W. Hoehner, Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002), 168. [\[8\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref8). Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free, 87. [\[9\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref9). Ibid. [\[10\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref10). Craig S. Keener, “One New Temple in Christ: Ephesians 2:11-22; Acts 21:27-29; Mark 11:17; John 4:20-24,” Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 12, no. 1 (January 2009): 92, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 13, 2014). [\[11\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref11). Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free, 87. [\[12\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref12). Ibid., 88. [\[13\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref13). Ibid. [\[14\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref14). D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), 371-75. **Bibliography** Bruce, F. F. Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1977. Carson, D. A., and Douglas J. Moo. An Introduction to the New Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005. Deissmann, Adolf. St. Paul: A Study in Social and Religious History. Translated by Lionel R. M. Strachan. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1912. Erickson, Millard J. Christian Theology. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007. Hoehner, Harold W. Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002. Keener, Craig S. “One New Temple in Christ: Ephesians 2:11-22; Acts 21:27-29; Mark 11:17; John 4:20-24.” Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 12, no. 1 (January 2009): 75-92. Accessed May 13, 2014. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost. Terry, Justyn C. “The Forgiveness of Sins and the Work of Christ: A Case for Substitutionary Atonement.” Anglican Theological Review 95, no. 1 (December 2013): 9-24. Accessed May 13, 2014. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [The Apostle Paul's Perspective on Jewish Law](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-apostle-pauls-perspective-on-jewish-law/) **Published:** June 27, 2014 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Paul’s encounter with Christ on the Damascus Road caused a tectonic shift in Paul’s religious paradigm. **Content:** # The Apostle Paul’s Perspective on Jewish Law An overview of Paul’s theology regarding Judaism and the Law. How did Paul understand the Law after his conversion? How did Paul view the religion of Judaism after his conversion? How does the New Perspective help us understand Paul’s writings? [![03 22 182x300 - The Apostle Paul's Perspective on Jewish Law](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/03-22-182x300.jpg "The Apostle Paul - Lives Transforming's Perspective on Jewish Law")](https://amzn.to/3XC9RzO)Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free F. F. Bruce explains that Paul’s religious heritage included belonging to the Jewish ancestry of Benjamin, being born a Hebrew, and following the Law as a Pharisee.[\[1\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn1) However, Paul’s encounter with Christ on the Damascus Road caused a tectonic shift in Paul’s religious paradigm. The life changing experience ultimately revealed to Paul the the Law was weak, and the boundaries of Judaism used to distinguish itself from the Gentiles and Hellenistic way of life were no longer necessary (See Hebrews 7:18; Galatians 6:15 \[NASB\]). Regarding the Law, Paul’s Damascus Road experience completely altered his perspective. Bruce explains that Paul’s conversion left him with the realization that his previous view of religion was incomplete.[\[2\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn2) In contrast with Paul’s Jewish heritage, his encounter with the resurrected Christ led to an understanding that keeping the Law was impossible.[\[3\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn3) Specifically, Paul’s revelatory experience offered a different manner for obtaining the righteousness necessary to reconcile life with a holy God.[\[4\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn4) Instead of attempting to achieve righteousness by keeping the Law through self-effort, Paul recognized that righteousness came through “faith in Christ” (Philippians 3:9). In fact, Bruce continues, even an amalgamation of having faith in Christ and following the Law is incomprehensible, since the Law “actually led him \[Paul\] to sin” (Romans 7:5; 1 Corinthians 15:56).[\[5\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn5) The question remains that if the Law is not sufficient, then what was the purpose of the Law. Douglas Moo answers the question by referring back to the faith-based Abrahamic covenant that God delivered Israel prior to the Mosaic Law.[\[6\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn6) In other words, prior to the seed of Abraham arriving in the form of Jesus, the Law provided a custodial or supervisory role until the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ (Galatians 3:24-25; 4:1-2).[\[7\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn7) Paul’s life-altering encounter with Christ also significantly modified Paul’s perspective of Judaism. Certain theologians, such as James Dunn, suggest the term “conversion” is not accurate since Paul never left the Jewish faith, and instead, refer to Paul’s Damascus Road experience as a commissioning.[\[8\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn8) Although it is true that Paul always referred to himself as a Jew even after the experience, G. Walter Hansen points out that, subsequent to Paul’s blinding encounter, he never used the term “in Judaism” to describe himself, but referred to himself as “in Christ.”[\[9\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn9) Accordingly, the distinctive Jewish identity markers, such as circumcision, food, and Sabbath laws, are no longer meaningful subsequent to Paul’s conversion.[\[10\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn10) In fact, Paul advances the argument most poignantly by stating, “For neither is circumcision anything, nor uncircumcision, but a new creation” (Galatians 6:15). Furthermore, Brian Rosner points out that Paul says that Jews rely on the law, know the law, do the law, observe the law, keep the law, and possess the law (Romans 2:17-29).[\[11\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn11) However, Rosner continues, “Paul never says that Christians relate to the law in any of these ways.”[\[12\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn12) In other words, subsequent to the Damascus Road experience, a radical shift occurred in Paul’s perspective of the law as it pertains to believers. Accordingly, Moo appropriately concludes: “conversion and commission came together.”[\[13\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn13) D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo explain that the Protestant Reformers believed that Paul’s Jewish opposition based salvation on meritorious works.[\[14\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn14) Accordingly, the Reformers countered Roman Catholic theology, just as they believed Paul countered Jewish legalism, by declaring that righteousness comes through faith alone.[\[15\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn15) However, in 1977, E. P. Sanders published a book, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, arguing that Judaism in Paul’s day was not legalistic, but instead, viewed salvation as an extension of God’s grace to the nation of Israel through His covenants (“covenantal monism”).[\[16\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn16) Covenant nomism maintains that “Jews did not do the law to ‘get in’ (“legalism”) but to ‘stay in’ (“nomism”).”[\[17\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn17) Sanders’ work laid the foundation for the [New Perspective on Paul](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-new-perspective-on-paul-npp/). The responses, both supporting and opposing the New Perspective, have been colossal. One of the more recent laudable attempts at summarizing the major views is Stephen Westerholm’s book, Perspectives Old and New on Paul.[\[18\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn18) However, the primary opposing responses to the New Perspective are threefold. First, Carson and Moo recognize that although covenant nomism certainly must have occurred within early Judaism, the New Perspective overstates its case if it assumes other soteriological perspectives did not exist.[\[19\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn19) Second, the New Perspective precariously assumes that God’s covenant was the foundational belief for all first century Jews, but the evidence regarding the sectarianism of early Judaism proves otherwise.[\[20\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn20) Third, even the New Perspective admits to the synergistic nature of first century Judaism.[\[21\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn21) In other words, if the New Perspective admits that works are required to “stay in,” then faith is not salvific, but instead, faith plus works is salvific, which has been the traditional concern of the Reformers representing the Lutheran perspective. The synergistic concern is highly relevant for modern Christianity because, as Timothy Keller points out, “It is so much easier to move from the gospel to religion than the other way around.”[\[22\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn22) Accordingly, even if the New Perspective’s view of Judaism is completely correct, it lends itself to distorting the true gospel message that evangelicals must clearly communicate in today’s churches (Galatians 1:6-7). Although the traditional Lutheran view opposes the New Perspective, it is necessary to concede that the recent scholarship provided by its supporters has contributed to an understanding of Paul and early Judaism in at least three significant ways. First, Carson and Moo note that the New Perspective helps correct a misrepresentation of Judaism operative in more traditional academic environments that has devalued the importance of election in Paul’s writings.[\[23\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn23) Furthermore, the New Perspective highlights the important connection between Paul and Judaism, which appropriately reinvigorated the emphasis on salvation history.[\[24\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn24) Finally, Erik Heen notes that one of the most important contributions of the New Perspective is its ability to increase awareness of Christian anti-Semitism in certain segments of New Testament Pauline study.[\[25\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn25) [\[1\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref1). F. F. Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1977), 41-43. [\[2\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref2). Ibid., 188. [\[3\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref3). Ibid., 188-89. [\[4\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref4). Ibid., 189. [\[5\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref5). Ibid. [\[6\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref6). Douglas J. Moo, Galatians: Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013), 35. [\[7\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref7). Ibid. [\[8\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref8). James D. G. Dunn, Epistle to the Galatians: The Black’s New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2011), 65. [\[9\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref9). G. Walter Hansen, Galatians: The IVP New Testament Commentary Series (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1994), Galatians 1:13. [\[10\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref10). Ibid. [\[11\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref11). Brian S. Rosner, “Paul and the Law: What He Does Not Say,” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 32, no. 4 (June 2010): 406, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 13, 2014). [\[12\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref12). Ibid., 417. [\[13\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref13). Moo, Galatians: Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament, 99. [\[14\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref14). D. A. Carson, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2005), 375. [\[15\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref15). Ibid. [\[16\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref16). Ibid., 376. [\[17\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref17). Ibid. [\[18\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref18). Stephen Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2004). [\[19\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref19). Carson and Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 380. [\[20\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref20). Ibid., 382. [\[21\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref21). Ibid., 383. [\[22\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref22). Timothy J. Keller, Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 64. [\[23\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref23). Carson and Moo, 379-80. [\[24\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref24). Ibid., 380. [\[25\]](file:///F:/Hallmark/LivesTransforming/book%20review_research/Research%20Briefs/DB%20Forum%202.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref25). Erik Heen, “A Lutheran Response to the New Perspective on Paul,” Lutheran Quarterly 24, no. 3 (2010): 267-68, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 13, 2014 **BIBLIOGRAPHY** Bruce, F. F. Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1977. Carson, D. A., and Douglas J. Moo. An Introduction to the New Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005. Dunn, James D. G. Epistle to the Galatians: The Black’s New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2011. Hansen, G. Walter. Galatians. The IVP New Testament Commentary Series ed. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1994. Heen, Erik. “A Lutheran Response to the New Perspective on Paul.” Lutheran Quarterly 24, no. 3 (2010): 263-91. Accessed May 13, 2014. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost. Keller, Timothy J. Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Moo, Douglas J. Galatians: Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013. Rosner, Brian S. “Paul and the Law: What He Does Not Say.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 32, no. 4 (June 2010): 405-19. Accessed May 13, 2014. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost. Westerholm, Stephen. Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2004. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Paul a Mystic?](https://www.livestransforming.com/paul-a-mystic/) **Published:** June 30, 2014 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** In his second letter to the Corinthians, Paul writes of his personal experiences of visions and revelations (1 Cor. 12:1 [NASB]). Paul continues by explaining a time where he was “caught up to the third heaven” (1 Cor. 12:2). Accordingly, an important question is whether one could categorize Paul as a mystic. **Content:** # Paul a Mystic? What does author F.F. Bruce mean when he uses the term “mysticism” in regards to Paul and his visions. How did the “mysteries” that Paul received relate to his ministry and the church? Was Paul’s theology based on mystical experiences? Why or why not? How would you respond to a person today who claimed to have mystical revelations from God with little or no reference to the Bible? In his second letter to the Corinthians, Paul writes of his personal experiences of visions and revelations (1 Cor. 12:1 \[NASB\]). Paul continues by explaining a time where he was “caught up to the third heaven” (1 Cor. 12:2). [![03 22 182x300 - Paul a Mystic?](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/03-22-182x300.jpg "Paul a Mystic? - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3XC9RzO)Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free Accordingly, an important question is whether one could categorize Paul as a mystic. In an attempt to define the meaning of mysticism, F. F. Bruce cites a definition provided by Evelyn Underhill, who states that mysticism was “the name of that organic process which involves the perfect consummation of the Love of God.”[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn1) Bruce agrees with Underhill, assuming that an understanding of God’s love is a result of a life “in Christ.”[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn2) Bruce also references R. C. Tannehill who defines mysticism as “the doctrine that the individual can come into immediate contact with God through subjective experiences of daily life.”[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn3) Bruce also supports Tannehill’s definition but provides a few caveats regarding a proper understanding of Paul’s mysticism in light of his ministry and theology, which are topics for further investigation below. However, regardless of his support for succinct definitions, Bruce clearly articulates that the experiential nature of Paul’s visions and belief system rests on a joint crucifixion and resurrection with Christ resulting in a life lived “in Christ.”[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn4) Bruce recognizes that the primary focus of Pauline mysticism pertains to a believer’s new creation status based on a life lived in Christ Jesus (Col. 1:26-27).[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn5) However, to suggest that a life incorporated into Christ is an isolated endeavor misses the mark. Bruce suggests that a believer’s individual union with Christ is also a union with the church body – “a communal or corporate mysticism.”[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn6) In his letter to the Ephesians, Paul provides specific references to the mystery of Christ’s corporate nature with the inclusion of Gentiles as “fellow heirs and fellow members of the body” (Eph. 3:4-6). Accordingly, William Porcher Dubose insightfully and rhetorically asks, “[What is Christianity](https://www.livestransforming.com/christianity-and-hellenism/) but the living oneness of Christians with Christ, and with one another in Christ?”[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn7) Additionally, Bruce notes that Paul’s revelations affirmed his divine ministerial appointment to spread the Gospel from Antioch to Rome, which made the nature of Paul’s mysticism quite exceptional.[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn8) In other words, the spiritual experiences Paul encountered did not lead to a form of vainglorious quietism, but instead, “It constituted an insistent call to lifelong action.”[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn9) Finally, suggesting Pauline mysticism is completely communal goes too far in the other direction. Bonnie Bowman Thurston notes Paul’s mysticism was an integral part of his prayer life in that prayer for Paul was in the Spirit, a mystery, and evidence of direct access to God.[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn10) However, Thurston also importantly recognizes all Paul’s supernatural experiences, including prayer, supported his ministry “for the good of the whole church.”[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn11) According to Bruce, Paul did not base his theology on mystical experiences, but Paul’s mystical experiences aligned with his theology for two primary reasons. First, as noted above, Bruce agrees with Tannehill regarding the possibility of a believer coming into direct contact with God through experience.[\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn12) However, to suggest that an individual understands God based completely on subjective personal experiences is going too far. Accordingly, Bruce states that “Paul’s theology was not based on experiences, which might be described as mystical: it is based on Jesus.”[\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn13) Next, Bruce adamantly supports the fact that Paul personally appropriated God’s love and experienced a union with Christ.[\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn14) In other words, the subjective experiential element is relevant, but it must rest on a proper theology. Therefore, Bruce concludes that Paul’s experience of “dying and rising with Christ was not only a matter of sacramental theology or church doctrine but of personal experience.”[\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn15) Ernest Troeltsch suggests that mysticism becomes dangerous when it changes from a “world of ideas which had hardened into formal worship and doctrine… \[into\] a purely personal and inward experience.”[\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn16) Unfortunately, Troeltsch continues, this form of mysticism leads to the “formation of groups on a purely personal basis, with no permanent form, which also tends to weaken the significance of forms of worship, doctrine, and the historical element.”[\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn17) Due to the risks associated with mysticism disconnected from doctrine, a form of Socratic inquiry may be necessary in response to the mystical explanations furnished by modern day Christians. By asking questions and staying curious, one decreases the risk of defensiveness arising from the individual questioned. Accordingly, an openness may occur to the possibility that the originating source is not God, especially if the revelations do not align with Scripture. [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref1). F. F. Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1977), 136. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref2). Ibid., 137. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref3). Ibid., 147. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref4). Ibid., 138. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref5). Ibid., 137. [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref6). Ibid., 138. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref7). William Porcher Dubose, The Soteriology of the New Testament (New York: Macmillan, 1892), 379. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref8). Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free, 146-47. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref9). Ibid., 147. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref10). Bonnie Bowman Thurston, “”Caught Up to the Third Heavens” and “Helped by the Spirit”: Paul and the Mystery of Prayer,” Stone-Campbell Journal 11, no. 2 (September 2008): 231-32, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 13, 2014). [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref11). Ibid., 233. [\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref12). Bruce, Paul, 147.Apostle of the Heart Set Free, 136. [\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref13). Ibid. [\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref14). Ibid., 138. [\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref15). Ibid. [\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref16). Ernst Troeltsch, The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches, trans. Olive Wyon, vol. 2 (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1992), 993. [\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref17). Ibid. **BIBLIOGRAPHY** Bruce, F. F. Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1977. Dubose, William Porcher. The Soteriology of the New Testament. New York: Macmillan, 1892. Thurston, Bonnie Bowman. “”Caught Up to the Third Heavens” and “Helped by the Spirit”: Paul and the Mystery of Prayer.” Stone-Campbell Journal 11, no. 2 (September 2008): 223-33. Accessed May 13, 2014. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost. Troeltsch, Ernst. The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches. Translated by Olive Wyon. Vol. 2. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1992. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Christ is the End of the Law- Paul's View](https://www.livestransforming.com/christ-is-the-end-of-the-law-pauls-view/) **Published:** June 30, 2014 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** According to Paul was Christ the "goal" or the "end" of the law? **Content:** # Christ is the End of the Law- Paul’s View According to Paul, was Christ the “goal” or the “end” of the law? What are the various interpretations Bruce offers for the statement “Christ is the end of the law.” How is this statement understood in the various traditions? Which understanding do you think is best explanation? Why? The book of Romans contains one of the most profound theological expressions written by the Apostle Paul: “For Christ is the end of the law” (Rom. 10:4 \[NASB\]). In order to interpret the phrase accurately, it is first necessary to define the words “end” and “law.” First, Douglas Moo suggests that academia has defended four definitions of law within a Pauline context, which include a system of law, a broad reference to the Old Testament, a form of legalism, and a specific reference to the Mosaic Law.[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn1) The significant majority of scholars conclude that [Paul’s definition of law](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-perspective-on-works-of-the-law/) most closely aligns with the Mosaic Law.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn2) Second, Moo proposes that the definition of the word end, telos in Greek, could mean termination, goal, or result.[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn3) If termination were the appropriate definition for telos, then Paul would be suggesting that the meaning of the word was purely transient or temporal.[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn4) In other words, Christ’s arrival terminated the relevance or influence of the Mosaic Law. Thomas Schreiner agrees with Moo but adds clarity to the conversation by suggesting that Christ is the end of the Mosaic Law “in the sense that he is the end of using the law to establish one’s own righteousness.”[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn5) Alternatively, Moo continues, if goal or result were the appropriate definitions for telos, then Paul would be suggesting an interrelationship between the law and Christ.[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn6) In other words, the law would somehow teleologically lead to Christ. For the following three reasons, Moo claims the evidence appears to point primarily to “end” or “termination” as the most appropriate meaning of telos, assuming a teleological aspect is not completely abandoned. First, the temporal definition of telos is the predominate meaning in the LXX and the New Testament.[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn7) Second, the context of Romans 10:3-4 represents Paul’s attempt to disconnect the law from Christ by explaining that the Jews were attempting to establish their own righteousness through the law.[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn8) Finally, Paul also confirms the discontinuous nature of Christ’s relationship with the law in a number of different passages including Romans 3:20-23, 9:30-32a, and 10:5-8.[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn9) Although the evidence points to “end” as the more appropriate definition for telos, in some sense, the law also purposefully led to a climax: the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Schreiner once again agrees with Moo that Romans 10:4 does not absolutely end the law for believers, but then emphatically proposes that the purpose of the phrase in Romans 10:4 is not “to provide some global statement on the relationship between the Testaments!”[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn10) Interestingly, it appears both Schreiner and Moo agree that Christ is not the goal of the law, but neither do they desire to completely disconnect the law from Christ. [![03 22 182x300 - Christ is the End of the Law- Paul's View](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/03-22-182x300.jpg "Christ is the End of the Law- Paul - Lives Transforming's View")](https://amzn.to/3XC9RzO)Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free Regarding the phrase ‘Christ is the end of the law’ F. F. Bruce initially references Rabbi Leo Baeck who claimed that Paul’s cultural influence encouraged a belief in “a doctrine of three epochs” that assumed the law would culminate in a Messiah, but Baeck’s assertion is inconclusive.[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn11) However, Bruce suggests that the definition of the word “end” in the phrase Christ is the end of the law means both “goal” and “terminus.”[\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn12) Whereas Moo attempts to compartmentalize the proposed definitions, Bruce interconnects the two definitions by contending that the “goal” of the law was the “end” or terminus of the law in the form of a “temporal provision.”[\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn13) In other words, the goal of the law was to be a temporary “tutor to lead us to Christ” (Gal. 3:24). Accordingly, Bruce concludes that the definition of Christ is the end of the law means: “Now that Christ has come there is no more place for law in man’s approach to God.”[\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn14) It is important to note the nuances between Moo and Bruce. Moo appears to place emphasis on the importance of discontinuity between the Christ and the law, whereas Bruce appears to emphasize the continuity between the law and Christ by closely connecting the law’s purpose with its termination. However, both authors arrive at the same conclusion, which is that the righteousness of God does not come through the law but through faith in Jesus Christ (Rom. 3:22; 10:3-4). Bruce focuses on two primary traditional interpretations of the law within the phrase Christ is the end of the law. The two primary interpretations originate from the Lutheran and Reformed traditions.[\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn15) The Lutheran tradition proposes three aspects of the law. First, the law’s purpose is to deter malicious behavior, which Bruce suggests is “not an aspect of the gospel.”[\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn16) Second, the law’s purpose is to encourage repentance, but Bruce notes that Paul’s preaching focused on freedom and did not “use the law in this way.”[\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn17) Finally, the Lutheran perspective claims the law’s purpose was to guide the church, but again, Bruce cautions the use of the law as a function of governance since Paul’s usage of the law was in a “non-legal sense.”[\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn18) The Reformed tradition, under the influence of Calvin, suggests that although adherence to the law is not determinate in salvation, individuals remain under the law “as a rule of life.”[\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn19) Again, Bruce astutely recognizes that the Reformed perspective does not have the authority and support of Paul.[\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn20) Furthermore, referencing Calvin, Bruce notes that occasionally Christ is the end of the law means the “end of the ceremonial law…but not of the moral law.”[\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn21) Bruce quickly acknowledges that the ceremonial and moral law distinction has “no place in Pauline exegesis.”[\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn22) Finally, Bruce briefly mentions the perspective of Karl Barth’s Neo-orthodoxy and Ernst Fuch’s existentialist view regarding Christ as the end of the law, but adds little commentary.[\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn23) Personally, a discontinuous understanding of the phrase Christ is the end of the law, whereby Christ and the law are disjointed and Christ is the end, as opposed to the goal, appears most reasonable. The reason for this belief is not that a continuity is completely absent, but that a priority on the continuity of Christ and the law significantly increases the risk of self-reliance and the belief that human effort has the capacity not only to justify, but also to sanctify. Richard Lovelace summarizes the problem currently facing the church: “Few know enough to start each day with a thoroughgoing stand upon Luther’s platform: you are accepted, looking outward in faith and claiming the wholly alien righteousness of Christ as the only ground for acceptance, relaxing in that quality of trust which will produce increasing sanctification as faith is active in love.”[\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn24) In other words, the paradox of the outworking of grace is that it must ultimately lead to obedience or it is simply not grace. Paul confirms this concept by emphatically stating that Christ, the conduit of grace, may never be a minister or conduit of sin (Gal. 2:17). Accordingly, accusations of antinomianism are not due to an abundance of grace but a lack of an appropriation of grace. Timothy Keller provides a practical insight for all believers into the outworking of grace by explaining that when individuals view their identity not in their moral achievements, but in being completely loved and accepted by Christ it leads “to deeper humility as well as deeper confidence, without either sniveling or swaggering.”[\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn25) In other words, grace leads to obedience and an emphasis on the continuity between Christ and the law risks undermining Christ’s work on the Cross within a modern context. [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref1). Douglas J. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996), 636. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref2). Ibid. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref3). Ibid., 638. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref4). Ibid. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref5). Thomas R. Schreiner, “Paul’s View of the Law in Romans 10:4-5,” Westminster Theological Journal 55, no. 1 (March 1993): 135, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 13, 2014). [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref6). Moo. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref7). Moo. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref8). Ibid. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref9). Ibid., 640. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref10). Schreiner, “Paul’s View of the Law in Romans 10:4-5,” 135. [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref11). F. F. Bruce, (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1977), 190. [\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref12). Ibid., 191. [\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref13). Ibid. [\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref14). Ibid., 191. [\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref15). Ibid. [\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref16). Ibid., 191. [\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref17). Ibid. [\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref18). Ibid., 191. [\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref19). Ibid., 192. [\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref20). Ibid. [\[21\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref21). Ibid., 192. [\[22\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref22). Ibid., 192-93. [\[23\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref23). Ibid., 193. [\[24\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref24). Richard F. Lovelace, Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1979), 101. [\[25\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%203.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref25). Timothy J. Keller, Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 65. **BIBLIOGRAPHY** Bruce, F. F. Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1977. Keller, Timothy J. Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Lovelace, Richard F. Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1979. Moo, Douglas J. The Epistle to the Romans. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996. Schreiner, Thomas R. “Paul’s View of the Law in Romans 10:4-5.” Westminster Theological Journal 55, no. 1 (March 1993): 113-35. Accessed May 13, 2014. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Paul's writings to Thessalonica](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-writings-to-thessalonica/) **Published:** June 30, 2014 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** The occasion and purpose for the writing of 1 & 2 Thessalonians. Who were the opponents of Paul in Thessalonica? What was the nature of the opponents’ teaching, and how did Paul respond to it? **Content:** # Paul’s writings to Thessalonica Discuss the occasion and purpose for the writing of 1 & 2 Thessalonians. Who were the opponents of Paul in Thessalonica? What was the nature of the opponents’ teaching, and how did Paul respond to it? D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo provide potential date ranges for Paul’s writing of the first letter to the Thessalonians – from AD 40 to approximately AD 55.[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn1) However, the evidence regarding Paul’s chronology in Acts appears to support a more likely date of approximately AD 50 during Paul’s stay in Corinth.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn2) Furthermore, the usual sequence of the letters to the Thessalonians appears correct suggesting a date for his second letter soon after Paul’s first letter, such as late AD 50 or early 51, while Paul was still in Corinth.[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn3) Paul’s opponents forcibly removed him from his missionary efforts in Thessalonica (Acts 17:10-15 \[NASB\]). Accordingly, Ernest Best explains that Paul felt significant concern for the church and sent Timothy to help the Thessalonians.[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn4) Timothy returned to Paul with a positive report from the Thessalonians, which provided the impetus and occasion for Paul’s first letter.[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn5) Probably soon after Timothy’s report, an individual or group of people informed Paul of some good news regarding the Thessalonians growth and some bad news regarding false teaching that had infiltrated the church.[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn6) In light of these reports, Paul felt compelled to write the second letter to the Thessalonians. Carson and Douglas identify three primary purposes of 1 Thessalonians. First, Paul desired to clarify any misunderstanding regarding his motives for quickly leaving Thessalonica.[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn7) Second, Paul hoped to highlight the importance of holding steadfast to the ethical standards of the [Christian faith](https://www.livestransforming.com/living-life-in-christ/).[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn8) Finally, Paul hoped to provide solace to those within the church at Thessalonica whose friends and relatives had passed away.[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn9) The purpose of 2 Thessalonians is comparable to 1 Thessalonians, but with a special emphasis on suffering and placing the topic of persecution within a proper eschatological context.[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn10) Best summarizes the four primary views of theologians who attempt to identify Paul’s opponents in Thessalonica. First, F. C. Baur suggests Paul’s opponents were Judaizers; second, Jewett claims Paul’s adversaries were spiritual enthusiasts; third, Schmithals asserts the challengers were proponents of Gnosticism; and fourth, Frame and Milligan allege the opposition consisted of Jews.[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn11) Jeffrey Weima offers two additional secondary views of Paul’s Thessalonican opponents. First, Weima notes that Ernst von Dobschütz believes an opponent did not actually exist, but instead, Paul’s defense was in response to an unfounded fear that the Thessalonians thought poorly of him.[\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn12) Second, Weima also references Martin Dibelius who, similar to Dobschütz, asserts the absence of a real opponent and, instead, asserts that Paul was simply disassociating himself from the first century false preachers.[\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn13) However, Best suggests that limiting the opponents to one specific group inhibits a proper understanding of Paul’s polemic.[\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn14) Instead, the most appropriate conclusion is that Paul’s arguments were addressing a real opponent with “a number of ideas from the Hellenistic atmosphere which were foreign to Christianity’s Jewish cradle and which Paul had to refute.”[\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn15) Best acknowledges that even Paul likely did not know the exact nature of his opponents’ teaching.[\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn16) However, the persecution was significant and, in general, the opposition attempted to undermine Paul’s credibility by placing him in the category of other unscrupulous teachers and hoped to hinder Paul’s message from hampering their own influence.[\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn17) [![03 23 182x300 - Paul's writings to Thessalonica](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/03-23-182x300.png "Paul - Lives Transforming's writings to Thessalonica")](https://amzn.to/43xDmGS)1, 2 Thessalonians: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture (Volume 33) (The New American Commentary) D. Michael Martin explains that Paul’s own persecution led him to respond to the Thessalonians by placing suffering within its proper context.[\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn18) Martin provides three ways that Paul responded to the Thessalonians to help them properly understand both suffering and persecution. Specifically, Paul encouraged his readers to reflect upon previous persecution and recognize it was not in vain, to remember their suffering was evidence of genuine faith, and to look forward to a life of peace with an eternal perspective.[\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn19) Furthermore, Paul reminded the Thessalonians that they would never be alone, would always find support from other Christians and God, and would eventually experience vindication.[\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn20) Without question, Paul’s message is highly relevant to modern day Christians by providing hope and encouragement to believers who suffer. [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref1). D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), 542. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref2). Ibid., 543. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref3). Ibid., 544. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref4). Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians: Black’s New Testament Commentary (London: Continuum, 1986), 14. [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref5). Ibid. [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref6). John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck, eds., The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty, New Testament ed. (Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983), 713. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref7). Carson and Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 544. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref8). Ibid. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref9). Ibid., 544. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref10). Ibid., 546. [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref11). Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians: Black’s New Testament Commentary, 16. [\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref12). Jeffrey A. D. Weima, “An Apology for the Apologetic Function of 1 Thessalonians 2:1-12,” Journal for the Study of the New Testament, no. 68 (December 1997): 74-75, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 13, 2014). [\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref13). Ibid., 75. [\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref14). Best and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians: Black’s New Testament Commentary. [\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref15). Ibid. [\[16\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref16). Ibid., 22. [\[17\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref17). Ibid. [\[18\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref18). D. Michael Martin, 1, 2 Thessalonians: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture, vol. 33 of The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995), 38. [\[19\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref19). Ibid., 39. [\[20\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%204.2%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref20). Ibid. ## Bibliography Best, Ernest. The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians: Black’s New Testament Commentary. London: Continuum, 1986. Carson, D. A., and Douglas J. Moo. An Introduction to the New Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005. Martin, D. Michael. 1, 2 Thessalonians: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture. Vol. 33 of The New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995. Walvoord, John F., and Roy B. Zuck, eds. The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty. New Testament ed. Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983. Weima, Jeffrey A. D. “An Apology for the Apologetic Function of 1 Thessalonians 2:1-12.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament, no. 68 (December 1997): 73-99. Accessed May 13, 2014. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Paul's Doctrine on Death](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-doctrine-on-death/) **Published:** June 30, 2014 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Paul’s doctrine regarding what happens to humans at death. **Content:** # Paul’s Doctrine on Death Paul’s doctrine regarding what happens to humans at death. Does the person who dies before the return of Christ receive a glorified body, according to Paul? How does author F.F. Bruce describe this body? How could you use these ideas to comfort a family whose loved one (a Christian) has recently passed away? How does this idea encourage you to live for Christ? Paul’s doctrine regarding what happens to humans at death is best summarized in his second letter to the church at Corinth. Paul explains, “If the earthly tent which is our house is torn down, we have a building from God, a house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens” (2 Cor. 5:1 \[NASB\]). God has a structure already prepared for believers they will inhabit in the presence of the Lord after physical death and prior to the return of Christ (2 Cor. 5:8). [![03 22 182x300 - Paul's Doctrine on Death](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/03-22-182x300.jpg "Paul - Lives Transforming's Doctrine on Death")](https://amzn.to/42oB5ws)Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free F. F. Bruce agrees with [Paul’s concept](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-meaning-of-in-christ/) of a building or structure and suggests that in order for Christians to be with Christ, “Some kind of new embodiment is necessary at death.”[\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn1) Bruce describes the new body as a spiritual body animated by the soul.[\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn2) Accordingly, Paul appears to suggest that believers who experience physical death prior to the Parousia will be immediately clothed with a new body.[\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn3) It may be important to note that not all theologians agree with Bruce. Lorin Cranford identifies three primary views regarding what happens at death. The first two, the traditional view and the Parousia view, focus on the second coming and assume a disembodied intermediate state when physical death occurs.[\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn4) Ian Smith supports an alignment with a disembodied perspective by referencing Paul’s words, which state that he would “prefer rather to be absent from the body and to be at home with the Lord” (2 Corinthians 5:8).[\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn5) However, the phrase “absent from the body” could be a reference to a physical body without eliminating the possibility of a spiritual body after physical death. Regardless, Cranford would place Bruce within the third view, the development view, which suggests the resurrection body occurs at the time of death.[\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn6) Finally, after reviewing the strengths and weaknesses of the three views, Cranford suggests that metaphysical issues are not Paul’s concern, so the intermediate state may be a “body or spirit.”[\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn7) Accordingly, although Bruce makes a strong case regarding what happens at death, the theological interpretations of 2 Corinthians 5:1-10 are quite diverse. Even for believers with a strong element of faith, the unknown component of death may cause significant fear and dread. However, Paul’s doctrine placed in light of current empirical research may provide significant comfort to a family whose Christian loved one has recently passed. Two specific concepts may assist in eliminating the fear of the unknown. First, using a simple experiment, J. P. Moreland explains that mental events and physical events are distinct.[\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn8) Moreland’s experiment encourages the believer to imagine a pink elephant and note that a pink property exists in one’s mind, but not in the brain; a neurophysiologist could not find the image through brain scans or surgery.[\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn9) Furthermore, the item imagined has no weight and is not composed of chemicals or electrical properties, thus the mental event is distinct from the physical brain event and theoretically could exist without the brain.[\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn10) A second concept that empirical research supports is near death experiences. If it is possible for mental events to exist outside of brain activity, then near-death experiences may provide the support necessary to confirm the existence of life activity after physical death. Raymond Moody documents a number of cases where individuals died and experienced life outside of the body. For example, Moody recounts a seventeen-year-old drowning, a women having a heart attack, and a teenager dying in a car wreck who were revived and stated they experienced an out of body experience upon death.[\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn11) The drowning teenager explains that he felt he still had an “entire body form,” and the teenage driver describes the experience as “sort of floating about five feet above the street” and seeing “people running up and crowding around the car.”[\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn12) Elisabeth Kubler-Ross provides a particularly interesting example of a blind man accurately describing the people, clothing, jewelry, and colors during an out of body near-death experience prior to resuscitation.[\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn13) Furthermore, Moody furnishes additional research from personal experiences that provides support for meeting loved ones and experiencing a loving light upon bodily death.[\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn14) J. P. Moreland and Gary Habermas claim that these type of cases are “unexpectedly common.”[\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftn15) Accordingly, not only does Paul’s doctrine support the idea of a spiritual body after death, but the current scientific understanding of the brain and the significant medical research regarding near-death experiences also support Paul’s assertions of life after death in a bodily form, which can assist in comforting those who fear the unknown. Knowing that life after death exists in bodily form encourages a life lived for Christ by providing the context for a divine outlook that can enhance personal evangelism, allocation of finances, and the ability to help those who are suffering. However, the most significant hindrance in personally living for Christ has been a struggle with anxiety that originated from some early trauma around the death of a number of childhood friends. A heavenly perspective that encompasses both earthly and eternal affairs is crucial to eliminate the fear that hinders living for Christ. Jesus makes it clear that God will supply current daily essentials and simultaneously reinforces that eternity is more precious than anything on earth – thus nothing to fear (Matt. 6:25-32, 10:28, 16:26). Without fear, living for Christ by stepping out in faith and obediently following the promptings of the Spirit becomes possible. [\[1\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref1). F. F. Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1977), 311. [\[2\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref2). Ibid., 308. [\[3\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref3). Ibid., 312. [\[4\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref4). Lorin Cranford, “New Look at 2 Corinthians 5:1-10,” Southwestern Journal of Theology 19, no. 1 (September 1976): 95-98, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 13, 2014). [\[5\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref5). Ian K. Smith, “Does 2 Corinthians 5:1-8 Refer to an Intermediate State,” Reformed Theological Review 55, no. 1 (January 1996): 23, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 13, 2014). [\[6\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref6). Cranford, “New Look at 2 Corinthians 5:1-10. [\[7\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref7). Ibid., 100. [\[8\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref8). Gary R. Habermas and J. P. Moreland, Beyond Death: Exploring the Evidence for Immortality (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2004), 49. [\[9\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref9). Ibid. [\[10\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref10). Ibid., 54. [\[11\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref11). Raymond A. Moody, Life After Life: The Investigation of a Phenomenon – Survival of Bodily Death (New York: HarperOne, 2001), 25-27. [\[12\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref12). Ibid., 27. [\[13\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref13). Elisabeth Kubler-Ross, On Children and Death (New York: Macmillan/Collier, 1983), 208. [\[14\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref14). Moody, Life After Life: The Investigation of a Phenomenon – Survival of Bodily Death, 45-55. [\[15\]](file:///C:/Users/monique/Downloads/DB%20Forum%206.1%20-%20Corrected.docx#_ftnref15). Habermas and Moreland, Beyond Death: Exploring the Evidence for Immortality, 158. # Bibliography Bruce, F. F. Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1977. Cranford, Lorin. “New Look at 2 Corinthians 5:1-10.” Southwestern Journal of Theology 19, no. 1 (September 1976): 95-100. Habermas, Gary R., and J. P. Moreland. Beyond Death: Exploring the Evidence for Immortality. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2004. Kubler-Ross, Elisabeth. On Children and Death. New York: Macmillan/Collier, 1983. Moody, Raymond A. Life After Life: The Investigation of a Phenomenon – Survival of Bodily Death. New York: HarperOne, 2001. Smith, Ian K. “Does 2 Corinthians 5:1-8 Refer to an Intermediate State.” Reformed Theological Review 55, no. 1 (January 1996): 14-23. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Niphal Verb Form](https://www.livestransforming.com/niphal-verb-form/) **Published:** November 16, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Niphal Verb Form **Introduction** A dispute continues among modern scholars regarding the translation value of the Niphal verb נִבְרְכ֣וּ in Genesis 12:3. The final phrase of verse 3 presents the translation challenge: ְנִבְרְכ֣וּ בְךָ֔ כֹּ֖ל מִשְׁפְּחֹ֥ת הָאֲדָמָֽה. Many translations, such as the NASB, render the phrase using a passive translation of the Niphal verb, “And in you all the families of the earth will be blessed.” Other translations, such as the RSV, render the phrase in Genesis 12:3 using a reflexive translation of the Niphal verb, “And by you all the families of the earth shall bless themselves.” The translation choice has important theological ramifications regarding a Christian’s view of the modern state of Israel. The following analysis attempts to analyze both translation options, show that a passive translation is the most appropriate choice, and provide a brief explanation of the impact of the translation on a Christian perspective of the state of Israel. **Grammar of Genesis 12:3b** Traditional interpretation favors the passive translation of the Niphal verb. For example, K. A. Mathews notes the Septuagint, Vulgate, and Targums translate the phrase in the passive voice.\[1\] However, modern scholars note other alternatives due to the flexibility of both the Niphal and Hithpael stems. Claus Westermann asserts that both the Niphal and Hithpael may express a reflexive sense.\[2\] Alternatively, Waltke and O’Connor explain that the Hithpael stem “historically tends to take on the passive functions of the Niphal.” [![03 21 182x300 - Niphal Verb Form](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/03-21-182x300.jpg "Niphal Verb Form - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/42ddJIV)Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax \[3\] Accordingly, an analysis of grammatical stem usage alone does not appear to resolve the issue of voice. Further investigation is necessary. **Hithpael in Genesis and Beyond** The Niphal and Hithpael forms of ברך both deal with the blessing of nations within Genesis, three times and two times, respectively. Furthermore, the Hithpael form of ברך occurs five times in four verses outside of Genesis. Based on a comparison of these forms, certain scholars interpret the Niphals in light of the Hithpaels. Specifically, Mathews explains that by reading a Hithpael reflexive voice into Genesis 12:3b the patriarch is not a conduit of blessing, but instead “a motivating example of faith.”\[4\] For example, by referring to the king, the Hithpael in Psalm 72:17 may follow a reflexive translation by stating, “And let men bless themselves by him.” Thus, in light of the Hithpael, scholars may suggest the following translation, “By you all the families of the earth shall bless themselves” (Gen. 12:3 \[RSV\]). However, just as one could read the Hithpaels in light of the Niphals, the opposite is also true. In fact, by analyzing the four verses outside of Genesis, a consistent pattern emerges. Noonan explains that although a reflexive translation in Psalm 72:17 exists, the king mediates the blessing, and the people seek his blessing.\[5\] Indeed, all four verses outside Genesis suggest an achieved or declared state of blessing, which means the “source of blessing is outside of that person” and one must look to that person as an instrument, “not simply an example.”\[6\] Similarly, Lee explains that the Hithpaels of ברך in Genesis 22:18 and 26:4 also could overlap a passive meaning with the following rendering: “all the nations of the earth shall regard or declare themselves as blessed on account of your offspring.”\[7\] In other words, just as the analysis below will support a passive rendering of the Niphal where Abraham is the conduit of blessing, the Hithpael may also highlight Abraham’s descendants as conduits or instruments of God to bless all the nations. **Niphal in Genesis** An analysis of the context of all Niphal forms of ברך may also assist in identifying the voice of the Niphal verb. Other than Genesis 12:3b, a broad lemma search reveals two other occurrences of ברך in the Niphal stem: Genesis 18:18 and 28:14. First, the context of Genesis 12:3a clearly refers to God as the operative agent of blessing and cursing when the narrator states, “And I will bless those who bless you, And the one who curses I will curse.” Accordingly, in support of a passive voice and in opposition to a reflexive reading, Chee-Chiew Lee concludes that God is consistently the agent in all the patriarchal narratives, the patriarch is the conduit of the blessing, and nowhere “do we see people actively seeking blessing for themselves by their association with Abraham.”\[8\] Second, the context of Genesis 18:18 also provides support opposing a reflexive translation. Benjamin Noonan notes that no evidence exists within the context of Genesis 18 to support the idea that other nations would utter blessings in Abraham’s name.\[9\] Third, in Jacob’s dream, the narrator uses language almost identical to Genesis 12:3. In other words, God is the operative agent of a promise in Genesis 28:14, but this time Jacob is the conduit of the blessing as a descendent of Abraham. Furthermore, Noonan asserts that even within the broader narrative surrounding Genesis 28, Jacob’s name never occurs as a vehicle for blessing.\[10\] Accordingly, the context of all three instances of the Niphal form of ברך in Genesis appears to support a passive voice rather than a reflexive voice in Genesis 12:3. **Implication for the Modern State of Israel** The theological ramifications of the translation decision with respect to the modern state of Israel are significant. At its best, if the translator chooses a reflexive voice, E. A. Speiser suggests that all nations would somehow bless themselves by following Abraham’s example.\[11\] At its worst, if Christians determine that Israel, as Abraham’s descendants, provides God’s blessing, then Steven Fink suggests the potential risk of a Christian Zionism that protects the state of Israel at all costs and dehumanizes Palestinians.\[12\] Alternatively, if the translation is passive, then Christian Zionism may weaken, and Israeli support may follow a comprehensive biblical approach. However, this approach must not morph into an extreme supersessionism, where Abraham is absent. A passive voice supports a redemptive plan through Abraham. The [Apostle Paul](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-apostle-pauls-perspective-on-jewish-law/) explains that Abraham is the conduit of blessing for all nations as those in Christ are “Abraham’s descendants, heirs according to promise” (Gal. 3:8-9, 3:29 \[NASB\]). **Conclusion** Although the Niphal and Hithpael both have the potential of occurring as passive or reflexive, context assists in determining the optimum voice. Based on context, it appears that all instances of ברך in the Niphal stem support a passive voice. Furthermore, it appears the Hithpael instances of ברך likely overlap the meaning of a passive voice translation by suggesting blessing mediation rather than blessing by example. Finally, although the translation choice may alter the type of support that Christians offer modern Israel, it appears a passive voice translation, where Abraham is the conduit of blessing, is the most appropriate translation choice. **Bibliography** - Fink, Steven. “Fear under Construction: Islamophobia within American Christian Zionism.” Islamophobia Studies Journal 2, no. 1 (Spring 2014): 26–43. - Lee, Chee-Chiew. “Once Again: The Niphal and the Hithpael of ברך in the Abrahamic Blessing for the Nations.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 36, no. 3 (2012): 279–96. - Mathews, K. A. Genesis 11:27-50:26. The New American Commentary, vol. 1b. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2005. - Noonan, Benjamin J. “Abraham, Blessing, and the Nations: A Reexamination of the Niphal and Hitpael of ברך in the Patriarchal Narratives.” Hebrew Studies 51 (2010): 73–93. - Speiser, E. A. Genesis: Introduction, Translation, and Notes. Anchor Yale Bible, vol. 1. New Haven; London: Yale University, 2008. - Waltke, Bruce K., and M. O’Connor. An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990. - Westermann, Claus. A Continental Commentary: Genesis 12-36. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995.\[1\] K. A. Mathews, Genesis 11:27-50:26, The New American Commentary, vol. 1b (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2005), 117. \[2\] Claus Westermann, A Continental Commentary: Genesis 12-36 (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995). \[3\] Bruce K. Waltke and M. O’Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 395. \[4\] Mathews, Genesis 11:27-50:26, The New American Commentary, vol. 1b, 117. \[5\] Benjamin J. Noonan, “Abraham, Blessing, and the Nations: A Reexamination of the Niphal and Hitpael of ברך in the Patriarchal Narratives,” Hebrew Studies 51 (2010): 81. \[6\] Ibid., 83. \[7\] Chee-Chiew Lee, “Once Again: The Niphal and the Hithpael of ברך in the Abrahamic Blessing for the Nations,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 36, no. 3 (2012): 294. \[8\] Ibid., 287. \[9\] Noonan, “Abraham, Blessing, and the Nations: A Reexamination of the Niphal and Hitpael of ברך in the Patriarchal Narratives,” 88. \[10\] Ibid., 89. \[11\] E. A. Speiser, Genesis: Introduction, Translation, and Notes, Anchor Yale Bible, vol. 1 (New Haven; London: Yale University, 2008), 86. \[12\] Steven Fink, “Fear under Construction: Islamophobia within American Christian Zionism,” Islamophobia Studies Journal 2, no. 1 (Spring 2014): 32–41. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Noah's Nakedness](https://www.livestransforming.com/noahs-nakedness/) **Published:** November 16, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Noah’s Nakedness [![03 17 182x300 - Noah's Nakedness](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/03-17-182x300.jpg "Noah - Lives Transforming's Nakedness")](https://amzn.to/4hQ0ROR)The Book of Genesis (New International Commentary on the Old Testament Series) 1-17 (New International Commentary on the Old Testament (NICOT)) **Noah’s Nakedness** The enigmatic account of Genesis 9:20-24 is not without difficulties. Specifically, the narrative states, “Ham, the father of Canaan, saw the nakedness of his father” (Gen. 9:22 \[NASB\]). The vehement response to Ham’s activity in verse 22 leaves the reader to wonder the nature of the sin committed by Ham. Scholars have advanced a few possible answers including voyeurism, castration, and paternal incest. However, John Bergsma and Scott Hahn conclude that Ham’s sin was maternal incest.\[1\] The following analysis evaluates the authors’ conclusion. The authors employ four primary word study strategies and logical arguments to support their conclusion. First, the authors suggest the phrase “done to him” (עָ֥שָׂה־לֹ֖ו) in Gen. 9:24 implies an active sin by Ham that moves beyond “seeing.”\[2\] However, a broad word search on עשׂה shows the verb also occurs with passive sins of omission. For instance, Pharaoh states in Gen. 12:18, “What is this that you have done (עשׂה) to me? Why did you not tell me that she was your wife?” Furthermore, the authors’ logic appears to ignore that “seeing” may constitute an active sin (e.g. pornography). Second, the authors assert Ham’s sexual misconduct by equating “to see the nakedness of the father” (אב ערוה ראה) in Gen. 9:24 with the sexual euphemisms, “to see nakedness” (ערוה ראה) and “uncover nakedness,” (גלה עונו) found in Lev. 20:17.\[3\] Although the authors’ contention is possible, a broad phrase search suggests other possibilities as well. For instance, the phrase “see nakedness” (ערוה ראה) sometimes simply means “exposure,” not sex, as in Genesis 42:9 and 42:12. Furthermore, the phrase “uncover nakedness” (גלה עונו) can mean “exposure” of a body, not sexual misconduct, as in Exodus 20:26. Third, the authors suggest the erotic terms in Gen. 9:20-24, such as vineyard (כרם) and wine (יין), support an argument for inappropriate sexual conduct.\[4\] Granted, vineyard (כרם) and wine (יין) do occur in erotic biblical narrative, but of the 92 and 141 times the respective lemmas occur, the majority do not occur within erotic scenes. Finally, the authors provide support for maternal incest by indicating that all texts where ערוה ראה or גלה עונו refer to sex, it is heterosexual sex.\[5\] If Ham’s sin was sexual in nature, a phrase search analysis appears to support the authors’ assertion of heterosexual sex. The most glaring concern may be the authors’ inadequate response to the actions of Ham’s brothers in Gen. 9:23. The authors suggest the brother’s actions of “not seeing” their father’s nakedness was due to extreme piety.\[6\] However, it is difficult to reconcile the fact that Ham’s action of “seeing” (ראה) was actually “not seeing,” while the brothers’ opposite action of not “seeing” (ראה) was literally “not seeing.” The authors provide word strategies, analyze phrases, and explore terms, but due to the limited nature of the authors’ search analysis, the underlying arguments for maternal incest appear to lack a certain logical coherence. **ברא** The Hebrew verb ברא means “to create” or “to shape” and occurs 48 times in the Old Testament, 38 times in the Qal and 10 times in the Niphal. The question posed is twofold: what is the theological purpose of the verb and what makes the verb unique among relevant synonyms? The answer to both appears to lie in the exclusive nature of God’s creative activity. A broad search of grammatical relationships points to the term’s theological significance. God appears as the subject in each of the instances where the verb ברא occurs in the Qal stem, which indicates an object created by God, not man. For example, Genesis 1:1 states, “God created (ברא) the heavens and the earth.” Furthermore, upon review of each of the 10 Niphal stems, the context also references creative acts of God, not man. For example, God created heavens and earth in Gen. 2:4, humans in Gen. 5:2, and miracles in Ex. 34:10 (See also Isa. 48:7; Ezek. 21:35, 28:13, 15; Ps. 102:19, 104:30, 148:5). However, the fact that God is the subject or creator does not necessarily mean creation ex nihilo. For example, Gen. 1:27 states that God created (ברא) man in His image, but Gen. 2:7 clarifies how the Lord create man – by using the preexisting material of dust to form (יצר) man. Although numerous verbs have similar semantic roles, the following considers two important synonyms of ברא. First, the verb עשׂה occurs 2,616 times in the [Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/), connotes “making” or “doing,” and is not limited to the semantical range of ברא. Although the verb can take God as its subject as in Gen. 5:1, עשׂה also refers to humans as creators, where ברא does not. For example, in Gen. 33:18, Jacob is the human subject doing the creating, and the booths are the objects created. Next, the verb יצר occurs 44 times and connotes “shaping” or “forming” with a more nuanced definition than ברא including overtones of artisanship. Again, God often exists as the subject of creative activity as in God forming (יצר) thoughts, eyes, dry land, and embryos (Ps. 33:15, 94:9, 95:5; Jer. 1:5). However, similar to עשׂה, יצר can also refer to a human action as in Isa. 44:12, “The man shapes iron…fashioning (יצר) it with hammers.” The linguistic evidence appears to support a uniqueness of the verb ברא. Unlike עשׂה, which provides a broader semantical range, and יצר, which provides the nuance of artisanship, ברא limits its focus. Furthermore, both עשׂה and יצר take humans as the creative subject. The unique contribution of ברא appears to be its restricted use to the exclusive nature of God’s creative activity. The theological purpose would be to communicate the creative agency of God. **Bibliography** - Bergsma, John Sietze, and Scott Walker Hahn. “Noah’s Nakedness and the Curse on Canaan.” Journal of Biblical Literature 124, no. 1 (2005): 25–40. \[1\] John Sietze Bergsma and Scott Walker Hahn, “Noah’s Nakedness and the Curse on Canaan,” Journal of Biblical Literature 124, no. 1 (2005): 26. \[2\] Ibid., 29. \[3\] Ibid. \[4\] Ibid., 30. \[5\] Ibid., 34. \[6\] Ibid., 33. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Hebrew Translation of קנה in Scripture](https://www.livestransforming.com/hebrew-translation-of-קנה-in-scripture/) **Published:** November 16, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Hebrew Translation of קנה in Scripture [![03 18 182x300 - Hebrew Translation of קנה in Scripture](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/03-18-182x300.png "Hebrew Translation of קנה in Scripture - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DN3gvL)Basics of Biblical Hebrew Grammar: Third Edition (Zondervan Language Basics Series) **Introduction** A debate over the meaning of the Hebrew verb קנה dates back to the Church Fathers. At issue is the way Proverbs 8:22-31 assigns the status of co-creator to wisdom in the Old Testament and Jesus in the New Testament. The implications of an accurate interpretation affect both Old Testament theology and a New Testament understanding of Jesus. Considering the word’s usage in the Hebrew Bible, “brought forth” appears to be a reasonable translation of קנה. The following provides evidence to support the translation value as well as a brief explanation of its meaning for understanding Proverbs 8:22-31 and its repurposing in New Testament theology. **Brought Forth** The Hebrew lemma קנה occurs 84 times in 75 verses in the Old Testament, 81 in the Qal, and three in the Niphal. The most prevalent meaning of קנה relates to the concept of purchasing, which occurs 64 times. For example, the narrator of Genesis explains that when Jacob settled in the city of Shechem, “He bought (קנה) the piece of land” (Gen. 33:19 \[NASB\]). However, the common meaning does not fit the context of Proverbs 8:22, which states, “The Lord קָ֭נָ me (wisdom).” A number of alternatives exist. The verb קנה appears to have the connotation of “acquire” 14 times, 11 of which are in Proverbs, and is often used in the context of acquiring wisdom and understanding (Prov. 4:5, 15:32). However, translating קנה as “acquired” suggests that God discovered wisdom and results in the illogical conclusion that, at some point prior to the discovery, God lacked wisdom. Granted, one could acquire an object by creating it (see discussion on “create” below), but to translate קנה as “acquire” in this instance would likely lead to confusion. Accordingly, other options need exploring. Except for the verse under study, only five verses remain available for examination. The context of the remaining verses could all possibly mean “create.” For example, Psalm 139:13 would translate, “You created (קנה) my inward parts; You wove me in my mother’s womb” (See also Gen. 4:1, 14:19, 14:22; Deut. 32:6). However, the challenge with the translation “create” in Proverbs 8:22 is that one would have to conclude that, at some point in time, wisdom was not with God and, thus, not an eternal attribute of God. A better possible option for translation may be “possess.” Although the translation may be somewhat strained in the remaining five verses, it remains a good possibility. For instance, Genesis 14:22 would translate Abram’s words when speaking to the king of Sodom as follows: “I have sworn to the Lord God Most High, possessor (קנה) of heaven and earth.” The benefit of “possess” in Proverbs 8:22 is that it removes the possibility that a time existed when God did not have wisdom. However, a better translation may be “brought forth.” Three of the five remaining verses have a clear notion of a parental type of “begetting,” as in “brought forth” from the essential being of God. For example, Deuteronomy 32:6 refers to a Father; Psalm 139:13 refers to a mother’s womb; and Genesis 4:1 refers to a wife conceiving a child. Accordingly, Proverbs 8:22 would translate as follows: “The Lord brought me (wisdom) forth (קנה).” Not only does the translation support wisdom as an eternal attribute of God, but also fits well with the rest of the passage. **Proverbs 8:22-31** The translation choice assists in understanding the rest of the passage in four ways. First, “brought forth” allows for the eternal nature of wisdom noted in Proverbs 8:23, which states that wisdom “was established from the beginning.” Second, Proverbs 8:27 insists that wisdom was there when God made the heavens and skies. By translating קנה as “brought forth,” the verb supports the idea that God brought wisdom forth at a specific time. Third, Prov. 8:30 explains that wisdom “was beside Him, as a master workman.” The translation of קנה as “brought forth” is consistent with the nature of wisdom as God’s co-creator brought forth for a purpose. Finally, Proverbs 8:24-25 states, “When there were no depths I (wisdom) was brought forth (חיל)…before the hills I (wisdom) was brought forth (חיל).” The Hebrew verb חיל used in Proverbs 8:24-25 means to “bring forth” and even has a parental connotation, similar to קנה, of the labor pains of childbirth. Accordingly, the translation of קנה as “brought forth” also accentuates the meaning of the two parallel verbs in verses 24-25. **Repurposing** As mentioned, “brought forth” fits well with the co-creative nature of wisdom in light of Proverbs 8:30, which states, “Then I (wisdom) was beside Him, as a master workman.” In the [New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/), Paul explains that Christ is the “wisdom of God” (1 Cor. 1:24). The implication is that Christ is also a co-creator – an agent of God, which is powerful repurposing of Proverbs 8:22-31 on two fronts. First, Proverbs 8:23-27 states, “From the beginning…I was there.” Likewise, John 1:2 states that Jesus also “was in the beginning with God” (See also Col. 1:15). However, not just with God, but a co-creator or agent with God: “All things came into being through Him” (John 1:3). Second, Paul writes, “by His doing you are in Christ Jesus, who became to us wisdom from God” (1 Cor. 1:30). In other words, Jesus was also God’s co-creative agent of salvation; by His doing, humanity lives in Him. **Conclusion** An analysis of the Hebrew verb קנה in Hebrew Bible revealed that an appropriate translation value for the verb is “brought forth.” Furthermore, the translation decision supports the understanding of wisdom’s eternal nature, specific time, co-creative purpose, and also fits with other key verbs in Proverbs 8:22-31. Finally, a brief examination of New Testament verses provided a coherent explanation of the repurposing of Proverbs 8:22-31 in Jesus, the wisdom of God, who, from the beginning, was God’s co-creator of everything – including salvation. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Textual Criticism: Deuteronomy 32:8-9 and Genesis 49:10](https://www.livestransforming.com/textual-criticism-deuteronomy-328-9-and-genesis-4910/) **Published:** November 16, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Textual Criticism: Deuteronomy 32:8-9 and Genesis 49:10 **Deuteronomy 32:8-9** According to the BHS, a textual variant occurs in the last two words of Deuteronomy 32:8. The NASB translates the last half of the verse as follows: “He set the boundaries of the peoples according to the number of the sons of Israel” (Deut. 32:8 \[NASB\]). The Masoretic text agrees with the NASB by recording the final two Hebrew words as “sons of Israel” (בני ישראל). However, Michael Heiser points out that certain Septuagint and Qumran manuscripts presume a Hebrew text of “sons of God” (בני אלהים or בני אלים).\[1\] The following provides a coherent resolution to the textual difference based on Heiser’s article. The context of the passage refers to Genesis 10-11 when God divided humankind. Heiser recognizes the absence of Israel from the Table of Nations and asks how God would set the boundaries for the pagan nations according to the sons of Israel (בני ישראל) – an entity “that did not yet exist.”\[2\] The answer takes shape in the parallels between Ugaritic literature and the Hebrew text. Heiser explains that Ugaritic mythology claims their chief god, El Elyon (עֶלְיוֹן), had 70 sons.\[3\] Deuteronomy 32:8 also refers to God as El Elyon (עֶלְיוֹן) who separates humankind into 70 nations. The literary parallel supports God’s division occurring based on other gods, not the “sons of Israel,” thus the translation: “sons of God” (בני אלהים). The connotation of divine beings in the translation could appear polytheistic. Heiser acknowledges the possibility and asserts that the Masoretes intentionally altered the text to avoid this very concern, which further supports the Septuagint/Qumran text.\[4\] The tension of polytheism quickly resolves with a proper understanding of “divine council.” Heiser uses 1 Kings 22, Psalms 82, and parallels to Ugaritic terminology to provide evidence of other gods and explains that God assigned the pagan nations to the other gods while taking Israel for Himself (See Deut. 32:9; Gen. 12).\[5\] Furthermore, although the evidence supports a plurality of gods, Heiser notes that the people understood Yahweh as the one and only omnipotent Deity.\[6\] Thus, the Septuagint/Qumran manuscripts, the parallels with Ugaritic texts, and the logic behind the Masoretic alteration all provide the textual evidence to support “sons of God” as original. Furthermore, a proper understanding of divine council and its relation to the pagan nations, while not denying monotheism, provide the logic to support “sons of God” as the original text. **Genesis 49:10** Genesis 49:10 arguably has one of the most perplexing phrases of the [Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/): עד כי־יבא שילה. At issue is the final word, which in the Masoretic text is שִׁילֹ֔ה (Kethiv) or שִׁילוֹ (Qere). The BHS textual apparatus explains that many Hebrew manuscripts drop the yod (שלה). Additionally, the Septuagint manuscripts translate the word using a form of the Greek lemma ἀπόκειμαι that has a meaning not readily apparent in the Hebrew. The following analysis attempts to provide a resolution and identify the original text. Three primary options are available. First, in support of the Masoretic text, K. A. Mathews explains that “Shiloh” (שילה) may represent the name of a town in the Ephraim territory or the name of a person identified by the Jewish Midrash as a future messiah.\[7\] However, the common spelling for the town is שׁלה not שילה, and שילה is nowhere used in Scripture to point to a messianic figure.\[8\] Accordingly, resolving the issue with a name appears to lack evidence and appears irreconcilable with the LXX. Second, Gordon Wenham suggests the manuscripts that dropped the yod read the word שלה as לה + ש meaning, “To whom it belongs.”\[9\] The Septuagint lemma, ἀπόκειμαι, possibly fits the second option with the connotation “to store away.” However, Wenham recognizes two disadvantages: the poor poetry and the added yod would require the Masoretic text to make the original more difficult.\[10\] Third, Victor Hamilton suggests the possibility that the four consonants are divided (לה + שי), which can mean “tribute (שי) to him (לה)” and simultaneously fit the context by forecasting “the subjection of the world to Judah.” [![03 17 182x300 - Textual Criticism: Deuteronomy 32:8-9 and Genesis 49:10](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/03-17-182x300.jpg "Textual Criticism: Deuteronomy 32:8-9 and Genesis 49:10 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4hQ0ROR)The Book of Genesis (New International Commentary on the Old Testament Series) 1-17 (New International Commentary on the Old Testament (NICOT)) \[11\] With option three, the consonantal text remains, supporting the Masoretic text and the connotation fits the LXX much better than “Shiloh.” Finally, additional support exists if Richard Steiner is correct in suggesting לה + שי occurred as a “single word.”\[12\] However, the dropping of yod in the other Hebrew manuscripts would remain an enigma unless it was defective spelling. Without catering to the Masoretic text, the best reading often explains the most manuscripts. Option one appears to support the Masoretic text, but not the LXX, while option two does the opposite. However, option three appears to have the better potential of supporting both the Masoretic text and the LXX. Accordingly, in alignment with the ESV, the translation of the phrase that appears, without certainty, to fit the original is “until tribute comes to him.” **Bibliography** - Hamilton, Victor P. The Book of Genesis, Chapters 18-50. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1995. - Heiser, Michael. “Deuteronomy 32:8 and the Sons of God” (2001). Faculty Publications and Presentations. Paper 279. Accessed September 1, 2015. http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/lts\_fac\_pubs/279 - Mathews, K. A. Genesis 11:27-50:26. The New American Commentary, vol. 1b. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2005. - Steiner, Richard C. “Poetic Forms in the Masoretic Vocalization and Three Difficult Phrases in Jacob’s Blessing: יֶתֶר שְׁאֵת (Gen 49:3), יְצוּעִי עָלָה (49:4), and יָבֹא שִׁילֹה (49:10).” Journal of Biblical Literature 129, no. 2 (2010): 209–35. - Wenham, Gordon J. Genesis 16-50. Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 2. Dallas: Word, 1998.\[1\] Michael Heiser, “Deuteronomy 32:8 and the Sons of God” (2001), Faculty Publications and Presentations, Paper 279: 52–53, accessed September 1, 2015, http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/lts\_fac\_pubs/279. \[2\] Ibid., 53–54. \[3\] Ibid., 54. \[4\] Ibid., 59. \[5\] Ibid., 59-68, 70–71. \[6\] Ibid., 73. \[7\] K. A. Mathews, Genesis 11:27-50:26, The New American Commentary, vol. 1b (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2005), 893–94. \[8\] Ibid., 893. \[9\] Gordon J. Wenham, Genesis 16-50, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 2 (Dallas: Word, 1998), 477. \[10\] Ibid. \[11\] Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis, Chapters 18-50, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1995), 661. \[12\] Richard C. Steiner, “Poetic Forms in the Masoretic Vocalization and Three Difficult Phrases in Jacob’s Blessing: יֶתֶר שְׁאֵת (Gen 49:3), יְצוּעִי עָלָה (49:4), and יָבֹא שִׁילֹה (49:10),” Journal of Biblical Literature 129, no. 2 (2010): 223–24. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Misreading Scripture with Western Eyes: Removing Cultural Blinders To Better Understand The Bible](https://www.livestransforming.com/misreading-scripture-with-western-eyes-removing-cultural-blinders-to-better-understand-the-bible/) **Published:** March 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # ***Misreading Scripture with Western Eyes:*** # ***Removing Cultural Blinders To Better Understand The Bible*** *Richards, E. Randolph, and Brandon J. O’Brien. Misreading Scripture with Western Eyes: Removing Cultural Blinders to Better Understand the Bible. Downers Grove: Intervarsity, 2012. 217 pp. $17.00* Brandon O’Brien and Randolph Richard’s book, *Misreading Scripture with Western Eyes: Removing Cultural Blinders to Better Understand the Bible*, addresses the important issues of historical and cultural context. The purpose of the authors is to focus on the basic hermeneutical principle that meaning resides within the historical and cultural context of the original writers and readers. However, the challenge is that modern readers live outside the culture of biblical times so “there is no purely objective biblical interpretation,” because “there’s no way around the fact that our cultural and historical contexts supply us with habits of mind that lead us to read the Bible differently than Christians in other cultural and historical contexts” (12). Accordingly, the authors provide a number of goals to accomplish their purpose, which include helping readers become aware of their cultural differences with the original biblical participants, assisting readers in recognizing that these differences, and their corresponding presuppositions, may cause interpreters to miss the intended meaning of the biblical text, and most importantly, to “help us learn to read *ourselves*” (12-16). Ultimately, the importance of the topic cannot be overestimated as proper biblical interpretation depends on understanding the historical and cultural context of Scripture. ### **Summary** The authors use two devices to help accomplish their goals. First, they compare and contrast Western versus non-Western cultures to highlight that not all cultures hold the same beliefs and that just because a culture is different does not necessarily make it incorrect. Second, the authors use the metaphor of an iceberg to provide a three-part structure for the book. The iceberg assists the authors in explaining that the interpreter’s worldview, which empowers his or her presuppositions, resides above, below, and deep below the surface. Each of the three parts is then divided into three sub-topics that dive into an exploration of a specific cultural difference. First, with regard to cultural differences that reside above the surface, the authors address the topics of mores, ethnicity, and language. Mores are beliefs supported by a specific culture that go without saying and often go without even being questioned. For example, the authors suggest Western mores may include the idea that playing cards is a sin, marriage is better than singleness, and poverty is immoral, even though these views do not necessarily align with Scripture. Regarding ethnicity, the authors suggest Westerners are colorblind, which is “the belief that ethnic differences don’t matter,” thus “everyone should be treated as if they were the same” (55). Unfortunately, “same” is often not about being treated equally, but about treating everyone as if they were the majority. However, in reality, ethnic differences do matter in the way people are treated and in the way we read Scripture. Finally, language may be the most important and obvious cultural difference above the surface. In particular, the authors address sufficiency, the issue that English does not have a word for every word in ancient languages; equivalency, the issue that an English word translation is not necessarily equivalent to an original Greek or Hebrew word; and clarity, the issue that biblical writers used colorful figures of speech that do not easily translate into English. Second, with regard to cultural differences that reside below the surface, the authors address the topics of individualism, honor, and time. First, Westerners view life through the perspective of the individual, whereas other cultures, including certain cultures during biblical times, hold the importance of community higher than self. Similarly, a Western worldview perceives sin from an individualistic perspective, which highlights the importance of guilt. However, in a collectivistic society, the honor of the community is held supreme and, if ignored, results in shame. The culture of antiquity often exemplified honor and shame where the lens of society determined morality, which is an important observation for biblical interpreters. Third, Westerners focus on time in a general sense and then drills down to specific times for meetings and appointments. Alternatively, Greek utilizes two words for time – *chronos* and *kairos*. The former provides a perspective of time that has a quantitative or sequential meaning, while the latter is qualitative. Qualitative time often evades Western thinking and could cause misinterpretation if not considered. Finally, with regard to cultural differences that reside deep below the surface, the authors address the topics of rules and relationships, virtues and vices, and self as the center of the universe. Western eyes often view rules with an “all or nothing” perspective where they trump relationships. Alternatively, relationships often triumph over rules within a biblical culture, which create valid cases for exceptions to rules. Next, all cultures, including the West, often determine which behaviors are virtuous, which are vices, and then rank them based on cultural influences. For example, Westerners often view self-sufficiency, freedom through force, and tolerance as virtues, even though biblical evidence exists to the contrary. Finally, Western eyes often read Scripture through the lens of self against the biblical evidence. In other words, when the interpreter is preoccupied with how each individual passages pertains to self, the original meaning could be entirely missed in light of the original context. In sum, each of these observations highlight how the influence of modern cultures can cause an interpreter to completely fail to understand God’s Word. The authors conclude their work by avoiding the risks associated with a simple step-by-step formulaic approach to addressing cultural differences and context. Instead, they astutely suggest six general tenets of interpretation: embrace complexity, avoid overcorrection, be teachable, face mistakes, and read together. Each one of these general tenets for removing cultural blinders assist the reader in properly interpreting Scripture. ### **Critical Evaluation** The following critical analysis of the book includes an evaluation of the authors perspectives and their supporting evidence, as well as an analysis of the strengths of their arguments alongside a presentation of weaknesses. The point of view of the book is primarily in the first person plural as the authors place themselves as part of the recipients of the message. The authors explicitly state their perspective as evangelical “white, Western males” (20). The authors provide two primary types of evidence to highlight the importance of historical and cultural context when interpreting Scripture and the goal of helping readers understand cultural differences that can interfere with biblical interpretation. First, the authors provide anecdotal evidence from Richards’s missionary experiences to highlight cultural differences. The stories support the concept of cultural differences and help the reader recognize that differences do exist between cultures, which are not necessarily an issue of morality. However, beyond these distinctions, the anecdotal evidence from modern non-Western cultures provides limited value in correctly interpreting the Bible unless they align more closely with the Bible than the West, which, at times, they can. Nevertheless, the authors admit to the risks associated with anecdotal evidence acknowledge that interpreting Scripture through Eastern eyes could be just as problematic as interpreting Scripture through Western eyes (22). The second type of evidence used by the authors is biblical evidence. As will be addressed below, the authors often used biblical evidence to effectively support their viewpoint. However, weaknesses in their arguments and logic also exist. The following analysis first analyzes the strengths of the authors’ arguments and then addresses the weaknesses. Without question, the strengths of Richards and O’Brien’s work are numerous. Two specific strengths include highlighting the risks of cross-cultural ignorance and the danger of an obsession with self, which both can skew proper [biblical interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-interpretation/). First, regarding the risks of cross-cultural ignorance, the authors use non-Western stories to increase awareness of cultural differences. For example, the authors challenge Western cultural assumptions with stories from missionary experiences in Indonesia regarding exams, privacy, and time. Westerners would likely be surprised by Indonesian students who felt that guessing at multiple choice questions was a form of cheating, be violated by neighbors entering a house thought to be shared, and be offended by individuals showing up late to a church service. However, the irony set against a Westerners mind when focusing on higher forms of honesty, sharing one’s house, and waiting patiently for guests is an effective device used by the authors to jolt Westerners into cross-cultural awareness and appreciation. However, it is important not to miss the point of the exercise. The ultimate point is not to stage East against West, but to assist Western readers in recognizing that the culture of antiquity is significantly different than modernity, and in order for proper biblical interpretation to occur, the interpreter must identify and appreciate these cultural differences. A second strength of the book is highlighting the dangers of the West’s obsession with self when interpreting Scripture. For example, the authors suggest that the Western self-focused lens has caused misinterpretations of 1 Cor. 6:19 and Jer. 29:11. In 1 Cor. 6:19, Paul states, “Or do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit who is in you, whom you have from God, and that you are not your own” (NASB). The authors note that many English interpreters suggest that the body is meant to apply to a single individual. However, they explain that “in the original Greek, the *you* is plural and the *temple* is singular. Paul is saying, ‘All of you *together* are a *singular* temple for the Holy Spirit'” (108). Additionally, Jeremiah 29:11 states, “‘For I know the plans that I have for you,’ declares the Lord, ‘plans for welfare and not for calamity to give you a future and a hope.'” Western readers often attempt to apply the verse to self and, more specifically, to the success of an individual. However, the authors point out that the context of the passage and second person plural pronouns in the original Hebrew suggest the verse pertains to the future welfare of a collective group of exiles in Babylon. Once again, a self-focused Western perspective can cause readers to misinterpret the verse. Along with the two specific strengths, a number of weaknesses also exist. [![The Epistle to the Galatians New International Greek Testament Commentary NIGTC 182x300 - Misreading Scripture with Western Eyes: Removing Cultural Blinders To Better Understand The Bible](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/The-Epistle-to-the-Galatians-New-International-Greek-Testament-Commentary-NIGTC-182x300.jpg "Misreading Scripture with Western Eyes: Removing Cultural Blinders To Better Understand The Bible - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/441jYlw)The Epistle to the Galatians (New International Greek Testament Commentary (NIGTC)) A number of weaknesses are explicitly identified by the authors themselves, which include generalized statements, anecdotal evidence, the limited cultural perspectives that necessarily exist as white Western males, and an oversimplification of the material. Since these weaknesses are already assumed and evident, the following weaknesses will address specific questionable biblical assumptions and a lack of clear definitions, which may cause confusion. First, the authors, at times, state that certain biblical assumptions are correct, without acknowledging valid alternative views. For example, the authors suggest that Paul is using an ethnic slur when stating, “You foolish Galatians!” (Gal. 3:1, \[NASB\]). The authors assume that Paul is talking to the “uneducated barbarians in the north” (58). However, F. F. Bruce states that the “weight of the evidence…favours the South Galatian view.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) In other words, it is possible Paul was using an ethnic slur, but it is just as likely he was not, which would undermine the authors’ argument. Since the book appears to be written for the layperson who may not know the valid academic alternatives, the necessity of these caveats may be particularly important. Another example occurs when the authors partially blame Bathsheba for David’s sin by stating that the story implied “she intended to be seen by the king,” and “probably got what she wanted” (122-125). The assumption is certainly not conclusive.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Second, the authors create ambiguity by not explicitly defining terms. Admittedly, the authors attempt to define innocence and guilt, and then juxtapose them with honor and shame. However, when using illustrations, the definitions between types of shame become muddled and cause confusion. For example, the authors state, “shame is not negative in honor/shame cultures; shaming is” (119). Furthermore, the authors also state that in Gal. 2 “Paul’s goal was to shame Peter into appropriate behavior” (136). The reader is left wondering if Paul was right or wrong in his approach, which may cause a reader to miss the essential point of cultural distinctions, and simultaneously, risk a misapplication of religious power. A similar concern arises when attempting to address the issue of the church. For example, the authors state, “as long as church provides the services I want, I’ll stick around,” and then explain that this is not biblical because when we become Christians, “we become – permanently and spiritually – a part of the church” (107). Unfortunately, the former specifically pertains to institutional events and the latter pertains to a body of believers in Christ. No definitional distinctions are made between the two and they are even used interchangeably within a given sentence. The pattern continues throughout the chapter, and again, confusion can ensue within the mind of the reader when addressing the important topic of individualism versus collectivism. ### **Conclusion** Certainly, Richards and O’Brien’s book provides a highly accessible and essential contribution to biblical interpretation. Although certain weaknesses do detract, the strengths outweigh the weaknesses. It appears the authors successfully accomplished the goals set forth in the introduction. Specifically, the authors successfully highlighted the importance of reading Scripture within its historical and cultural context. It also insightfully prompts readers to internally reflect on their own presuppositions and worldview that may undermine correct biblical interpretation. Due to its accessibility and importance in properly interpreting Scripture, the relevant audience is broad in scope and would include laypeople, students, pastors and scholars. Furthermore, it would be an appropriate study for Bible study groups, small group curriculum, as well as academic coursework. Finally, the practical application primarily involves using the insights provided within the book to spur further exploration of the history and culture of the Ancient Near East and Second Temple Judaism in order to do understand the Bible within its historical and cultural context. ### **Bibliography** Bruce, F. F. *The Epistle to the Galatians*. Edited by I. Howard Marshall and W. Ward Gasque. The New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1982. Davidson, Richard M. “Did King David Rape Bathsheba? A Case Study in Narrative Theology.” *Journal of Adventist Theological Society* 17, no. 2 (Autumn 2006): 81–95. [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) F. F. Bruce, *The Epistle to the Galatians*, ed. I. Howard Marshall and W. Ward Gasque, The New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1982), 18. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) See Richard M. Davidson, “Did King David Rape Bathsheba? A Case Study in Narrative Theology,” *Journal of Adventist Theological Society* 17, no. 2 (Autumn 2006). **Categories:** Book Reviews --- ### [Allegorical Methods](https://www.livestransforming.com/allegorical-methods/) **Published:** March 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # **Allegorical Methods** ### **Question** Throughout the history of the Bible, allegorical methods have been employed as a means to discover a “hidden meaning” in the text. Outline the use of allegorical approaches and discuss the benefits and pitfalls of utilizing such an approach to interpret Scripture today. [![Introduction to Biblical Interpretation Third Edition 182x300 - Allegorical Methods](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Introduction-to-Biblical-Interpretation-Third-Edition-182x300.jpg "Allegorical Methods - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3FX28pM)Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Third Edition ### **Response** Allegorical methods have a long history of usage throughout the [history of biblical interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-history-of-biblical-interpretation/). In its simplest form, Philip Miller explains that allegory is a literary unit that has a “hidden, figurative, or symbolic meaning,” and that the allegorical method of interpretation “treats any or all of the Bible as allegorical material.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The usage of allegory began in ancient Greece to protect sacred Homeric writings in the face of scientific advances, then moved into Jewish circles to interpret portions of the Septuagint, such as the Song of Solomon from its scandalous content, and then into New Testament writings such as Paul’s use of allegory in Gal. 4:21-31, which applied certain Old Testament passages to Christians.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) William Klein, Craig Blomberg, and Robert Hubbard also note that Philo used the allegorical method to interpret the Hebrew Scriptures when a passage was unworthy of God, difficult, or involved explicit allegory.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Furthermore, an allegorical approach continued to evolve under Clement of Alexandria who thought that Scripture had a dichotomist meaning that consisted of body (literal) and soul (spiritual) and Origen, as a trichotomist, who assumed a threefold body (literal), soul (moral), and spirit (spiritual) meaning to Scripture.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Following Origen, Aquinas added an anagogical or moral component to allegorical interpretation until the Reformers began to harness its advancement by highlighting the authority and literal nature of Scripture.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The benefits of the allegorical method are twofold. First, Miller explains that the Church Fathers used allegory to correct an overly literalistic Jewish interpretation and to refute a Gnostic literalism that attempted to undermine the validity of the Old Testament.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The application remains in modern vernacular. For example, if an individual is asked to remember an event and says, “that rings a bell,” it would be absurd to apply a literalistic interpretation to the phrase. Accordingly, an overly literalistic approach to every biblical passage or genre may render the interpretation invalid. Second, symbolism continues to be important to the Christian faith as can be seen in sanctuary decor, art, worship, prayers, and hymns as well as in baptism and communion with the symbols of water, bread, and wine.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Accordingly, the segment of allegory that highlights figurative and symbolic meaning provides interpretive benefits. However, often the pitfalls of the allegorical method outweigh the benefits. Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard explain that the allegorical method often “seems to play fast and loose with the text.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Furthermore, Miller notes that historically the allegorical method often originated from wild speculations and became a method of proof-texting church tradition.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) In light of the benefits and pitfalls, the question remains as to whether utilizing such an approach to interpret Scripture is relevant for today. Craig Blomberg recognizes that the literal meaning of a text is not always correct, so the interpreter must determine the “original intention of the author as communicated through the written text to the original audience.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) In other words, the biblical text ought to be interpreted in light of its literary genres, and if the text contains allegory, figurative language, or symbolism, then the interpretation should consider the impact, but allegorizing with no authorial intent risks eisegesis rather than exegesis.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) ### **Bibliography** Blomberg, Craig L., and Jennifer Foutz Markley. *A Handbook of New Testament Exegesis*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010. Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004. Miller, Philip. “New Hearing for the Allegorical Method.” *Perkins Journal* 29, no. 2 (1976): 25–34. ### **References** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Philip Miller, “New Hearing for the Allegorical Method,” *Perkins Journal* 29, no. 2 (1976): 26. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 28. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) William W. Klein, Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard, *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation* (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004), 26. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 38–39. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Miller, “New Hearing for the Allegorical Method,” 32–33. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 33. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 34–35. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard, *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation*, 39. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Miller, “New Hearing for the Allegorical Method,” 32. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Craig L. Blomberg and Jennifer Foutz Markley, *A Handbook of New Testament Exegesis* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010), 228. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [The History of Biblical Interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-history-of-biblical-interpretation/) **Published:** March 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** Consider the history of biblical interpretation and choose 1 time period and 1 person whose method offers the most promise for attaining a clear interpretation of Scripture today. Be sure to identify the person and the method with special focus on how that method aids a modern interpreter in understanding Scripture. When considering the history of biblical interpretation, it is difficult to ignore the significant impact of the Reformation period, and specifically, the influence of Martin Luther’s method of biblical interpretation, which continues to offer promise for attaining a clear interpretation of Scripture today. Luther provides at least five principles of biblical interpretation that continue to apply: the authority of Scripture, the clarity of Scripture, the Christ-centered focus of Scripture, the literality of Scripture, and the practical impact of Scripture. First, according to William Klein, Craig Blomberg, and Robert Hubbard, Luther maintained that Scripture alone (*sola* *scriptura*) had authority, not church tradition or commentary.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) In Luther’s words, “Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by evident reason—for I can believe neither pope nor councils alone, as it is clear that they have erred repeatedly and contradicted themselves—I consider myself conquered by the Scriptures adduced by me, and my conscience is captive to the word of God.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Certainly, the authority of Scripture, as opposed to denominational tradition or reliance on contemporary commentaries, must continue to play an important role to modern interpreters. [![Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Third Edition](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Introduction-to-Biblical-Interpretation-Third-Edition-182x300.jpg "Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Third Edition - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3FX28pM)Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Third Edition The second of Luther’s hermeneutical principles is the clarity of Scripture. Mark Thompson notes that, for Luther, Scripture’s clarity rests upon its context, which conveys a specific meaning based on the original setting.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) According to Luther, an important method for uncovering the meaning of a text in its original setting was to use the context of the passage by focusing on “what precedes and follows.” [\[4\]](#_ftn4) Without question, considering the context of a particular passage of Scripture continues to be crucial for proper biblical interpretation. The next principle of Luther’s method of biblical interpretation is the Christ-centered focus of Scripture. In fact, Luther insists that “all Scripture tends toward Him.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Importantly, it does not appear that Luther is suggesting that every phrase written in the Law, Prophets, and Writings has Jesus lurking behind the scenes, but instead, that the totality of Scripture ultimately points toward Christ. Modern day interpreters would do well to heed the principle of a Christ-centered hermeneutic. The fourth principle of biblical interpretation affirmed by Luther is the literality of Scripture that was in opposition to the medieval interpretive methods. Randall Gleason explains that medieval exegetes interpreted 2 Corinthians 3:6, “For the letter kills, but the spirit gives life,” to mean that the letter is the literal sense of biblical interpretation, and the spirit was the spiritual or illuminative nature of biblical interpretation necessary to properly explain a passage.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Accordingly, an [allegorical interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/allegorical-methods/) was actually necessary for a proper hermeneutic. Alternatively, Luther rejected the standard fourfold pattern of allegorical interpretation (*Quadriga*), and instead, interpreted the “letter” in 2 Corinthians 3:6 as referring to the demands for personal holiness of the law and the “spirit” as the Holy Spirit providing the grace necessary to meet the demands of the law, not as a juxtaposition of interpretive methods.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The importance of the literality of Scripture continues to aid a modern biblical interpreter and warns against inappropriately using allegory when interpreting Scripture. The final principle of biblical interpretation Luther provides is the practical impact of Scripture. Thompson notes that in Luther’s lectures on the Psalms in 1519, he famously said, “Not understanding, reading, or speculation, but living, no, dying and being damned, make a theologian.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) All modern interpreters would do well to remember that living for Christ and dying to self trump all academic exercise of hermeneutics. Based on Luther’s five principles of interpretation, it appears reasonable that he may offer the most promise for attaining a clear interpretation of Scripture today. ### **Bibliography** Gleason, Randall C. “’Letter’ and ‘Spirit’ in Luther’s Hermeneutics.” *Bibliotheca Sacra* 157, no. 628 (October 2000): 468–85. Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004. Luther, Martin. *Luther’s Works, Vol. 32: Career of the Reformer II*. Edited by Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999. ———. *Luther’s Works, Vol. 33: Career of the Reformer III*. Edited by Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999. ———. *Luther’s Works, Vol. 35: Word and Sacrament I*. Edited by Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999. Thompson, Mark D. “Biblical Interpretation in the Works of Martin Luther.” In *A History of Biblical Interpretation: The Medieval Through the Reformation Periods*, edited by Alan J. Hauser, Duane F. Watson, and Schuyler Kaufman. Vol. 2. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2009. ### **References** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard, *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation*, 47. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Martin Luther, *Luther’s Works, Vol. 32: Career of the Reformer II*, ed. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999), 112. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Mark D. Thompson, “Biblical Interpretation in the Works of Martin Luther,” in *A History of Biblical Interpretation: The Medieval Through the Reformation Periods*, ed. Alan J. Hauser, Duane F. Watson, and Schuyler Kaufman (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2009), 2:302. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Martin Luther, *Luther’s Works, Vol. 33: Career of the Reformer III*, ed. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999), 213. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Martin Luther, *Luther’s Works, Vol. 35: Word and Sacrament I*, ed. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999), 122. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Randall C. Gleason, “’Letter’ and ‘Spirit’ in Luther’s Hermeneutics,” *Bibliotheca Sacra* 157, no. 628 (October 2000): 469–70. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 477–79. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Thompson, *A History of Biblical Interpretation: The Medieval Through the Reformation Periods*, 311. ![author avatar](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Wilder.jpg) Derek Wilder Executive Director DEREK WILDER, PhD, is the Executive Director of Lives Transforming Group, Inc., a Christian counseling ministry focused on personal transformation, and the author of FREEDOM and Minds on Fire. Wilder has a Master of Theological Studies, an MDiv in Pastoral Counseling, and a PhD in Biblical Exposition. Wilder's scholarly focus lies in Pauline studies, with his doctoral dissertation specifically examining the ontological implications present in the eighth chapter of Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Wilder, an adjunct professor, founded Convergence Therapy, integrating cognitive therapy and grace-based theology into the accredited college course: “Thought Life & Spirit Growth.” [See Full Bio](https://www.livestransforming.com/derek-wilder-author-bio/) [ ](https://www.livestransforming.com/derek-wilder-author-bio/) Biblical Theology Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Pauline Studies **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Presuppositions/Foundational Beliefs and Preunderstandings](https://www.livestransforming.com/presuppositions-foundational-beliefs-and-preunderstandings/) **Published:** March 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # **Presuppositions/Foundational Beliefs and Preunderstandings** ### **Question** Offer a definition of the terms “presuppositions/foundational beliefs” and “preunderstandings.” How can we test these things to see if they are adequate or appropriate? What can be done to change preunderstandings? List some of the presuppositions or preunderstandings from your own life that may inform your reading of Scripture. From what sources do these things originate? How does a person’s intellectual and spiritual history (i.e., education and religious instruction) influence the interpretation of texts? In what way then is objectivity possible in the interpretation of Scripture? [![Grasping Gods Word Fourth Edition A Hands On Approach to Reading Interpreting and Applying the Bible 182x300 - Presuppositions/Foundational Beliefs and Preunderstandings](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Grasping-Gods-Word-Fourth-Edition-A-Hands-On-Approach-to-Reading-Interpreting-and-Applying-the-Bible-182x300.jpg "Presuppositions/Foundational Beliefs and Preunderstandings - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4c7LZKd)Grasping God’s Word, Fourth Edition: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible ### **Response** All interpreters of Scripture bring a perspective to the text. William Klein, Craig Blomberg, and Robert Hubbard explain that presuppositions are a set of specific preconceived assumptions, consciously stated or unconsciously adopted, that inform other beliefs.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The specificity of presuppositions broadens when referencing preunderstandings. Scott Duvall and Daniel Hays define preunderstanding as “all our preconceived notions and understanding that we bring to the text, which have been formulated, both consciously and subconsciously, *before* we actually study the text in detail.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) At least two methods exist for testing if preunderstandings and presuppositions are adequate or appropriate. Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard suggest that one test is to compare the preunderstandings and presuppositions with biblical evidence and a second test is to “evaluate the evidence for the Christian claims in light of all the alternative truth claims.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) These preunderstandings then can change with understanding, which often take the form of a spiral.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) For example, a [biblical interpreter](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-interpretation/) brings a preunderstanding to a text, then the text is studied, a new preunderstanding forms, and finally, the interpreter brings the new understanding to another text. Personally, I hold a number of presuppositions that Duvall and Hays refer to as foundational beliefs: The Bible is the word of God, trustworthy, and not contradictory.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) These presuppositions originated from the small church and Christian university I attended a number of years ago. Without question, an individual’s intellectual and spiritual history influence the interpretation of the text. For example, due to the influence of my church, family, culture, and evangelical background, I have always presumed that no other gods existed in Scripture besides Yahweh. However, Psalm 82 suggests otherwise by stating, “God stands in the divine assembly; he administers judgment in the midst of the gods” (Ps. 82:1 \[ESV\]). Michael Heiser explains that the plural *elohim* in the Psalm is not suggesting polytheism, but instead, a one and only Yahweh with a pantheon of gods as part of the spiritual world.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) My intellectual and spiritual history would have discounted Heiser’s assertion as heretical if I had relied solely on my preunderstandings and presuppositions. However, objectivity is possible in the interpretation of Scripture if one is willing to take the text to the preunderstanding and allow the text to inform new understanding. ### **Bibliography** Duvall, J. Scott, and J. Daniel Hays. *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Heiser, Michael S. *The Unseen Realm*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2015. Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004. ### **References** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) William W. Klein, Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard, *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation* (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004), 143. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) J. Scott Duvall and J. Daniel Hays, *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 139. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard, *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation*, 163. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 165–66. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Duvall and Hays, *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible*, 145. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Michael S. Heiser, *The Unseen Realm* (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2015), 28–32. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Grasping God's Word](https://www.livestransforming.com/grasping-gods-word/) **Published:** March 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # **Grasping God’s Word** ### **Question** Using the 9 items to consider when reading sentences as listed in chapter 3 of Grasping God’s Word (i.e., repetition of words, contrasts, comparisons, lists, cause and effect, figures of speech, conjunctions, verbs, pronouns), list as many observations as you can find in Acts 1:8. You may list these by noting what category the item falls under (e.g., “contrasts”) and then offering an example of that item. For example, an observation would be to note that the sentence starts off with the conjunction “but,” which connects the sentence to the one above it in a contrasting matter. This item could be listed under both “conjunctions” and “contrasts.” We will follow the basic instructions for this assignment as given on page 64 of your text. Do not offer an interpretation or an application of the text. At this point I want you to list as many of the 9 items as you can find. How do you think this exercise helps you to understand the text better? What did you discover that you did not already notice about this passage? [![Grasping Gods Word Fourth Edition A Hands On Approach to Reading Interpreting and Applying the Bible 182x300 - Grasping God's Word](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Grasping-Gods-Word-Fourth-Edition-A-Hands-On-Approach-to-Reading-Interpreting-and-Applying-the-Bible-182x300.jpg "Grasping God - Lives Transforming's Word")](https://amzn.to/4c7LZKd)Grasping God’s Word, Fourth Edition: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible ### **Response** Reading carefully and critically may soon be a lost art in a postmodern, technology driven society. However, Duvall and Hays provide nine items to look for when reading Scripture to assist in discovering a sentence’s meaning, which include the repetition of words, contrasts, comparisons, lists, causes and effects, figures of speech, conjunctions, verbs, and pronouns.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) A number of these items can be identified within a careful reading of Acts 1:8. First, regarding the repetition of words, the word “you” is repeated three times and the word “in” is repeated twice with reference to different regions. Second, the word “but” that begins the verse appears to provide a contrast between what is not known, the time of the restoration of Israel, and what is known, that power will come with the Holy Spirit. Next, regarding comparisons, none appear to exist. Fourth, the verse includes a list of locations: Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria, and the end of the earth. Fifth, a cause and effect appears to occur between the effect of power and the cause of the power, which is the [Holy Spirit](https://www.livestransforming.com/holy-spirit-in-revelation/). Next are potential figures of speech, which occur with the language “to the end of the earth” in order to suggest an image that conveys the potential breadth of one’s witness. The seventh item is conjunctions, which include “but” and four instances of “and.” The eighth item is verbs. The first verb is “will receive,” which is in the future tense and active voice. The next verb is “has come,” which is in the present perfect tense and active voice. The final verb is “will be,” which is in the future tense and the passive voice. The final item is pronouns. The first three pronouns are “you” and the antecedents of each pronoun are the apostles that Jesus had chosen. The only other pronoun is “my,” which has Jesus as the antecedent. The exercise helps the participant understand the text better by causing the reader to slow down, identify the purpose of each word, as well as note patterns and relationships between words within the sentence. Furthermore, the nine-step process also forces the reader to see the text without the cognitive interference of interpretation or application. In fact, Duvall and Hays suggest that, during the exercise, the reader should attempt to “refrain from *interpreting* or *applying* the text.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) A number of discoveries occurred during the reading of the text that may have been hidden from a cursory reading. First, antecedents became clear once the time was taken to reference back to them in previous verses. Next, the contrast was noticeable between Jesus’s answer to the disciples’ question and the direction Jesus felt was more important – the power of the Holy Spirit. Finally, the cause and effect that occurs between the Holy Spirit and power also became discernible. Finally, the importance of the details should not be underestimated. Regarding the individual components of each sentence, Darrell Bock provides the analogy of watching a building under construction and states, “After the edifice has been constructed piece by piece, it eventually reveals a master plan.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) ### **Bibliography** Bock, Darrell L. *Interpreting the New Testament Text: Introduction to the Art and Science of Exegesis*. Edited by Darrell L. Bock and Buist M. Fanning. Wheaton: Crossway, 2006. Duvall, J. Scott, and J. Daniel Hays. *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. ### **References** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) J. Scott Duvall and J. Daniel Hays, *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 54–61. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 53. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Darrell L. Bock, *Interpreting the New Testament Text: Introduction to the Art and Science of Exegesis*, ed. Darrell L. Bock and Buist M. Fanning (Wheaton: Crossway, 2006), 135. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Historical-Cultural Background](https://www.livestransforming.com/historical-cultural-background/) **Published:** March 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # **Historical-Cultural Background** ### **Question** Define the phrase “historical-cultural background.” What is the significance of this material in [interpreting the Bible](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-history-of-biblical-interpretation/) properly? Describe the process of “contextualization.” How would you explain contextualization to a new believer that wanted to learn more about the historical-cultural background of the Bible? Why is the “historical-cultural background” important? What are some steps useful in retrieving the “historical-cultural background” of Scripture? [![Grasping Gods Word Fourth Edition A Hands On Approach to Reading Interpreting and Applying the Bible 182x300 - Historical-Cultural Background](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Grasping-Gods-Word-Fourth-Edition-A-Hands-On-Approach-to-Reading-Interpreting-and-Applying-the-Bible-182x300.jpg "Historical-Cultural Background - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4c7LZKd)Grasping God’s Word, Fourth Edition: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible ### **Response** The meaning of the phrase “historical-cultural background” is inherent in the phrase itself, the historical background and the cultural background surrounding the text under examination. More specifically, Scott Duvall and Daniel Hays suggest the definition of historical-cultural background “relates to just about anything outside the text that will help you understand the text itself.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The significance of the historical-cultural background is threefold. First, William Klein, Craig Blomberg, and Robert Hubbard explain that the historical-cultural background provides the perspective of the original author and audience.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Perspective is critical for interpretation because meaning does not live apart from the environment and circumstances of the communicators. Second, the historical-cultural background provides insight in to the mindset of the original communicators, which may describe both the attitude and inclinations of the participants.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Finally, the historical-cultural background assists in contextualizing the text, which utilizes perspective and mindset to look back into the biblical world for the original meaning of the text and simultaneously look forward to how the original meaning may apply to the modern world.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) If a new believer wanted to learn more about the historical-cultural background of the Bible, then it would be important to explain that not only is it important to understand the meaning of the original text, but that it is also important to understand how to apply or contextualize the text so it may live on in the lives of believers. The historical-cultural background is important because meaning lives within the original environment of the communicators. Thus, without understanding the historical and cultural background the meaning becomes allusive. Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuart state the importance of historical-cultural background more poignantly by stating, “A text cannot mean what it never could have meant to its author or readers.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Joseph Fantin offers three steps in retrieving the historical-cultural background of Scripture in addition to being familiar with the original author, readers, and era: (1) investigate relevant practices and customs relating to the text, (2) research historical matters pertaining to the text, and (3) explore literature that may have influenced the text.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) More specifically, Duvall and Hays suggest a number of useful tools for historical-cultural background research, which include Bible handbooks, Old and New Testament introductions, surveys and histories, exegetical and background commentaries, Bible atlases and dictionaries, as well as specific study material that pertains to the life and culture of the Ancient Near East and Second Temple Judaism.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Modern interpreters would do well to apply suggested practices into their study of Scripture to determine its proper meaning. ### **Bibliography** Duvall, J. Scott, and J. Daniel Hays. *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Fantin, Joseph D. *Interpreting the New Testament Text: Introduction to the Art and Science of Exegesis*. Edited by Darrell L. Bock and Buist M. Fanning. Wheaton: Crossway, 2006. Fee, Gordon, and Douglas Stuart. *How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004. ### **References** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) J. Scott Duvall and J. Daniel Hays, *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 118. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) William W. Klein, Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard, *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation* (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004), 229. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 230. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 231. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuart, *How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014), 77. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Joseph D. Fantin, *Interpreting the New Testament Text: Introduction to the Art and Science of Exegesis*, ed. Darrell L. Bock and Buist M. Fanning (Wheaton: Crossway, 2006), 169. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Duvall and Hays, *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible*, 124–35. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Acts as Theological History](https://www.livestransforming.com/acts-as-theological-history/) **Published:** March 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # **Acts as Theological History** ### **Question** Give an explanation of the genre of the book of Acts as theological history. What are the implications for this particular genre on the interpretation of the book? How does the reader differentiate between the theology and the history in the book? What kinds of things should an interpreter look for in Acts so as to understand properly the message of the book? In your opinion, should Acts be read for doctrinal purposes? Why or why not? Please give examples from the book of Acts. ### **Response** The book of Acts is often referred to as theological history. William Klein, Craig Blomberg, and Robert Hubbard define theological history as “a narrative of interrelated events from a given place and time, chosen to communicate theological truths.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The key to understanding the genre is recognizing the author as both a historian who records the facts of the early church and a theologian who records the Christian beliefs of the early church. Accordingly, Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard suggest that the implications for interpretation revolve around a balanced emphasis on the history, theology, and even the adventure of Acts without setting any one characteristic in opposition with each other.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) [![Grasping Gods Word Fourth Edition A Hands On Approach to Reading Interpreting and Applying the Bible 182x300 - Acts as Theological History](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Grasping-Gods-Word-Fourth-Edition-A-Hands-On-Approach-to-Reading-Interpreting-and-Applying-the-Bible-182x300.jpg "Acts as Theological History - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4c7LZKd)Grasping God’s Word, Fourth Edition: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible Differentiating between the theology and history of Acts can be challenging. Scott Duvall and Daniel Hays suggest the interpreter use the same principles to differentiate between the theology and history of Acts as were suggested for the interpretation of the Gospels, which include asking basic narrative questions and looking to the author for instructions regarding interpretation.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Furthermore, Duvall and Hays state, “Perhaps the single most helpful guideline for grasping the theological truths of Acts is to look for repeated themes and patterns.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The key to deploying these suggestions is to slow the pace of reading in order to ask the appropriate questions of the text and not miss the patterns. According to Duvall and Hays, the interpreter should look for five items to properly understand the message of Acts. First, look for the author’s intention, and then look for distinctions between characters, followed by reading the verse in light of its literary context, which includes both the local and extended context.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Finally, look to the entire book of Acts to identify the normative passages while keeping an eye out for repeated patterns.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) In my opinion, it is possible to read Acts for doctrinal purposes, but much care must be extended. Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuart provide an important principle regarding the normative reading of Acts, “Unless Scripture explicitly tells us we must do something, what is only narrated or described does not function in a normative (i.e. obligatory) way – unless it can be demonstrated on other grounds that the author intended it to function in this way.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The reason care must be taken is due to the potential abuse of passages that are not normative as well as the potential of ignoring normative texts that are relevant at all times. A few examples are in order. In Acts 1:26, lots were drawn to select Matthias to add to the eleven apostles. However, the act of drawing lots is not repeated in the [New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/letters-found-in-the-new-testament/), thus it is likely not normative. Alternatively, Luke states, “But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be My witnesses both in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and even to the remotest part of the earth” (Acts 1:8, NASB). In light of the entire pattern of Acts that narrates Peter’s witness in Jerusalem and Paul’s witness to the Gentiles via numerous missionary journeys, it would be difficult to deny the normative impact of the Great Commission. ### **Bibliography** Duvall, J. Scott, and J. Daniel Hays. *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Fee, Gordon, and Douglas Stuart. *How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004. ### **References** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) William W. Klein, Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard, *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation* (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004), 418. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 419. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) J. Scott Duvall and J. Daniel Hays, *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 275–77. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 294. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 300–3. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 303–4. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuart, *How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014), 124. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Letters Found in The New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/letters-found-in-the-new-testament/) **Published:** March 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # **Letters Found in The New Testament** ### **Question** What are the general characteristics of letters as they are found in the New Testament? How important for interpretation are the historical and literary contexts for these documents? Why did first century writers employ the genre of letters when writing to other Christians? What specific issues must the interpreter take into consideration in order to discover the main principles of a New Testament letter? Do all the letters of the New Testament follow the same form? If not, give a list of some that do not and define their distinctive elements. [![Grasping Gods Word Fourth Edition A Hands On Approach to Reading Interpreting and Applying the Bible 182x300 - Letters Found in The New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Grasping-Gods-Word-Fourth-Edition-A-Hands-On-Approach-to-Reading-Interpreting-and-Applying-the-Bible-182x300.jpg "Letters Found in The New Testament - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4c7LZKd)Grasping God’s Word, Fourth Edition: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible ### **Response** The letters of the New Testament exhibit five general characteristics. Scott Duvall and Daniel Hays suggest the New Testament letters are comparable to other ancient letters in that they substitute for personal visits and are situational, painstakingly crafted and delivered, and intended for Christian believers.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Without a basic understanding of the general characteristics of the New Testament letters, the reader lacks the necessary perspective and assumptions for interpretation. The importance of the historical and literary context for the interpretation of the New Testament letters should not be underestimated. Regarding literary context, William Klein, Craig Blomberg, and Robert Hubbard state, “the intended meaning of any passage is the meaning that is consistent with the sense of the literary context within which it occurs.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The New Testament letters are no exception to this rule as no verse or phrase parsed out of a sentence, paragraph, chapter, or even the entire Bible can be understood in isolation. Further, proper interpretation of New Testament letters is particularly sensitive to historical context due to their occasional nature. Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard explain that the historical context is necessary to reconstruct the occasions of the letter in order to appropriately delineate between the timeless principles and those that are culturally limited.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The New Testament writers employed the genre of letters when writing to other Christians in order to accomplish a number of tasks. Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard suggest that some of the reasons why writers used letters were to express an exhortation, provide an introduction or recommendation, construct a diatribe, craft an apologetic, or even to create a familial communication.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) For example, Paul asks two hypothetical questions in Romans 3:1: What is the advantage of being a Jew and what is the benefit of circumcision? The questions setup the author’s answers, which provide an example of Paul’s use of a letter as a diatribe against his opponents. Three specific issues should be taken into consideration by the interpreter when attempting to discover the theological principles of a New Testament letter. Jack Kuhatschek suggests to first identify the theological principles explicitly stated by the author, then identify why the author gave the specific instruction to discover the theological principle, and finally, identify the broader context to assist in locating the theological principle.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) By identifying the [theological principles](https://www.livestransforming.com/acts-as-theological-history/), the interpreter provides a bridge to a contemporary audience. Not all New Testament letters follow the same form. Duvall and Hays grant that New Testament letters follow a similar form as contemporary letters, which include an introduction, body, and a conclusion.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) However, exceptions occur. For example, the book of Hebrews often appears to reflect that of a sermon rather than a letter, and the book of James appears, at times, to represent a collection of proverbs rather than the standard format of a letter. ### **Bibliography** Duvall, J. Scott, and J. Daniel Hays. *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004. Kuhatschek, Jack. *A Message for All Time: Understanding & Applying the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Our Daily Bread Ministries, 2015. ### **References** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) J. Scott Duvall and J. Daniel Hays, *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 252–57. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) William W. Klein, Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard, *Introduction to Biblical Interpretation* (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004), 214. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 427. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 430–31. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Jack Kuhatschek, *A Message for All Time: Understanding & Applying the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Our Daily Bread Ministries, 2015), 28–29. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Duvall and Hays, *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible*, 257–59. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [An Exegesis of Romans 7:7-25](https://www.livestransforming.com/an-exegesis-of-romans-77-25/) **Published:** March 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # **An Exegesis of Romans 7:7-25** # **Introduction** Romans 7:7-25 is one of the most challenging exegetical and theological enigmas in the New Testament. The primary questions pertain to the identification of the “I”, whether the “I” is regenerate, and how its meaning contributes to the Christian life. Until an exegetical examination of the text occurs, a crucial aspect of Pauline theology may either be misinterpreted or remain a mystery. Upon examination, Paul’s autobiographical account in Romans 7:7-25 emphasized that Christian’s live in a battle with sin. The following research summarizes the historical-cultural and literary context of the text, identifies the “I” in the passage, and analyzes its salvific state within the framework of an exegetical study that concludes with an application to a contemporary audience. # **Context** ### **Historical-Cultural Context** The historical-cultural background of a passage addresses issues that pertain to the biblical author and the original audience to assist in interpretation. Romans 1:1 claims that Paul is the author, and according to Leon Morris, no serious objection to authorship exists.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Morris, along with most commentators, asserts that at the time of Paul’s writing, the church at Rome would have included both a large Gentile component and, due to the numerous references to the [Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/), a significant Jewish element as well.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The identification of the dual Gentile and Jewish audience plays particular importance in understanding the passage under study. Douglas Moo identifies the genre of Romans as a letter, but recognizes that the primary impetus of Paul’s effort is the development of key theological arguments.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) In addition to the historical-cultural context, proper interpretation requires addressing the literary context of the passage as well. ### **Literary Context** Literary context places the passage within the broader perspective of the author’s overall thought process. Paul’s letter to the Romans begins by focusing on man’s sinfulness and the necessity of justification in 1:1-4:25. Moo asserts that the theme of the letter is the gospel – God bringing sinners to himself through “nothing more than what we call justification by faith,” but the content of Paul’s letter is far-reaching.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Moo succinctly suggests that chapters 5 through 8 provide hope and freedom to Christians living in Christ, 9 through 11 demonstrate the purpose of Israel, and 12 through 15 point toward Christian obedience.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Locating the role of chapter 7 within the diverse content of Romans is at the heart of literary context and critical to exegetical study. Accordingly, the passages immediately preceding and following the passage under study are particularly important. In chapter 6, Paul identifies the Christian as one who has “died to sin” (v. 2) and been “set free from sin” (v. 18), yet simultaneously battles sin, by stating, “Let not sin therefore reign in your body, to make you obey its passions” (v. 12). [\[6\]](#_ftn6) The tension established in chapter 6 between the Christian who is already freed, yet still in a battle, is crucial for a proper interpretation and application of Romans 7. The tension continues into the first few verses of chapter 7 where Paul highlights the “sinful passions” in the flesh (v. 5) against the “new way of the Spirit” (v. 6). James Dunn recognizes the discontinuance of the old age from the new age at the beginning of the chapter, which sets the stage for the remainder of chapter 7 to explore the interplay between the two epochs.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Due to the tension between the flesh and the Spirit, Grant Osborne correctly identifies chapter 7 as central to “Paul’s doctrine of sanctification.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Finally, the optimism of chapter 8, that so eloquently portrays the Christian life in the Spirit, bookends chapter 7 by stating, “For the law of the Spirit of life has set you free in Christ Jesus from the law of sin and death” (Rom. 8:2). Important to an understanding of chapter 7, chapter 8 resolves the tension built between the two epochs by promising ultimate victory in Christ to the Christian who battles sin. Thus, the literary context of the Christian’s freedom from and simultaneous struggle with sin in chapter 6, followed by the continued tensions between the two epochs in Romans 7:1-6, and the final resolution of the Christian’s victory in Christ in chapter 8 encapsulate the literary context of Romans 7:7-25 and provide strong support for Paul’s message – Christian’s live in a battle with sin. Finally, the study utilizes cross references to highlight Scripture relevant to the passage’s literary context. ### **The Sin and the Law (7:7-13)** *What then shall we say? That the law is sin? By no means! Yet if it had not been for the law, I would not have known sin. For I would not have known what it is to covet if the law had not said, “You shall not covet.” But sin, seizing an opportunity through the commandment, produced in me all kinds of covetousness. For apart from the law, sin lies dead. I was once alive apart from the law, but when the commandment came, sin came alive and I died. The very commandment that promised life proved to be death to me. For sin, seizing an opportunity through the commandment, deceived me and through it killed me. So the law is holy, and the commandment is holy and righteous and good. Did that which is good, then, bring death to me? By no means! It was sin, producing death in me through what is good, in order that sin might be shown to be sin, and through the commandment might become sinful beyond measure.* ### **The Law is Not Sin (vv. 7-9)** It is within the literary context of Paul’s letter to the Romans that an exegetical analysis may commence. An important observation is Paul’s use of rhetorical questions to begin verse 7a, which ask, “What then shall we say? That the law is sin? By no means!” An absence of literary context would render Paul’s questions impossible to understand. However, in light of verses such as Romans 5:20, which states, “Now the law came in to increase the trespass” (cf. 6:14; 7:5), Thomas Schreiner explains that Paul’s questions prepare the reader for a defense of his “gospel from the charge that it contradicts Torah and is inferior to OT revelation.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Paul highlights the relationship between the law and sin in verse 7b to prove that the law is not sin by stating, “If it had not been for the law, I would not have known sin.” In other words, one purpose of the law is to assist in recognizing sin, thus it does not follow that the law actually is sin. Paul then turns to the specific example of coveting as a sin made known by the law. It appears Dunn is correct that Paul’s reference to the tenth commandment of the Decalogue (cf. 13:9) supports the argument that Paul’s use of the law in these early verses of Romans 7 refers to the Torah.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Accordingly, unless otherwise noted, it is presumed the law refers to the Torah for the remainder of the exegetical study. Another meaningful observation appears as Paul transitions into verse 8 by using personification to emphasize sin’s force against humanity. A key term in verse 8 is ἀφορμἠν, which is part of a word group connoting opportunistic military movements in the historical-cultural context of extra-biblical literature and whose lemma occurs six times in the New Testament, four of which refer to the oppressive nature of sin (cf. Rom. 7:8, 11; Gal. 5:13; 1 Tim. 5:14).[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Accordingly, the militant opportunism of sin attacks man by paradoxically using the tenth commandment (ἐντολῆς) that prohibits coveting to produce more coveting. C. K. Barrett succinctly explains the paradox, “To prohibit some course of action is to awaken desire to pursue it.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Thus, the commandment, which by nature is good, became the vehicle of sin. Alternatively, if the commandment did not exist, sin would have no opportunity to use it to attack, and in this case, “sin lies dead” (7:8b). An important linguistic feature now emerges as problematic. Paul begins verse 7 using a second person plural verb (ἐροῦμεν), but then introduces the verb “to know” (ἔγνων) using the first person singular, which dominates the remainder of the chapter. The issue at hand is the highly controversial identification of “I”. Four primary options exist when identifying the “I” in the passage: (1) the Adamic view, (2) the Israeli view, (3) the existential view, and (4) the autobiographical view. Ernst Käsemann represents the Adamic view by asserting that the “I” refers exclusively to Adam because verse 9, “I was once alive apart from the law,” is only true of Adam before the divine commandment resulted in Adam’s death in the garden.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) However, Paul is referring to the Decalogue in verse 7, which was given to Moses at a specific time after Adam, thus the exclusivity of Adam is not determinative (cf. 5:13-14).[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Second, Moo represents the Israeli view by asserting that the “I” that was “once alive apart from the law” (v. 9a) is Israel prior to Mount Sinai, but “when the commandment came” (v. 9b) at Sinai, the power of sin came alive, which brought a theological death, not the intended life.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) However, if a theological death occurred after Israel received the law at Sinai, then it is nearly impossible to explain how Israel had a theological life “apart from the law” prior to Sinai (v. 9a).[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Third, Moo references the influential study of W. G. Kümmel, who represents the existential view and maintains that the “I” is a rhetorical device representing everyone’s experience.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) However, Michael Middendorf analyzes each use of ἐγώ in Paul’s corpus noting that, unless indicated otherwise by context, Paul “always has a specific referent in mind.”[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Finally, John Stott represents the autobiographical view believing that Paul’s writing is simply too authentic to be an impersonation.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) The challenge facing this view is, once again, the meaning of “once alive apart from the law” (v. 9a). Schreiner suggests the passage reflects Paul’s pre-conversion reality prior to either receiving the law as a child or prior to the law “impinging on his consciousness.”[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Based on the arguments presented, to suggest that Paul does not have Adam, Israel, and even, at times, humanity in mind when writing the passage likely goes beyond the evidence. However, in light of Paul’s life before the law as a child, the authentically personal language of the entire passage, and the fact that Paul could have explicitly stated the identity of the “I” if he thought it critical to his readers’ comprehension, the arguments appear to support a pre-converted autobiographical “I” in verses 7-13. Accordingly, for the remainder of the study, the “I” is considered autobiographical. Paul now continues with verse 9, which states, “when the commandment came, sin came alive and I died.” In light of the literary context of verse 7 and 13, Paul appears to be reiterating that when the commandment came, sin was made known, and the result of sin was death. ### **The Law is Used by Sin (vv. 10-11)** Paul continues the theme of death into verse 10 by concluding that the “commandment that promised life proved to be death.” Paul again exonerates the law from any wrongdoing without specifically explaining how the law promised life. However, the literary context of Romans 10:5 suggests that law’s promise of life may have been self-evident to a Jewish audience who knew that Moses taught that those who “practice the righteousness which is based on the law shall live.” Regardless, the ultimate result of the law was not life, but death. Another important observation now emerges as Paul uses repetition from verse 8a to reinforce the causal force behind the death, which is the militant attack of opportunistic sin using the law to deceive and kill. However, the question remains as to exactly how sin used the law to deceive and kill. Moo suggests that sin used the law to deceive Israel into thinking “it could attain life through it” when it was an impossibility. [\[21\]](#_ftn21) Dunn suggests that the word sin in verse 11 is synonymous with the Serpent in the garden “using the commandment to provoke disobedience to that command.”[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Moo’s assertion is possible and Dunn’s paradoxical logic is sound, but Paul’s absence of a clear reference to either Israel or Adam appears to narrow the interpretive path beyond the author’s intention. More likely, as Middendorf suggests, the literary context of Romans supports the conclusion that sin’s deceptive use of the commandment “occurs whenever any ‘I’ imagines that he could secure the final verdict of ‘Righteous’ from God by his own works of the Law in spite of his own sin” (cf. 2:17-24; 3:20, 28; 4; 8:3; 9:30-10:4).[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Middendorf’s important observation not only fits the literary context of Romans, but the entire Pauline corpus. Paul now recognizes that the pessimistic language in verse 11 could be construed as undermining the goodness of the law, so he quickly turns to remedying any potential confusion. ### **The Law is Holy (vv. 12-13)** Paul’s focus on the role of the law has now made the paradox of the law discernible – the law is both a vehicle of sin that results in death, and simultaneously, the law is “holy, and the commandment is holy and righteous and good” (Rom. 7:12). At this point, Middendorf recognizes that, although Paul originally used ἐντολή to reference the tenth commandment, Paul now uses the word to typify the whole law as he commingles the holiness of νόμος and ἐντολή.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Accordingly, the whole law is both a vehicle of sin resulting in death, and simultaneously holy, righteous, and good. The question remains as to exactly how this dual role occurs. Dunn exposes the paradox by noting that the law can have both positive and negative functions, “Negative because it is the glue which binds sin to death; positive because it leaves the sinner no alternative to death other than the death of Christ.”[\[25\]](#_ftn25) At this point, it appears that Paul recognizes the density of his own words, and accordingly, moves toward recapitulation. [![The Epistle to the Romans New International Greek Testament Commentary NIGTC 182x300 - An Exegesis of Romans 7:7-25](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/The-Epistle-to-the-Romans-New-International-Greek-Testament-Commentary-NIGTC-182x300.jpg "An Exegesis of Romans 7:7-25 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4c7r5Li)The Epistle to the Romans (New International Greek Testament Commentary (NIGTC)) Paul summarizes the three points of verses 7-12 in verse 13 by reiterating that the law is holy, the law makes sin known, and that sin is the culprit. However, Paul goes one step further by explaining the purpose of sin using the law to bring death. Unfortunately, the ESV misses the impact of the ἵνα clauses that denote purpose. Accordingly, an alternative translation may assist, “But it was sin, in order that (ἵνα) it might be recognized as sin, producing death in me through what is good, in order that (ἵνα) the sin might become to an extraordinary degree sinful through the commandment” (Rom. 13b, my translation). Moo recognizes the two primary purposes of sin’s nefarious use of the law, which the ἵνα clauses highlight: (1) sin uses the law to make sin recognizable (cf. v. 7b) and (2) sin uses the law to make sin more sinful by either provoking the rebellious desire to pursue that which is prohibited (cf. v. 8a) or deceiving individuals into believing they can secure a righteous verdict by fulfilling the law through self-effort (cf. v. 11).[\[26\]](#_ftn26) In other words, sin opportunistically uses the law to provoke and deceive to make sin even worse than before. The observation of repetition again shows up in verse 13 as Paul’s rhetorical question mirrors the question in verse 7. However, in this case, repetition may be less involved in emphasis, and, per Richard Longenecker, more involved in highlighting the fact that Paul has not completed his response, which provides the impetus for verses 14-25.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) ### **The Believer and the Law (7:14-25)** *For we know that the law is spiritual, but I am of the flesh, sold under sin. For I do not understand my own actions. For I do not do what I want, but I do the very thing I hate. Now if I do what I do not want, I agree with the law, that it is good. So now it is no longer I who do it, but sin that dwells within me. For I know that nothing good dwells in me, that is, in my flesh. For I have the desire to do what is right, but not the ability to carry it out. For I do not do the good I want, but the evil I do not want is what I keep on doing. Now if I do what I do not want, it is no longer I who do it, but sin that dwells within me. So I find it to be a law that when I want to do right, evil lies close at hand. For I delight in the law of God, in my inner being, but I see in my members another law waging war against the law of my mind and making me captive to the law of sin that dwells in my members. Wretched man that I am! Who will deliver me from this body of death?**25** Thanks be to God through Jesus Christ our Lord! So then, I myself serve the law of God with my mind, but with my flesh I serve the law of sin.* ### **The Flesh and the Believer (vv. 14-16)** Before continuing a verse-by-verse analysis, another significant interpretive conundrum needs addressed. The analysis of verses 7-13 concluded that the “I” referred autobiographically to Paul’s pre-converted self. However, the interpretive question that remains is whether the “I” in verses 14-25 is regenerate or unregenerate. Morris provides four primary arguments supporting the regenerate view: (1) the verbs move from aorist tense in 7-12 to the present tense in 14-25, (2) the overall context of chapters 5-8 is not of an unbeliever, (3) the language of desiring good (v. 18), hating evil (vv. 15, 19), and thanking “God through Jesus Christ our Lord” (v. 25) indicates a believer, (4) and the Christian life is victorious, but not without conflict (cf. 1 Cor. 9:27; 1 Tim. 1:15; Gal. 5:16-17).[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Alternatively, Morris provides three primary arguments supporting the unregenerate view: (1) the Holy Spirit is not mentioned, (2) the language of “nothing good lives in me” (v. 18), “wretched man” (v. 24), and “slave to sin” (v. 14) does not represent a Christian, and (3) the “now” in 8:1 is Paul’s transition to referencing believers.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) Both perspectives provide reasonable arguments. However, grammatically moving from aorist to present tense, the literary context of the Christian’s victory in Christ in chapter 8 (cf. Rom. 8:2), as well as the anthropological reality of battling sin, which is accentuated throughout the Pauline corpus (cf. Gal. 5:16-17; Eph. 6:13, 16; Phil. 3:12), appear to support a regenerate view of the individual. Accordingly, the remainder of the study assumes the “I” as a regenerate individual, namely Paul, struggling with sin. Paul continues in verse 14 by providing his strongest defense of the law’s goodness by stating, “For we know that the law is spiritual.” Cranfield explains that the adjective, πνευματικός, speaks of the law’s divine origin, authority, and inability to be practiced absent from its Source.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Also in verse 14, the reader first encounters the present tense verb shift (είμι) that supports a regenerate “I”. The reader also encounters another important observation where Paul uses contrast to juxtapose the spiritual law against the non-spiritual self by stating, “But I am of flesh, sold under sin.” Regarding the first phrase, “but I am of flesh,” Longenecker points out that flesh (σάρκινός) is a substantival adjective and is better translated, “I am fleshly.”[\[31\]](#_ftn31) Morris correctly aligns with the literary context when asserting that fleshly connotes a weakness of mankind that allows sin to occur when attacked by its opportunistic power (cf. vv. 8, 10).[\[32\]](#_ftn32) Regarding the second phrase, “sold under sin,” many commentators assume this undermines the argument for a regenerate “I”. However, Dunn rightly suggests that Paul is introducing an “eschatological tension” where a “now and not yet” anthropology exists – redemption has certainly “now” begun, but is “not yet” complete.”[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Dunn’s integration of inaugurated eschatology will soon come to full fruition in verse 17. For now, it is sufficient to recognize that due to the “I” having a “not yet” reality, the believer continues to have the potential to be controlled by sin like a slave sold under a master’s control, which also fits nicely with the tension-filled literary context of chapter 6. Paul now pens the famous words of verse 15, “For I do not understand my own actions. For I do not do what I want, but I do the very thing I hate.” Morris notes that “for” (γὰρ) connects the slavery language of verse 14 to verse 15, highlighting that sin still has the potential to control the action of the “I”.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) Paul then continues, “Now if I do what I do not want, I agree with the law, that it is good” (v. 16). In other words, the fact Paul willfully desires to do good, suggests that Paul finds the law is beautiful (καλός). Paul now, once again, turns to identifying the culprit behind the angst. ### **The Sin of the Believer (vv. 17-20)** Paul again personifies sin by stating in verse 17, “So now it is no longer I who do it, but sin that dwells within me.” It is here that the discontinuance of the two epochs, old way and new way, within the literary context of 7:1-6 sets the stage for Paul highlighting their continuance. Dunn points out that Paul is not suggesting a dualistic “I” where the “I” could somehow relinquish responsibility for abhorrent acts, but instead, the “I” is split in the sense that it is “divided between my belonging to Christ and my belonging to this age.”[\[35\]](#_ftn35) In other words, the “I” has an anthropological reality “now” in Christ (the “I” in Christ), but the “I” also has a “not yet” fleshly or non-spiritual reality (the fleshly “I”) that is doing wrong because of the influence of the militant external force of sin. Accordingly, Paul can say in verse 18, “For I know that nothing good dwells in me, that is in my flesh.” In other words, nothing good dwells in the non-spiritual “I”. For the remainder of verse 18 through 20, the reader encounters another important observation where Paul uses repetition to reinforce the content of verses 14-17 prior to addressing the issue of how sin specifically deceives the flesh. ### **The Mind of the Believer (vv. 21-25)** Before focusing on Paul’s conclusion, the five uses of the word “law” in verses 21-23 need addressed. The word νόμος in chapter 7 and throughout much of the Pauline corpus pertains to the Mosaic law. However, Longenecker recognizes that the historical-cultural context of the letter addresses Gentiles in Rome who would be familiar with the common use of νόμος as a “rule” or “principle” of society.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) Accordingly, Paul acknowledges in verses 21-22 a basic principle of life – that evil “lies close at hand,” and although he “delights in the law of God” in his “inner” being (the “I” in Christ), another war rages. In contrast with the inner being, Everett Harrison and Donald Hagner refer to the fleshly “I” as the “outward man,” which is the location of the militant operation of sin.[\[37\]](#_ftn37) In verse 23, Paul identifies the proximity of the war that makes him captive to the law of sin – “the law of my mind.” Mounce explains the “law of my mind” refers to the principle of rational thought, which is attacked by the alien power of sin that, at times, takes Paul captive to the law of sin that is at work in his fleshly “I”.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) Accordingly, the method sin uses to deceive is to attack the mind in order to negatively influence the fleshly “I”. Paul now describes the anguish of being controlled by sin in the fleshly “I” and cries out in verse 24, “Wretched man that I am! Who will deliver me from this body of death?” The plain meaning of “wretched” describes Paul’s despair in his fleshly “I”, but according to Dunn, the historical-cultural context of extra-biblical material suggests that “wretched” can also “describe the state of a man pulled in two directions” (see Epictetus 1.3.5).[\[39\]](#_ftn39) By now, the two directions are obvious – the effect of sin on the fleshly “I” seeking death pitted against the freedom associated with the “I” in Christ. The tension between the two leads Paul to ask, “Who will deliver me free from this body of death?” (v. 24). Paul then answers his own question by exclaiming, “Thanks be to God through Jesus Christ our Lord” (v. 25). Barrett correctly comments that the deliverance must only come through a new creation status in Christ, not the law (cf. Gal. 3:21; 6:15; 2 Cor. 5:17).[\[40\]](#_ftn40) Paul then concludes verse 25 by stating, “So then, I myself serve the law of God with my mind, but with my flesh I serve the law of sin.” Cranfield highlights the continued battle with sin by asserting that verse 25, “Sums up with clear-sighted honesty” the tension between real hopefulness and the anguish of sin “in which the Christian never ceases to be involved so long as he is living this present life.”[\[41\]](#_ftn41) ### **Application** The potential applications of Romans 7 are vast, but from a pastoral counseling and discipleship ministry perspective, the impact of the theological principle of identity formation in Christ is difficult to ignore. Paul addresses the issue in verse 17, “So now it is no longer I who do it, but sin that dwells within me.” Paul’s language assists in anthropologically comprehending an identity that is both free of condemnation (the “I” in Christ) (cf. Rom. 8:1) and, simultaneously, fully engaged in a battle with sin (the fleshly “I”). Dunn clarifies the split-self stating, “Sin cannot touch me in my belongingness to Christ, but sin still holds sway over the world to which ‘I’ still belong as a man of flesh.”[\[42\]](#_ftn42) In fact, not only can sin not touch the “I” in Christ, it is this “I” that empowers victory over sin in the fleshly “I”. For example, believers often attempt to find their identity in the world of job performance, other people’s opinions, and even ministry success. Accordingly, when job, people, or ministry falters, the emotional and spiritual life will necessarily collapse under the weight of a crushed identity that equates self with the faltering objects, which then often leads to sin (e.g. substance abuse) to mask the pain. Alternatively, if, through the renewal of the mind (cf. Rom. 12:2), one acknowledges that the “I” in Christ is an anthropological reality, the identity crisis is averted. When the objects of identity falter, the self is not crushed because the self is not attached to the objects. Instead, the self is attached to an identity in Christ, thus averts sin and moves toward emotional and spiritual health. Dunn observes the risk of ignoring the anthropological reality of the “I” in Christ by explaining that anyone who lives “in terms of their attachment to and dependence on this world, the more certain they can be that they are living on sin’s terms.”[\[43\]](#_ftn43) Accordingly, a detachment of identity *from* the world, and an attachment *to* an identity in Christ, through the illumination of the Spirit, frees the believer from the power of sin. Finally, it is important to note that the application fits well the literary context of chapter 6, where the tension between the “now” and “not yet” is introduced, the beginning of chapter 7, where Paul highlights the discontinuance from the present age, as well chapter 8, which proclaims victory in Christ. ### **Conclusion** Paul’s words in Romans 7 have vexed scholars for centuries. The research presented a brief overview of the context of Rom. 7:7-25 followed by an exegetical study of the passage. Within the study, the research furnished various scholarly arguments attempting to identify the “I” as well as the salvific state of the “I”. It has been determined that Paul’s upbringing, personal language, and absence of specific reference to alternative views support an autobiographical “I”. Furthermore, the shift in tenses, literary context, and anthropological reality of a continued battle with sin, support a regenerate state of the “I” in verses 14-25. Based on the evidence provided, it appears that Romans 7:7-25 is an autobiographical account emphasizing that Christian’s live in a battle with sin. Finally, a relevant application of the passage to the Christian life pertains to recognizing that the “I” in Christ empowers victory over sin. A fascinating area for further study may include an inter-disciplinary exploration of the relationship between the identity of “I” in Christ, its battle with sin, and the renewing of the mind and recent research in cognitive psychology, especially addictions counseling. ### **Bibliography** Barrett, C. K. *The Epistle to the Romans*. Black’s New Testament Commentary. Rev. ed. London: Continuum, 1991. Cranfield, C. E. B. *A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans*. International Critical Commentary. London: T&T Clark International, 2004. Dunn, James D. G. *Romans 1-8*. Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 38A. Dallas: Word, 1998. Harrison, Everett F., and Donald A. Hagner. “Romans.” In *The Expositor’s Bible Commentary*, edited by Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland. Rev. ed. Vol. 11. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008. Käsemann, Ernst. *Commentary on Romans*. Translated and edited by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1980. Kittel, Gerhard, Geoffrey W. Bromiley, and Gerhard Friedrich, eds. *Theological Dictionary of the New Testament*. Vol. 5. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964. Longenecker, Richard N. *The Epistle to the Romans: A Commentary on the Greek Text*. Edited by Howard Marshall and Donald A. Hagner. New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2016. Middendorf, Michael P. *The “I” in the Storm*. Saint Louis: Concordia Academic, 1997. Moo, Douglass J. *The Epistle to the Romans*. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996. Morris, Leon. *The Epistle to the Romans*. The Pillar New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans, 1988. Mounce, Robert. *Romans*. The New American Commentary, vol. 27. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995. Osborne, Grant R. “The Flesh without the Spirit: Romans 7 and Christian Experience.” In *Perspectives on Our Struggle with Sin: 3 Views of Romans 7*, edited by Terry L. Wilder. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2011. Schreiner, Thomas. *Romans*. Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament, vol. 6. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998. Stott, John R. W. *The Message of Romans: God’s Good News for the World*. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2001. ### **References** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Leon Morris, *The Epistle to the Romans*, The Pillar New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans, 1988), 2. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 5. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Douglass J. Moo, *The Epistle to the Romans*, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996), 14. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 29. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 28–29. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Unless otherwise indicated, all Scripture quotations are from The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®, copyright © 2016 by Crossway Bibles, a division of Good News Publishers. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) James D. G. Dunn, *Romans 1-8*, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 38A (Dallas: Word, 1998), 406. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Grant R. Osborne, “The Flesh without the Spirit: Romans 7 and Christian Experience,” in *Perspectives on Our Struggle with Sin: 3 Views of Romans 7*, ed. Terry L. Wilder (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2011), 7. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Thomas Schreiner, *Romans*, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament, vol. 6 (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998), 359. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Dunn, *Romans 1-8*, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 38A, 379. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Gerhard Kittel, Geoffrey W. Bromiley, and Gerhard Friedrich, eds., *Theological Dictionary of the New Testament* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964), 5:468. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) C. K. Barrett, *The Epistle to the Romans*, Black’s New Testament Commentary, rev. ed. (London: Continuum, 1991), 134. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ernst Käsemann, *Commentary on Romans*, ed. and trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1980), 196. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Schreiner, *Romans*, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament, vol. 6, 361. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Moo, *The Epistle to the Romans*, The New International Commentary on the New Testament, 426–31. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Schreiner, *Romans*, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament, vol. 6, 362–63. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Moo, *The Epistle to the Romans*, The New International Commentary on the New Testament, 426–27. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Michael P. Middendorf, *The “I” in the Storm* (Saint Louis: Concordia Academic, 1997), 153. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) John R. W. Stott, *The Message of Romans: God’s Good News for the World* (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2001), 199. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Schreiner, *Romans*, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament, vol. 6, 364. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Moo, *The Epistle to the Romans*, The New International Commentary on the New Testament, 440. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Dunn, *Romans 1-8*, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 38A, 385. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Middendorf, *The “I” in the Storm*, 83. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Ibid., 85. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Dunn, *Romans 1-8*, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 38A, 401. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Moo, *The Epistle to the Romans*, The New International Commentary on the New Testament, 452–53. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Richard N. Longenecker, *The Epistle to the Romans: A Commentary on the Greek Text*, New International Greek Testament Commentary, ed. Howard Marshall and Donald A. Hagner (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2016), 643. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Morris, *The Epistle to the Romans*, The Pillar New Testament Commentary, 285–86. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Ibid., 286–87. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) C. E. B. Cranfield, *A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans*, International Critical Commentary (London: T&T Clark International, 2004), 355–56. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Longenecker, *The Epistle to the Romans: A Commentary on the Greek Text*, New International Greek Testament Commentary, 662. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Morris, *The Epistle to the Romans*, The Pillar New Testament Commentary, 290–91. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Dunn, *Romans 1-8*, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 38A, 406. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Morris, *The Epistle to the Romans*, The Pillar New Testament Commentary, 291–92. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Dunn, *Romans 1-8*, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 38A, 408. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Longenecker, *The Epistle to the Romans: A Commentary on the Greek Text*, New International Greek Testament Commentary, 666. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Everett F. Harrison and Donald A. Hagner, “Romans,” in *The Expositor’s Bible Commentary*, ed. Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland, rev. ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008), 11:123. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Robert Mounce, *Romans*, The New American Commentary, vol. 27 (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995), 170. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) Dunn, *Romans 1-8*, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 38A, 396. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Barrett, *The Epistle to the Romans*, Black’s New Testament Commentary, rev. ed., 142. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) Cranfield, *A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans*, 369. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Dunn, *Romans 1-8*, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 38A, 408. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Ibid., 409. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Stages of Discipleship](https://www.livestransforming.com/stages-of-discipleship/) **Published:** July 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # **Stages of Discipleship** In your thread, analyze and summarize the 3 stages of discipleship. Give ideas and suggestions for each stage and discuss how you plan to develop and implement those ideas in your church ministry context. [![Center Church Doing Balanced Gospel Centered Ministry in Your City 182x300 - Stages of Discipleship](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Center-Church-Doing-Balanced-Gospel-Centered-Ministry-in-Your-City-182x300.jpg "Stages of Discipleship - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4cecQEA)Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City ### **Response** Discipleship is a process, not an event. Dave Earley asserts that the process of discipleship occurs in three stages: (1) win the lost, (2) grow disciples, and (3) multiply disciples.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) First, Earley explains that winning the lost is a process of sharing the gospel in a way that leads to the event of salvation.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) To win the lost, the disciple maker must first know the gospel, and then know how to share the gospel. The former may be the most challenging. Anecdotally, this morning I noticed a post in a Christian Facebook group where someone asked, “What is the gospel?” Mayhem ensued. According to N. T. Wright, modern Christians continue to moralize and Platonize the gospel message by focusing on keeping rules and going to heaven.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) However, once the gospel is understood as a new creation status in Christ through God’s gift of righteousness (cf. 2 Cor 5:17-21; Rom 3:21-18, 5:17), the opportunities and motivation for sharing the gospel with Christians and non-Christians are inexhaustible. William Fay provides a simple, yet highly effective, approach regarding how to share the gospel in a post-modern society by using inquiry and Scripture.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The second stage is growing disciples. Earley suggests that once an individual is won to Christ, the believer then needs to be taught to obey all of Jesus’s commands.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Furthermore, Earley contends that the method for discipleship involves asking God for disciples, building relationships with them, inviting them into a small group, providing ministry opportunities, and praying for them.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Regarding ministry activity, Earley suggests that disciple-making may be ineffective if disciples are “not *forced* into an environment where they must minister to others.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) However, the gathering of a small group of believers who are forced into ministry activity through prayer is not, in and of itself, an effective approach. First, small group environments have the potential to be quite toxic, and even undermine the gospel, especially when religion or moralism dominate.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Second, the *Reveal* study claims, “Involvement in church activities does not predict or drive long-term spiritual growth.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Alternatively, discipleship is primarily about being transformed into the image of Christ by believing, thinking, feeling, and acting like Christ (cf. 1 Cor 11:1). The question remains as to how a new believer is transformed into His image. First, the disciple-maker assists the disciplee in discovering areas of life that need addressed through inquiry and empathy. One method of discovery is to have the disciplee read Galatians 5:16-26 and identify unhealthy emotions and actions that are not in alignment with the fruit of the Spirit. Second, the discipler asks the disciplee to identify (take captive) the belief or thought that is leading to the unhealthy emotion or action (cf. 2 Cor 10:5). Third, once the beliefs or thoughts are taken captive, the discipler, through empathy and inquiry, helps the disciplee compare the thoughts with the truth of Scripture (cf. John 8:32) and where the thoughts do not align, a new thought is identified. Finally, the truth of God transforms the emotions and actions of the disciplee as he or she focuses or meditates on the new thought, which is aligned with truth (cf. Rom 12:2). The truth ultimately sets the believer free to believe, think, feel, and act like Christ (cf. John 17:17). The third stage is multiplying disciples. Earley suggests that making disciples consists of grasping the teachings of Christ, regularly meeting with “faithful men,” doing ministry together, and deploying men into ministry by keeping them focused.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Multiplying disciples is certainly not less than the list provided by Earley, but ultimately without a method of facilitating transformation, the steps of meeting and doing are powerless. Accordingly, once a disciplee experiences the process of transformation through the renewing of the mind on God’s transforming truth, the same methods of inquiry and empathy that facilitated his or her transformation must be taught and deployed by the disciplee to multiply disciples. The ministry context I am involved with is a non-profit [discipleship coaching](https://www.livestransforming.com/disciple-making-plan/) and counseling organization called Lives Transforming. Upon reflection of the three stages, the second stage is fully deployed with hundreds of individuals in personal and group sessions each month. However, stage one and stage three need to be developed to a greater degree. First, regarding evangelism, the primary focus of the ministry is believers. Accordingly, the organization needs to identify ways of engaging non-Christians into the coaching and counseling process and each coach and counselor needs trained with Fay’s method of evangelism. Additionally, stage three also needs developed. Currently, the focus of our coaches and counselors is on discipleship–God’s transformation of believers. However, although the organization has deployed extensive training to discipleship coaches and counselors, the same training must be extended to those believers being discipled to maximize multiplication efforts. ### **Bibliography** Earley, Dave, and Rod Dempsey. *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013. Fay, William, and Linda Evans Shepherd. *Share Jesus without Fear*. Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999. Hawkins, Greg, and Cally Parkinson. *Reveal: Where Are You?* Barrington, IL: Willow Creek Association, 2007. Keller, Tim. *Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Wright, N. T. *The Day the Revolution Began: Reconsidering the Meaning of Jesus’s Crucifixion*. San Francisco: HarperOne, 2016. [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Dave Earley and Rod Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013), 126–30. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 130–31. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) N. T. Wright, *The Day the Revolution Began: Reconsidering the Meaning of Jesus’s Crucifixion* (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2016), 99, 146–47. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) William Fay and Linda Evans Shepherd, *Share Jesus without Fear* (Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999), 29–56. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Earley and Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is*, 147. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 147–52. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 126 (emphasis added). [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) See Tim Keller, *Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 63–71. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Greg Hawkins and Cally Parkinson, *Reveal: Where Are You?* (Barrington, IL: Willow Creek Association, 2007), 33. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Earley and Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is*, 157–63. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Define and Describe Discipleship](https://www.livestransforming.com/define-and-describe-discipleship/) **Published:** July 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # **Define and Describe “Discipleship”** Synthesize the readings from the Dempsey & Earley and Putman et al. textbooks and give 3 characteristics of a follower of Jesus Christ. Create your own definition of a follower of Jesus; use Scripture to support your definition. ### **Response** Defining discipleship faces the same challenge as defining terms such as parenting. The definition of parenting far surpasses the process of gestation and includes changing diapers, fixing meals, going to soccer games, and helping with homework, but that is just the tip of the iceberg. Similarly, Rod Dempsey attempts to define the word “disciple” by identifying ten traits: (1) one who considers the cost, (2) loves others, (3) abides in Christ and bears fruit, (4) continues in the Word and experiences freedom, (5) follows Christ’s desires, (6) makes disciples, as well as one who is (7) committed, (8) sacrificial, (9) willing to give up possessions, and (10) full of the Holy Spirit.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) However, the relational aspect of the word, much like parenting, defies the ability to ever comprehensively define it via traits. Dempsey then distills the traits into three characteristics of a follower of Jesus Christ by suggesting a disciple is sacrificial, relational, and transformational in thought, attitude, and action.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Jim Putman, Bobby Harrington, and Robert Coleman attempt to define discipleship by using Matthew 4:19, and suggest that “follow me” represents the acceptance of Christ at a head level, “and I will make you” represents a transformation at the heart level, and “fishers of men” represents a change in one’s actions or hands.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Dempsey’s full definition of discipleship provides several important elements of discipleship, but it primarily focuses on the individual who trusts, surrenders, commits, and develops their potential for Christ. [\[4\]](#_ftn4) However, the core of discipleship is not primarily about the individual, the traits of an individual, or the effort of an individual. Instead, discipleship is [about the gospel](https://www.livestransforming.com/a-basic-understanding-the-gospels/), which is what Christ has provided *for* the believer – a new birth and identity accepted in Christ (cf. John 3:1-8; 2 Cor 5:17; Eph 1:11-14; Col 2:9-10). Joel Green suggests the discipleship language in Luke 14:25-27 is a call of Jesus for “the reconstruction of one’s identity, not along ancestral lines or on the basis of one’s social status, but within the new community.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) In other words, discipleship begins with a deep-seated *belief* that claims a new identity completely accepted in Christ, which undermines the power of idols to deceptively convince humans that acceptance, approval, and goodness can be found in such things as money (cf. Luke 14:33), self (cf. Lk. 14:27), and other people such as parents, spouses, and children (cf. Luke 14:26). [![Dynamics of Spiritual Life An Evangelical Theology of Renewal 1 182x300 - Define and Describe Discipleship](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Dynamics-of-Spiritual-Life-An-Evangelical-Theology-of-Renewal-1-182x300.jpg "Define and Describe Discipleship - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4l5Dy6e)Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal The appropriation of the gospel provides the foundation for ongoing growth as God transforms the disciple as they place their thoughts on God’s truth as opposed to the lies of the enemy (cf. Rom 12:1-2; Eph 6:10-12, 16). Aligning beliefs and thoughts with God’s truth result in the fruit of the Spirit of truth (cf. John 16:13) for those who “belong to Christ Jesus” (Gal 5:22-24). In other words, the emotions of strife and jealously dissipate (cf. Gal 5:19-21) as God’s truth of acceptance sets the believer free (cf. John 8:32) to experience love, joy, peace, etc. (cf. Gal 5:22) as the believer’s *identity* detaches from the false hope of the idols. Finally, the result of the *fruit of the Spirit* is complete *obedience* to Christ in word and deed as the disciple lives and walks by the Spirit (cf. Gal 5:25). At this point, Richard Lovelace’s assertion crystallizes the point, “The justifying work of Christ…will produce increasing sanctification” (cf. Rom 3:21-25; 4:22-25; 5:16-17).[\[6\]](#_ftn6) In other words, justification and sanctification are inextricably linked. Accordingly, a potential definition of a disciple is a person whose *beliefs* appropriate the justifying work of Christ, which forges an *identity* in Christ that allows God’s truth to *transform* his or her thoughts resulting in an emotional life exemplified by *fruit of the Spirit* that culminates in a transformed life of *obedience* in word and deed – sanctification. ### **Bibliography** Earley, Dave, and Rod Dempsey. *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013. Green, Joel B. *The Gospel of Luke*. The New International Commentary of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1997. Lovelace, Richard F. *Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1979. Putman, Jim, Bobby Harrington, and Robert E. Coleman. *DiscipleShift*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013. [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Dave Earley and Rod Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013), 22–26. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 26–27. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Jim Putman, Bobby Harrington, and Robert E. Coleman, *DiscipleShift* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 47–50. Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *New American Standard Bible* (La Habra, CA: Lockman Foundation, 1995). [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Earley and Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence*, 28. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Joel B. Green, *The Gospel of Luke*, The New International Commentary of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1997), 565. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Richard F. Lovelace, *Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1979), 101. **Categories:** Research Brief --- ### [Christ in Discipleship](https://www.livestransforming.com/christ-in-discipleship/) **Published:** July 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## **Christ in Discipleship** ### **Introduction** For almost two millennia, from Augustine to N. T. Wright, scholars and laymen alike have struggled with the nature of Christ’s involvement in the process of Christian discipleship. The question of how Christ is central to Christian discipleship continues to be debated. However, without a clear understanding of the centrality of Christ, Christianity risks landing into a form of religious moralism indistinct from other religions. This brief analysis shows that Christ, not man, is the central figure of Christian discipleship as the source of both justification and sanctification of the disciple. The result of the centrality of Christ is comprehensive obedience that follows a pattern of regeneration, transformation, and multiplication, which culminates in helping other disciples take steps of obedience by following the example of Christ’s earthly ministry. [![Dynamics of Spiritual Life An Evangelical Theology of Renewal 1 182x300 - Christ in Discipleship](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Dynamics-of-Spiritual-Life-An-Evangelical-Theology-of-Renewal-1-182x300.jpg "Christ in Discipleship - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4l5Dy6e)Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal ### **Centrality of Christ** As the central figure of Christian discipleship, Christ moves beyond important and becomes the source of discipleship–both the justification and sanctification of the disciple. First, Christ is the central figure as the source of the justification. Per Bauer’s Lexicon (BDAG), to justify (δικαιόω) means to “be pronounced and treated as righteous.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The Apostle Paul explains that the righteousness (δικαιοσύνη) of a disciple occurs “by His \[God’s\] grace as a gift, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus” (Rom 3:24-25).[\[2\]](#_ftn2) In other words, as Dietrich Bonhoeffer explains, Christ is righteousness personified, and since disciples participate in Christ’s death and resurrection (cf. Gal 2:20; Rom 6:4-5), righteousness is granted to them whereby the “righteousness of Christ is really also the disciples’ righteousness.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Bonhoeffer rightly abhorred the German Lutheran contortion of righteousness that rendered it an abstract principle condoning disobedience to avoid a works-based theology.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) However, modern Protestants may commit the opposite error by completely ignoring the reality of righteousness altogether and, as Richard Lovelace observes, “rely on their sanctification for justification.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) In sum, discipleship begins, but does not end, with the foundational act of Christ’s justifying work on the cross that renders the believer righteous through the forgiveness of sins. Second, Christ is the central figure as the source of sanctification of the disciple. According to BDAG, sanctification (ἁγιασμός) means “personal dedication to the interests of the deity, holiness… (the state of being made holy).”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The Apostle Paul states that “because of Him \[God\] you are in Christ Jesus, who became to us wisdom from God, righteousness and sanctification and redemption” (1 Cor 1:30). Commenting on 1 Corinthians 1:30, Gordon Fee explains that Paul’s reference to Christ becoming wisdom for us “means He \[God\] has made Him \[Christ\] to become for us the one who redeems from sin *and leads to holiness*.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Accordingly, Christ is the central figure of both justification and sanctification. In Bonhoeffer’s book, *Discipleship*, he explains how obedience reflects discipleship by highlighting the recurrent theme that justification and sanctification cannot be divorced without undermining both.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Specifically Bonhoeffer states, “only the believers obey, and only the obedient believe.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) If discipleship targets the former (justification) to the exclusion of the latter (sanctification), it risks cheap grace, if discipleship targets the latter (sanctification) to the exclusion of the former (justification), it risks a works-based theology.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Both alternatives reject God, if applied exclusively. Bonhoeffer explains that cheap grace (justification to the exclusion of sanctification) is a form of relativism or paganism that exists with a “justification of sin without the justification of the repentant sinner who departs from sin and from whom sin departs….Cheap grace is the grace we bestow on ourselves.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Alternatively, according to Tim Keller, sanctification to the exclusion of justification results in a form of religious moralism that avoids “God as lord and Savior by developing a moral righteousness and then presenting it to God.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) With Barthian overtones, Bonhoeffer agrees with Keller by stating “religion and morality can become…the most dangerous enemy of the Christian message of good news.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Accordingly, obedience that reflects the discipleship of Christ must encompass the indivisible appropriation of both justification and sanctification. The areas of life that a disciple must submit to Christ are anthropologically sweeping. Paul highlights the comprehensive nature of submission by stating, “Now may the God of peace himself sanctify you completely, and may your whole spirit and soul and body be kept blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Thess 5:23). Michael Heiser explains that the wording of 1 Thessalonians 5:23 “expresses totality of being, not distinct parts.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) In other words, the whole personhood of the disciple, inner and outer, must be in submission to Christ. Specifically, the beliefs (cf. Gal 3:22), thoughts (cf. Rom 12:2; 2 Cor 10:5), emotions (cf. Gal 5:22-23), and actions (cf. John 14:15; 2 John 1:6; Jas 1:25) of the disciple must all be in submission to Christ. ### **Three Stages of Discipleship** While referencing A. B. Bruce’s book, *The Training of the Twelve*, Dave Earley suggests the three stages of discipleship are declaration, development, and deployment that result in regeneration, transformation, and multiplication.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Earley explains that the first stage, regeneration, is a “process leading to an event”–a process that starts with curiosity that leads to conviction until the seeker is convinced to turn toward God for conversion.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) The process ultimately culminates in a new birth of the individual (cf. John 3:1-8), a new creation status in Christ (cf. 2 Cor 5:17), who is loved by God (cf. 1 John 3:1) as a son or daughter of God (cf. Gal 3:26) that accepts the gift of Christ’s righteousness (cf. Rom 5:17). The second stage of discipleship is transformation. Earley suggests that stage two begins by developing a deeper relationship with Christ through prayer and engaging in community, Scripture, and ministry.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Earley is correct that prayer, community, Scripture, and ministry are integral parts of discipleship. However, none of these practices, in and of themselves, have the power to transform. In fact, all can be used to reject God. For example, believers can use prayer to pursue selfish agendas, use community to fulfill personal insecurity (cf. Luke 14:26), use Scripture to deceive (cf. Luke 4:9-11), and use ministry success to glorify self. Furthermore, Keller explains that obedience to these items also has the potential to reject God by promoting a theology of moralism “in an effort to show that he (God) ‘owes’ you.”[\[18\]](#_ftn18) The Apostle Paul explains that transformation occurs through the “renewal of your mind” (Rom 12:2). More specifically, the mind renewed with God’s truth is what transforms the disciple, which can occur through prayer, community, Scripture, and ministry. In the Gospel of John, Jesus states, “If you abide in my word, you are truly my disciples, and you will know the truth, and the truth will set you free” (John 8:31-32). Commenting on John 8:31-32, F. F. Bruce states, “False belief holds the minds of men and women in bondage; truth liberates them. Truth by its very nature cannot be imposed by external compulsion, nor can it be validated by anything other than itself.”[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Thus, transformation occurs by the renewing of the mind on God’s truth in an environment of prayer, community, Scripture, and ministry. Mind renewal ultimately results in the fruit of the Spirit of Truth as well as actions of obedient love–a transformed life. The third [stage of discipleship](https://www.livestransforming.com/stages-of-discipleship/) is multiplication. Earley suggests that stage three calls disciples to “intentional global commissioning,” not as something done for God or an activity of the institutional church, but by “getting in sync with the heart of God and cooperating with the activity of God.”[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Earley also notes that Christ sends all disciples, and all disciples must immediately start in their current culture.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) It is difficult to imagine not sharing the gospel once a disciple is freed by God’s truth and experiences the righteousness of Christ, the love of God, the fruit of the Spirit, and restored relationships through actions of obedient love. To keep one’s freedom in Christ a secret would be a complete affront to humanity. The three stages of discipleship work together in a transformative spiral. Once regeneration occurs, it is easy for a disciple to forget “that he was cleansed from his former sins” (2 Pet. 1:9). When the belief eludes disciples, Peter explains that they need reminded of their purification even though they already know it and the truth is present in them (2 Pet 1:12). Furthermore, as lies from the enemy (John 8:44) attack, the attack must be countered through transformational mind-renewal (Rom 12:2). Thus, Paul asserts that disciples must destroy “speculations and every lofty thing raised up against the knowledge of God” and take “every thought captive to the obedience of Christ” (2 Cor 10:5). Accordingly, disciplers must go and remind believers of their purification of sins (regenerate status) and assist believers in the renewal of their mind on God’s truth (transformative process), within an environment of prayer, community, Scripture, and ministry, which necessarily results in the fruit of the Spirit and obedient acts of love. ### **Assisting in Obedient Steps** The question of how the discipler helps disciples take steps of obedience remains. Jesus modeled several strategies to help disciples align beliefs, thoughts, emotions, and actions with His truth, which moved disciples toward obedience. First, Jesus extended empathy and listened. John explains that Jesus’s entire life was a form of divine empathy as “the Word became flesh and dwelt among us” (John 1:14). Jesus famously exemplified empathy and listening when he broke down ethnic and gender barriers by drinking a glass of water with the Samaritan woman at the well and deeply understood her. The woman leaves by saying, “Come, see a man who told me all that I ever did,” in other words; He knows me! (John 4:29). Second, Jesus told stories because He knew that many of his disciples did not truly see, hear, or understand what He was saying (Matt 13:13). Namely, Jesus told stories to facilitate understanding. Third, Jesus asked questions to facilitate the discovery of truth. In fact, the four Gospels record over 100 of Jesus’s inquiries (cf. Matt 5:46-47; 6:27-28; 7:3). Fourth, Jesus confronted. For example, when Peter questions Jesus’s purpose, Jesus rebukes him (cf. Matthew 16:21-23). Confrontation is effective when a high level of relational trust exists, otherwise confrontation leads to defensiveness, which often pushes the disciple deeper into sin. Finally, Jesus forgives and restores. In John 18:15-18, Peter denies Jesus, yet Jesus models forgiveness and restoration in John 21:15-19. ### **Conclusion** This brief analysis has shown that Christ, not man, is the central figure of Christian discipleship as the source of both justification and sanctification interdependently woven into the tapestry of every disciple. The result of Christ’s work is comprehensive obedience that encompasses the entire spectrum of human life: beliefs, thoughts, emotions, and actions. Accordingly, the believer obediently lives out Christ’s work in a pattern of progressive discipleship: regeneration, transformation, and finally, multiplication. During the final stage of discipleship, believers help other disciples take steps of obedience by following the example of Christ’s earthly ministry of listening, extending empathy, telling stories, asking questions, confronting, as well as forgiving and restoring. Without question, the example of Christ’s earthly ministry offers concrete practical steps for all modern day disciplers. ### **Bibliography** Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. *Barcelona, Berlin, New York: 1928-1931*. Edited by Clifford J. Green, Reinhart Staats, Hans Christoph von Hase, Holger Roggelin, and Matthias Wünsche. Translated by Douglas W. Stott. Vol. 10. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2008. ———. *The Cost of Discipleship*. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1959. ———. *Discipleship*. Edited by Geffrey B. Kelly and John D. Godsey. Translated by Barbara Green and Reinhard Krauss. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003. Bruce, F. F. *The Gospel of John: Introduction, Exposition and Notes*. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1983. Earley, Dave, and Rod Dempsey. *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013. Fee, Gordon D. *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1987. Heiser, Michael S. *The 60 Second Scholar: 100 Observations on Bible Doctrine*. Silver Spring, MD: CAM, 2015. Keller, Tim. *Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Lovelace, Richard F. *Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1979. [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) William Arndt, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer, *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature* (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 249. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008)*.* [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Dietrich Bonhoeffer, *Discipleship*, ed. Geffrey B. Kelly and John D. Godsey, trans. Barbara Green and Reinhard Krauss (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003), 119–20. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 11–12. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Richard F. Lovelace, *Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1979), 101. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Arndt, Danker, and Bauer, *A Greek-English Lexicon*, 10. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Gordon D. Fee, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1987), 87 (emphasis added). [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Bonhoeffer, *Discipleship*, 5. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 63. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 67. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Dietrich Bonhoeffer, *The Cost of Discipleship* (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1959), 44. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Tim Keller, *Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 63. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Dietrich Bonhoeffer, *Barcelona, Berlin, New York: 1928-1931*, ed. Clifford J. Green, Reinhart Staats, Hans Christoph von Hase, Holger Roggelin, and Matthias Wünsche, trans. Douglas W. Stott (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2008), 10:353. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Michael S. Heiser, *The 60 Second Scholar: 100 Observations on Bible Doctrine* (Silver Spring, MD: CAM, 2015), 25. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Dave Earley and Rod Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013), 59-60. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid., 64–66. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Ibid., 68. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Keller, *Center Church*, 63. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) F. F. Bruce, *The Gospel of John: Introduction, Exposition and Notes* (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1983), 196–97. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Earley and Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is*, 78. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Ibid., 80–83. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Spheres and Stages of Discipleship](https://www.livestransforming.com/spheres-and-stages-of-discipleship/) **Published:** July 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## **Spheres and Stages of Discipleship** ### **Introduction** Discipleship is not a singular event, but instead, it is a lifelong endeavor. The question of how believers develop into disciples varies among scholars. Without an understanding of the discipleship process, believers may miss important opportunities for continued growth as followers of Christ. This paper shows the process and application of discipleship as outlined in *Discipleshift* as well as the importance of worldly detachment and suffering in submitting to Christ. The analysis first identifies five stages and four spheres of discipleship, followed by a personal analysis of each area, prior to describing the meaning of being submitted to Christ. ### **Five Stages of Discipleship** Discipleship follows a pattern of progress. Jim Putman, Bobby Harrington, and Robert Coleman identify five stages of the discipleship process: spiritually dead, infancy, childhood, young adulthood and parenthood.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The first stage, spiritually dead, refers to an unregenerate individual.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Unregenerate persons range from antagonistic atheists to individuals who simply believe in some higher power. The Apostle Paul identifies individuals who were once spiritually dead in his letter to the Ephesians when stating, “You were dead in the trespasses and sins” (Eph 2:1), and in his letter to the Colossians stating, “And you, who were dead in your trespasses…God made alive together with him” (Col 2:13).[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The subsequent stages of discipleship refer to regenerate individuals. Stage two, infancy, represents individuals who are normally, but not always, new to the faith and lack knowledge of Christ, while continuing to live a self-focused life.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Comparable to human infancy, the individual is needy and dependent on others for care. The Apostle Paul refers to people in a state of infancy in his letter to the Corinthians when stating, “But I, brothers, could not address you as spiritual people, but as people of the flesh, as infants in Christ. I fed you with milk, not solid food, for you were not ready for it.” (1 Cor 3:1-2a). The third stage of discipleship, childhood, includes regenerate individuals who continue to remain self-focused, but are beginning to apply Scripture and grow in Christ.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Paul, in his letter to the Thessalonians, refers to the childhood stage when he compares himself to a father teaching and encouraging his children to follow God (1 Thess 2:11-12). The next stage of discipleship is young adulthood, typified by individuals who are moving away from self-focus, and instead, are focusing their beliefs, thoughts, emotions, and actions on God and others.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The Apostle John identifies young believing adults in his letter when stating, “I write to you, young men, because you are strong, and the word of God abides in you, and you have overcome the evil one” (1 John 2:14). The final stage of discipleship is parenthood. A spiritual parent continues to grow in Christ while simultaneously discipling others.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The Apostle Paul’s letter to Timothy references spiritual parents when he exhorts his readers to entrust faithful men to teach others what Paul had taught them (2 Tim 2:1-2). The authors furnish a valid approach to assessing stages of discipleship, which allow for a practical approach to taking next steps. However, if an individual’s stage in any way determines his or her significance or results in a game of religious comparison, then stage assessment risks undermining the gospel. ### **Four Spheres of Discipleship** Although the process of discipleship for regenerate Christians resides on a continuum from infancy to parenthood, a holistic application is necessary. Putman, Harrington, and Coleman suggest that the growth process must occur in four spheres of life – God, the church, the home, and the world.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) The first sphere is the disciple’s relationship with God (cf. Matt 22:37-38), which includes an understanding and appropriation of the gospel where one’s righteousness (justification) does not come from self, but from Christ (cf. Rom 3:21-22) and the source of the transformation (sanctification) is not from self, but Christ (cf. John 15:4-5). The three other spheres emanate from the centrality of Christ outward to loving others (cf. Matt 22:39). The second sphere is the disciple’s love for other believers.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Specifically, the Apostle Paul explains in his letter to the Ephesians that disciples must be equipped in “building up the body of Christ” in love (Eph 4:11-12, 15-16). The third sphere is the disciple’s love for his or her spouse, children and parents.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) The letter to the Ephesians also addresses the importance of a disciple’s relationship with Christ extending to spouses (cf. Eph 5:22-27) as well as to children and parents (cf. Eph 6:1-4). The fourth sphere is the disciple’s love for the world.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Paul also addresses relationships outside the church and home when referring to the master and servant relationship, who both ought to render “service with a good will as to the Lord and not to man” (Eph 6:7). By identifying four important spheres of life, the authors appropriately highlight the comprehensive nature and reach of discipleship. ### **Current Stage of Discipleship** In many ways, the [stage of discipleship](https://www.livestransforming.com/stages-of-discipleship/) that I am currently in is parenthood. The evidence for parenthood is both inward and outward. Inwardly, I understand that my identity is in the righteousness of Christ and not in other people’s opinions, my performance, or circumstances (cf. Rom 3:22). Furthermore, I do not rely on others to spoon feed Scripture to me (cf. 1 Cor 3:1-2). Instead, I use scholarly, devotional, and biblical language resources for personal Bible study. Although not my vocation, I have discipled hundreds of individuals and groups over the last fifteen years, many of whom now disciple others. I have written accredited college curriculum and books regarding discipleship coaching, which are currently used by Christian Universities and organizations that promulgate the disciplines of spiritual formation, social work, and counseling. Each week I continue to coach multiple individuals, remain accessible to other discipleship coaches and licensed counselors who need assistance, and lead small groups that focus on the Bible in its original context stripped of denominational and theological agendas. [![Dynamics of Spiritual Life An Evangelical Theology of Renewal 1 182x300 - Spheres and Stages of Discipleship](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Dynamics-of-Spiritual-Life-An-Evangelical-Theology-of-Renewal-1-182x300.jpg "Spheres and Stages of Discipleship - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4l5Dy6e)Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal ### **Spheres to Submit to Christ** The areas of life that I need to submit to the centrality of Christ include God, the church, family, and the world. The first sphere that I must submit to Christ, is my relationship with Him, where my identity is in Christ, not in the idols of self, other people, or circumstances. Historically, I have been my own god, as Richard Lovelace suggests, by manufacturing “a fictitious righteousness in heroic works of ascetic piety,” or by following my own passions through redefining “sin in shallow terms so that it can lose the consciousness of its presence.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) In other words, either through religious moralism or worldly paganism, I existed as my own god. However, Matthew records Jesus’s words stating, “If anyone would come after me, let him deny himself and take up his cross and follow me” (Mt. 16:24). Dietrich Bonhoeffer comments on this verse by explaining that the essence of the cross is “suffering and being rejected” and that the “first Christ-suffering that everyone has to experience is the call which summons us away from our attachments to this world.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Unfortunately, I have also lived a life where my attachment to other people’s opinions, institutional church achievements, familial success, and business prosperity defined me–these worldly attachments became my god–a form of idolatry. However, denying that any righteousness originates from myself or the world, and simultaneously, accepting Christ’s righteousness as my own through the forgiveness of my sins eliminated the need to selfishly maintain my own righteousness, which empowers an increase in selfless love to the three other spheres that I must submit to Christ: my family, Christ’s body, and the world. ### **In Submission to Christ** The specific meaning of a disciple being in submission to Christ must encompass both of Bonhoeffer’s concerns – the attachments to the world (idolatry) and the suffering that necessarily occurs when taking up the cross and denying self. According to Bauer’s lexicon (BDAG), the lemma for the word submission (ὑποτάσσω) means to “subject oneself, be subjected or subordinated, obey.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) A direct reference to submitting to Christ occurs in Ephesians 5:24 in the context of the household codes. Scripture also refers to submission to God in 1 Corinthians 15:28, Hebrews 12:9, and James 4:7. In all instances, the underlying motif of submission is an absence of idolatry and an acceptance of suffering. First, regarding attachments to the world, N. T. Wright explains that sin is secondary to idolatry because human failure is primarily a deterioration of worship, which happens “whenever we place anything in the created order above the Creator himself.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) In a postmodern society, the primary idol is self and secondary idols, such as money, approval from others, and performance, become the driving force behind worshipping the self rather than the Creator. Not surprisingly, James combines the concepts of selfish pride and submission when stating, “‘God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble.’ Submit (ὑποτάγητε) yourselves therefore to God. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you.” (Jas 4:6-7). Commenting on verses 6-7, James Adamson explains that it is “not the devil that James takes most seriously but our own lusts” (Jas 1:14).[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Bonhoeffer also recognizes “there are plenty of other gods” the world uses to entangle the believer, but that Christ must stand “not only between me and God,” but also must stand “between me and the world, between me and other people and things.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) By definition, submitting to idols usurps the ability to submit to Christ, thus, first and foremost, the meaning of a disciple being in submission to Christ means worshipping God and God alone. Second, worshipping God and God alone necessarily brings suffering. In a reference to Christ, Wright explains, “Suffering was the means of the victory. Suffering is also the means of its implementation,” and it “is still the means by which the work goes forward.”[\[18\]](#_ftn18) In other words, the path of forgiveness, unconditional love, empathy, the battle against the world’s attempts to replace God etc. all occur within an environment of suffering. Wright rhetorically continues, “Did we really imagine that, while Jesus would win his victory by suffering, self-giving love, we would implement that same victory by arrogant, self-aggrandizing force of arms?”[\[19\]](#_ftn19) The answer is a resounding no! Transformational love empathically experiences the depths of the world’s pain (cf. John 1:14), forgives exponentially when it hurts (cf. Eph. 1:7), and experiences the rejection of the world (cf. Luke 17:25), less it be controlled by it. The ultimate expression of transformational love was Christ’s suffering on the cross, and the ongoing expression of it is a disciple’s suffering as a divine imager of Christ who, as Bonhoeffer asserts, finds life on the cross with Christ.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Accordingly, submission to Christ not only means submitting to God and God alone, but also means extending transformative love to other believers, family, and the world within an environment of necessary suffering. ### **Conclusion** This paper has shown the process and application of discipleship as outlined in *Discipleshift* as well as the importance of worldly detachment and suffering in submitting to Christ. The analysis supported the assertions in three ways. First, the process of discipleship moves on a continuum from spiritually dead to spiritual parenthood. Next, the application of discipleship must encompass God, the church, the home, and the world. Finally, submission to Christ occurs by detaching from the world in an environment of necessary suffering. From a practical perspective, all disciples can assess their current stage of discipleship and analyze the comprehensiveness of its application providing further opportunities for growth in Christ. Bibliography Adamson, James B. *The Epistle of James*. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1976. Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. *Discipleship*. Edited by Geffrey B. Kelly and John D. Godsey. Translated by Barbara Green and Reinhard Krauss. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003. Lovelace, Richard F. *Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1979. Putman, Jim, Bobby Harrington, and Robert E. Coleman. *DiscipleShift*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013. Wright, N. T. *The Day the Revolution Began: Reconsidering the Meaning of Jesus’s Crucifixion*. San Francisco: HarperOne, 2016. [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Jim Putman, Bobby Harrington, and Robert E. Coleman, *DiscipleShift* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 61–71. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 61. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008)*.* [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Putman, Harrington, and Coleman, *DiscipleShift*, 61–71. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 65. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 67–69. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 69–70. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Putman, Harrington, and Coleman, *DiscipleShift*, 78. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 86. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 87–88. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 88–89. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Richard F. Lovelace, *Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1979), 99. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Dietrich Bonhoeffer, *Discipleship*, ed. Geffrey B. Kelly and John D. Godsey, trans. Barbara Green and Reinhard Krauss (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003), 86–87. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) William Arndt, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer, *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature* (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 1042. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) N. T. Wright, *The Day the Revolution Began: Reconsidering the Meaning of Jesus’s Crucifixion* (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2016), 85. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) James B. Adamson, *The Epistle of James*, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1976), 173. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Bonhoeffer, *Discipleship*, 94–95. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Wright, *The Day the Revolution*, 372–73. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Wright, *The Day the Revolution*, 374. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Bonhoeffer, *Discipleship*, 89. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Disciple Making in the Local Church](https://www.livestransforming.com/disciple-making-in-the-local-church/) **Published:** July 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## **Disciple Making in the Local Church** ### **Introduction** The process of making disciples has varied throughout the centuries from monastic asceticism to liberal antinomianism. Currently, the question of specifically how disciples are made within the context of a postmodern society may be the most pressing question facing the local church. Without an understanding of how disciples are made, the body of Christ risks becoming irrelevant to its culture. This paper provides a detailed description of how Christian disciples are made within the context of the local church and a Christian community. The analysis first discusses the roles and importance of the local church, pastor, saints, and spiritual gifts as transformative agents, followed by an examination of both the goal and means of transformation into disciples of Christ. ### **The Local Church and Pastors** The local church, pastor, saints, and spiritual gifts all play an important role in discipleship as transformative agents. However, prior to role identification, each term needs biblically defined. First, according to Bauer’s Lexicon (BDAG), the term church (ἐκκλησία) means an assembly (cf. Acts 19:39), a gathering (cf. Acts 19:32, 40), or a community of people with shared beliefs, expressed locally (cf. 1 Cor 11:18) or universally (cf. Eph 1:22). [\[1\]](#_ftn1) Rod Dempsey explains that the role of the local church is to accomplish the Great Commission by building up people in their knowledge of Christ and impacting the culture through transformed lives.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Furthermore, Dietrich Bonhoeffer highlights the importance of the local church by emphasizing the anthropological reality of each believer in the community being “incorporated into his (Christ’s) body” by being crucified with Christ (cf. Gal 2:20) and resurrected with Christ “even in his glorified body.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Accordingly, each member of Christ’s body participates in a new creation status (cf. 2 Cor 5:17) who is “now truly and bodily accepted…out of Gods mercy” because believers are “‘in Christ’ (έν), and ‘Christ is in them.'”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Due to the organic bodily nature of the church, Dempsey appropriately asserts that the starting point for a healthy church must be on the health of the individual, not the health of the institution thus, the purpose of the local church is to facilitate the maturity of believers.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Accordingly, the role and importance of the church is to transform lives. With a correct understanding of the local church as believers in Christ, not an institution, the role and importance of pastors become evident. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 1 182x300 - Disciple Making in the Local Church](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-1-182x300.jpg "Disciple Making in the Local Church - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4l78Jht)Pagan Christianity?: Exploring the Roots of Our Church Practices Regarding pastors, Frank Viola and George Barna assert that Ephesians 4:11 is the only place in the New Testament that refers to the word pastor, thus scant evidence exists for such a role.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) However, Viola and Barna commit a word study error by relying on English translations, rather than a Greek lemma search. The lemma used for the word pastor (ποιμήν) in Ephesians 4:11 occurs eighteen times in the New Testament and refers to a shepherd, guardian, or leader.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Furthermore, according to Moisés Silva, the meaning is attested in ancient Near East and Jewish literature.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Accordingly, the role and importance of pastors (shepherds) and teachers is “to equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ” (Eph 4:11-12).[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The pastoral role is important for executing the role of the church, to transform lives. Unfortunately, as Dempsey explains, the modern pastoral role is often more concerned with the institution than the individuals and focuses more attention on facilitating the growth of a budget rather than the growth of the saints.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) An analysis of the role and importance of saints and spiritual gifts may now commence. ### **The Saints and Spiritual Gifts** The Greek lemma for the term saints (ἅγιος) may be translated substantively as “holy ones” or adjectivally as dedicated to God’s service.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Moisés Silva notes that the “designation was not primarily ethical in character; rather, it expresses a concept parallel to ‘called’ (Rom 1:7; 1 Cor 1:2; 2 Cor 1:1), ‘elect’ (Rom 8:33; Col 3:12), and ‘faithful’ (Col 1:2).”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Accordingly, as new creations in Christ, Jim Putman, Bobby Harrington, and Robert Coleman suggest the role and importance of the saints (holy ones) is to love others by building intentional relationships “created after the likeness of God in true righteousness and holiness” (Eph 4:24).[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The role and importance of spiritual gifts is quite controversial in scholarly literature. However, James Stitzinger asserts that a spiritual gift is any God-given ability used for God’s glory in the body of Christ.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Accordingly, as Dempsey explains, the role of developing spiritual gifts, such as prophecy, teaching, exhortation, giving, leading, and mercy (cf. Rom 12:6-8), is to assist in building a healthy body of believers, which supports the role of the church–to transform lives.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) The foundation of disciple making rests on a body of believers, the church, who are equipped by pastors to deploy their spiritual gifts in an environment of holiness. The question that remains is how specifically disciples are made in the context of these transformative agents. ### **How Disciples are Made** Putman, Harrington, and Coleman suggest that Jesus’s method of making disciples consists of four tasks: share, connect, minister, and release disciple makers.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) The theoretical framework is important, but to encourage believers to do the four tasks without a specific method for making disciples involves risk. For example, the authors suggest that the discipler is to “help people to obey.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) The suggestion is not unreasonable, but unless a specific method of disciple making exists, the suggestion may result in advice-giving or manipulation that risks a defensive response that undermines transformation. Dempsey asserts that church life is about helping “believers grow and develop into maturity” and that the impact of the local church “comes from transformed lives.”[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Accordingly, two issues need addressed: (1) the goal of transformation and (2) the means of transformation. First, the goal of transformation is wrapped up in two commandments, loving God and loving others (cf. Matt 22:36-40). In other words, the fruit of the Spirit, led by love, must exemplify a transformed life (cf. Gal 5:22-26). Second, the means of transformation must also be established. Wright asserts, “For the development of this kind of character (love), there is one thing above all which Paul sees as an absolute necessity: the formation of a Christian *mind* (cf. Rom 12:1-2).”[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Next, Wright observes three principles arising from Romans 1:20-28: (1) the mind can grasp truth about God, (2) the mind is linked to emotions and longings, (3) the mind ultimately “determines the behavior.”[\[20\]](#_ftn20) In other words, the believer must renew the mind with God’s truth to effectuate the transformation of emotions and behaviors. To determine the aspect of life that requires transformation, the disciple first identifies an area where the fruit of the Spirit is lacking. For example, if a disciple experiences jealousy that leads to unhealthy behaviors, then the thought causing the jealousy needs captured (cf. 1 Cor 10:5) and renewed on God’s truth for transformation to occur. The specifics of how a disciple renews the mind now needs explored. Craig Keener contends that “‘renewing’ (ἀνακαινώσει) undoubtedly alludes to the ‘new’ life obtained by union with the risen Christ.”[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Being transformed by God directly relates to a mind placed on the new creation status where, according to Bonhoeffer, the believer is accepted into the body of Christ, the church.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Wright explains the reason that the mind must be placed on the new creation status is due to idolatry, which produces a “failure to think straight” that results in “dehumanizing behavior.”[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Revisiting the example above, if a believer’s jealousy occurs due to a longing for the idols of money, relationships, or even ministry success, then the solution is placing one’s mind on God’s truth. When a believer’s mind appropriates an identity that is in Christ, not in idols, the jealousy and resultant unhealthy behaviors subside. In other words, a righteous identity moves to righteous living as the reality of God’s truth transforms the believer. Next, the disciple maker’s part in God’s transformation of the disciple needs addressed. Three important disciple-making methods were utilized by Christ: (1) inquiry, (2) empathy, and (3) encouragement. First, as Lee Wanak explains, “Many of Jesus’ questions were designed to begin the process of prospective transformation. Jesus asked lots of questions.”[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Thoughtful questions create an environment of discovery and simultaneously decrease the risk of defensiveness that undermines transformation. Second, J. T. Holland asserts that Jesus remains a model for ministry due to his empathy, which is “the key to almost every encounter in the Gospel.”[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Jesus extended empathy to many individuals, such as the woman at the well (John 4:39), which provided a transformative mirror that prompted life change. Finally, Jesus’s encouragement was transformational. A powerful example of encouragement is Jesus’s request of Peter to feed His sheep even after he denied Jesus three times (John 21:17). Through inquiry, empathy, and encouragement, a disciple maker can effectively facilitate transformation within the context of a postmodern society. At this point, it is necessary to revisit Putman, Harrington, and Coleman’s suggestion that Jesus’s method of making disciples was to share, connect, minister, and release disciple makers in the context of the local church and Christian community.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) First, William Fay suggests the most effective way of *sharing* the gospel is by utilizing inquiry, empathy, and encouragement within the context of community and Scripture.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Second, the disciple maker intentionally *connects* with individuals and small groups by utilizing the disciple-making methods of inquiry, empathy, and encouragement to build relationships of trust bathed in Scripture and prayer. Third, the disciple maker *ministers* to disciples by using the disciple-making methods to assist disciples in identifying areas of unhealthiness and to facilitate the renewal of the mind on his or her new creation status in Christ (righteous identity). The necessary result of an appropriated righteous identity is Godly behavior (righteous living)–a transformed life. Finally, once a disciple’s life is transformed through sharing, connecting, and ministering, he or she can be released to deploy the disciple-making methods to *make disciples*. ### **Conclusion** This paper provided a detailed description of how [Christian disciples](https://www.livestransforming.com/christ-in-discipleship/) are made within the context of the local church and a Christian community. The analysis first examined the roles and importance of integral participants involved in the transformative discipleship process, which include the local church, pastors, saints, and spiritual gifts. Next, the study described the specific process of discipleship by determining the goal of transformation, loving God and others, and determining the means of transformation, the renewing of the mind on God’s truth. Finally, the research identified three disciple-making methods necessary for making disciples–inquiry, empathy, and encouragement. Two practical applications are significant. First, all disciples have the opportunity for transformation by capturing unhealthy thoughts and renewing them with God’s truth each day, which provides the foundation for healthy emotions and behaviors. Also, all disciple makers have the opportunity to extend inquiry, empathy, and encouragement to facilitate the transformation of other believers – make disciples. ### **Bibliography** Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. *Discipleship*. Edited by Geffrey B. Kelly and John D. Godsey. Translated by Barbara Green and Reinhard Krauss. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003. Earley, Dave, and Rod Dempsey. *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013. Fay, William, and Linda Evans Shepherd. *Share Jesus without Fear*. Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999. Holland, J. T. “Jesus, a Model for Ministry.” *The Journal of Pastoral Care* 36, no. 4 (December 1982): 255–64. Keener, Craig S. *The Mind of the Spirit: Paul’s Approach to Transformed Thinking*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016. Putman, Jim, Bobby Harrington, and Robert E. Coleman. *DiscipleShift*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013. Silva, Moisés. *New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. Stitzinger, James F. “Spiritual Gifts: Definitions and Kinds.” *The Master’s Seminary Journal* 14, no. 2 (September 2003): 143–76. Viola, Frank, and George Barna. *Pagan Christianity?: Exploring the Roots of Our Church Practices*. Carol Stream, Ill: Barna, 2012. Wanak, Lee C. “Jesus’ Questions.” *Evangelical Review of Theology* 33, no. 2 (April 2009): 167–78. Wright, N. T. *Paul and the Faithfulness of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God*. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2013. [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) William Arndt, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer, *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature* (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 303–4. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Dave Earley and Rod Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013), 39–40. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Dietrich Bonhoeffer, *Discipleship*, ed. Geffrey B. Kelly and John D. Godsey, trans. Barbara Green and Reinhard Krauss (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003), 216–19. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 214–17. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Earley and Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is*, 42. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Frank Viola and George Barna, *Pagan Christianity?: Exploring the Roots of Our Church Practices* (Carol Stream, Ill: Barna, 2012), 106. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Arndt, Danker, and Bauer, *A Greek-English Lexicon*, 843. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) See Moisés Silva, *New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014), 81–84. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008)*.* [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Earley and Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is…, 190–92.* [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Arndt, Danker, and Bauer, *A Greek-English Lexicon*, 10–11. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Silva, *New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis*, 130. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Jim Putman, Bobby Harrington, and Robert E. Coleman, *DiscipleShift* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 140–42. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) James F. Stitzinger, “Spiritual Gifts: Definitions and Kinds,” *The Master’s Seminary Journal* 14, no. 2 (September 2003): 161. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Earley and Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is*, 43. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Putman, Harrington, and Coleman, *DiscipleShift*, 152–60. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Ibid., 159. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Earley and Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is*, 40-42. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) N. T. Wright, *Paul and the Faithfulness of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God* (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2013), 1120. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Ibid., 1122. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Craig S. Keener, *The Mind of the Spirit: Paul’s Approach to Transformed Thinking* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016), 154. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Bonhoeffer, *Discipleship*, 216–19. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Wright, *Paul and the Faithfulness*, 1122. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Lee C. Wanak, “Jesus’ Questions,” *Evangelical Review of Theology* 33, no. 2 (April 2009): 170. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) J. T. Holland, “Jesus, a Model for Ministry,” *The Journal of Pastoral Care* 36, no. 4 (December 1982): 264. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Putman, Harrington, and Coleman, *DiscipleShift*, 152–60. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) William Fay and Linda Evans Shepherd, *Share Jesus without Fear* (Nashville: B&H, 1999), 29. Emphasis mine. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Philosophy of Small Groups](https://www.livestransforming.com/philosophy-of-small-groups/) **Published:** July 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## **Philosophy of Small Groups** ### **Introduction** The concept of small groups has become an important topic in church growth discussions over the last number of decades. However, the proper method or philosophy of small group deployment within the local church continues to be debated. If the local church cannot explain its small group philosophy, then at best, it risks creating confusion and, at worst, it may undermine the true meaning of church. This paper provides an exploration of the philosophy of small groups and their deployment within Lives Transforming Discipleship Coaching and Counseling, which is a non-profit ministry focused on providing Christian coaching and counseling services. The analysis discusses an overall philosophy of small groups, explores the importance of relational groups in authentic disciple making, examines how missional groups help the body of Christ engage the community, and summarizes my personal status in regards to community living. [![Evangelism Is . . . How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence 182x300 - Philosophy of Small Groups](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Evangelism-Is-.-.-.-How-to-Share-Jesus-with-Passion-and-Confidence-182x300.jpg "Philosophy of Small Groups - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4iUTiI4)Evangelism Is . . .: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence ### **Philosophy of Small Groups** Several different philosophies exist regarding small groups. Rod Dempsey identifies three philosophies of small groups, which include a church “with” small groups, a church “of” small groups, and a church that “is” small groups.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The basic definition of the term church (ἐκκλησία) means an assembly (cf. Acts 19:39), a gathering (cf. Acts 19:32, 40), or a community of people with shared beliefs.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, the distinctions of small group types should not theoretically be necessary as the phrase “small group” fits the true definition of church. However, due to the modern definition of church, which often describes church as an institution that emphasizes an event on Sunday morning rather than deep relational connections, a philosophy of small groups is necessary. According to Dempsey, a church “with” small groups is a church whose small groups are led by professional staff, lacks senior pastor involvement, and focuses on church as a building.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) A church “of” small groups is a church where paid staff develop programs, the senior pastor supports the small group as a ministry, and the members focus on both the building and the community.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Finally, a church that “is” small groups is led by laymen and laywomen, includes the senior pastor as a group leader, and, although the church meets on Sunday morning, members focus on the community rather than the building.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) However, a small group that is church, as opposed to a church that “is” small groups, does not require a paid senior pastor, does not require a building that holds an event on Sunday morning, and does not fit the modern definition of the institutional church. The philosophy of small groups of Lives Transforming Discipleship Coaching and Counseling fits the latter description, where small groups become the church for participants. A group of two or more people that gather in a relational environment with shared Christian beliefs that focus on transforming lives is the church, anytime and anywhere. ### **Relational Groups** A key to small groups being the church is that they must be relational. A Sunday School class, men’s Bible study, and Wednesday night prayer meeting may be a group, and it may be small, but authentic discipleship is an unlikely result of such gatherings without relationships–unmasked. John Lynch, Bruce McNicol, and Bill Thrall ask, “What if there was a place so safe that the worst of me could be known, and I would discover that I would not be loved less, but more in the telling of it?”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) In other words, the prodigal sons who avoid God altogether and the older brothers who attempt to manage sin behind a mask, where, as Dallas Willard observes, “transformation of life and character is *no* part of the redemptive message,” both fearfully avoid being “found out” by religious actors and actresses.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Unfortunately, the most heartbreaking stories occur when the mask is finally unveiled, and the institution or institutional mindset parades the exposed underbelly across a stage of repentance before outsourcing the issue to licensed marriage counselors, Alcoholics and Sex Addicts Anonymous, or psychiatrists. Yet it is the holy moment of unveiling, taking off the mask, that the opportunity for authentic disciple making commences. It is on this holy ground that Dietrich Bonhoeffer asserts, the body of Jesus Christ is a visible body, a place where no area of life “would be allowed or would even want to be separated from the body.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Bonhoeffer astutely continues, to allow “Christians to participate in worship but to refuse to have community with them in everyday life…is to become guilty against the body of Christ itself.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Accordingly, it is within a safe relational environment where the worst can be known and the unmasked individual is loved more for the telling of it, where the disciple can reveal and take captive the ugliest of the thoughts (cf. 2 Cor 10:5), recognize and thwart the lies of the enemy (cf. John 8:44), and discover truth that sets him or her free (cf. John 8:32) by letting God renew the mind (cf. Rom 12:2). It is within a safe relational environment where the unmasked individual, as Bonhoeffer suggests, can receive, appropriate, and participate in God’s righteousness, instead of continuing finding one’s righteousness in the gods of the world – money, relationships, performance, other people’s opinions, religion etc.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) It is within a safe relational environment where the disciple can abandon the mask and confront sin. In sum, it is within a safe, relational small group environment where authentic disciple making can occur. ### **Missional Groups** An eclectic mix of missional labels have evolved over the last number of decades including emergent churches, missional churches, missional groups, and even Alan Hirsch’s concatenated emerging missional churches.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) However, this analysis focuses on “missional groups,” which requires definition. Dempsey suggests that the terms “house church, missional community, and cell group are used interchangeably.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Alternatively, Jim Putman and Bobby Harrington separate the categories by suggesting a missional church, which has a “missional focus with a service-opportunity methodology,” is distinct from an organic church, which has “a fellowship focus with an organic methodology.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Milfred Minatrea may best summarize and define the components of a missional church as “a reproducing community of authentic disciples, being equipped as missionaries sent by God, to live and proclaim His Kingdom in their world.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Similarly, an adequate definition of a missional group is a community of believers that reproduces authentic disciples (transforming), equips individuals as missionaries (sharing), and lives His Kingdom in their world (serving). Accordingly, missional groups can help the body of Christ move out into the community in three ways: (1) sharing the gospel, (2) transforming lives, and (3) serving the needy. By removing any one of the components, the Great Commission is lost through a reductionistic theological framework. First, regarding sharing the gospel, it is not primarily about inviting people to an event on Sunday morning or prompting people into saying a prayer. According to Dave Earley, sharing the gospel is about helping people understand they are not “good enough” and then helping them “become good enough” through faith in Christ within relational environments full of care.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Next, regarding transforming lives, it is not about studying the Bible or praying together–it is much more. Dallas Willard suggests that spiritual formation requires thinking, which includes capturing thoughts to determine if they are aligned with God’s Word.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Accordingly, missional groups must create safe environments of transformation where unhealthy thoughts are revealed, taken captive, and juxtaposed with [God’s Word](https://www.livestransforming.com/grasping-gods-word/) in a climate of inquiry and empathy where unhealthy thoughts are replaced with God’s transforming truth (cf. Rom 12:2). Finally, regarding serving, it is not primarily about parking cars or singing on a stage, but deeply caring for those in need. Bonhoeffer recognizes the importance of service and asserts: “To deny them (believers) the provisions necessary for this earthly life, or to leave them knowingly in affliction and distress, is to make a mockery of the gift of salvation and to behave like a liar.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Although written with Christian’s in mind, Bonhoeffer’s quote applies to Christians and non-Christians alike. Thus, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of relationally serving those in emotional and financial distress, which must involve both personal time and money. ### **Personal Community Involvement** Personally, I live in a community with other believers in the context of the Lives Transforming Discipleship Coaching and Counseling. The community of believers consists of discipleship coaches, licensed counselors, shepherds, speakers, as well as participants in the ministry. In regards to being missional, the Lives Transforming Community shares the gospel in large group, small group, and individual relational environments, and transforms lives by creating safe environments that assist in mind renewal. Furthermore, the Lives Transforming Community serves by supporting the emotional health of individuals through individual and group sessions, and supporting participants financially by providing thousands of dollars of financial support each year to the indigent who need coaching and counseling. My specific status involves sharing the gospel on an individual basis, transforming lives by coaching leaders and participants in the ministry, and providing tens of thousands of dollars of funding to discipleship initiatives each year. More specifically, by way of example, yesterday I shared the gospel with a friend whose son is addicted to heroin; this morning I coached the wife of a pastor of one of the largest institutional churches in Indiana who has decided he is a homosexual; and last week I gave a pastor $4,000 to pay his taxes because he simply did not have the money. In sum, I agree with Bonhoeffer, that if we cannot provide for those afflicted and in distress we make a mockery of salvation. Finally, I am grateful for the train wreck God allowed me to experience a couple decades ago that resulted in discipleship not being a program of an institution or a notch in a belt, but instead, a way of life. ### **Conclusion** This paper provided an exploration of the philosophy of small groups for the Lives Transforming Discipleship Coaching and Counseling ministry, which is a ministry where small groups are the church. Within the context of Lives Transforming’s small group philosophy, an exploration of relational groups revealed that it is within a safe relational environment where the disciple can abandon the mask, confront sin, and engage in authentic discipleship. Furthermore, Lives Transforming small groups with a missional purpose help the body of Christ move out into the community by sharing the gospel, transforming lives, and serving the needy. Finally, my personal involvement in community involves relational connections with the leaders of the Lives Transforming ministry and being missional by sharing the gospel, transforming lives, and serving the needy with Lives Transforming participants. Several practical applications exist from the research. First, all churches need to clearly define and explain their small group philosophy to support relational connections within its local body. Second, all disciple makers must seriously consider the benefits of creating radically safe environments where believers and non-believers can share life unmasked to support the discipleship process. Third, every believer must live a life on mission, which includes sharing the gospel, transforming lives, and serving others with both emotional and financial support. ### **Bibliography** Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. *Discipleship*. Edited by Geffrey B. Kelly and John D. Godsey. Translated by Barbara Green and Reinhard Krauss. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003. Earley, Dave, and David Wheeler. *Evangelism Is: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010. Earley, Dave, and Rod Dempsey. *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013. Hirsch, Alan. *The Forgotten Ways*. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2006. Lynch, John, Bruce McNicol, and Bill Thrall. *The Cure: What If God Isn’t Who You Think He Is and Neither Are You*. San Clemente, CA: CrossSection, 2016. Minatrea, Milfred. *Shaped by God’s Heart: The Passion and Practices of Missional Churches*. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004. Putman, Jim, Bobby Harrington, and Robert E. Coleman. *DiscipleShift*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013. Willard, Dallas. *The Divine Conspiracy: Rediscovering Our Hidden Life in God*. New York: HarperOne, 1997. ———. *Renovation of the Heart: Putting on the Character of Christ*. Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2002. [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Dave Earley and Rod Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013), 279. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) William Arndt, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer, *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature* (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 303–4. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Earley and Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is*, 279. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 279. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) John Lynch, Bruce McNicol, and Bill Thrall, *The Cure: What If God Isn’t Who You Think He Is and Neither Are You* (San Clemente, CA: CrossSection, 2016), 38. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Dallas Willard, *The Divine Conspiracy: Rediscovering Our Hidden Life in God* (New York: HarperOne, 1997), 41. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Dietrich Bonhoeffer, *Discipleship*, ed. Geffrey B. Kelly and John D. Godsey, trans. Barbara Green and Reinhard Krauss (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003), 225, 234. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 255–59. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) See Alan Hirsch, *The Forgotten Ways* (Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2006), 66. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Earley and Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is*, 260. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Jim Putman, Bobby Harrington, and Robert E. Coleman, *DiscipleShift* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 26–27. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Milfred Minatrea, *Shaped by God’s Heart: The Passion and Practices of Missional Churches* (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004), 8. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Dave Earley and David Wheeler, *Evangelism Is: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010), 60–68, 121-128. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Dallas Willard, *Renovation of the Heart: Putting on the Character of Christ* (Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2002), 104. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Bonhoeffer, *Discipleship*, 234. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Discipleship and a Healthy Church](https://www.livestransforming.com/discipleship-and-a-healthy-church/) **Published:** July 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## **Discipleship and a Healthy Church** ### **Introduction** The disconnect between discipleship and the local church may be the most pressing challenge facing the body of Christ in the twenty-first century. The question that exists is specifically how discipleship and the local church relate. Until the body of Christ understands the importance of discipleship and its relationship to the church, the potential for lives being transformed into the image of Christ wanes. This paper shows that a healthy church is the goal of discipleship because the result of discipleship is the spiritual transformation of believers into healthy individuals that form a healthy body of Christ. Transformed lives that communicate the gospel, participate in relational living, deploy spiritual giftedness into ministry, and give generously of time and money are a few ways how disciples form a healthy body. The analysis of discipleship and the church is followed by a brief examination of my personal ministry context, three areas of focus necessary for a healthier ministry, and three initial steps to improve the spiritual health of my ministry. [![Disciple Making Is . . . How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence 182x300 - Discipleship and a Healthy Church](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Disciple-Making-Is-.-.-.-How-to-Live-the-Great-Commission-with-Passion-and-Confidence-182x300.jpg "Discipleship and a Healthy Church - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3Ya8sAB)Disciple Making Is . . .: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence ### **Discipleship and a Healthy Church** A relationship exists between effective discipleship and a healthy church environment. However, prior to assessing the relationship, a brief definition of each term is necessary. The [definition of a disciple](https://www.livestransforming.com/define-and-describe-discipleship/) is a person whose *beliefs* appropriate the justifying work of Christ, which forges an *identity* in Christ that allows God’s truth to *transform* his or her thoughts resulting in an emotional life exemplified by *fruit of the Spirit* that culminates in a transformed life of *obedience* in word and deed. A general definition of the term church (*ἐκκλησία*) means an assembly (cf. Acts 19:39), a gathering (cf. Acts 19:32, 40), or a community of people with shared beliefs.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) However, Rod Dempsey particularizes the definition by explaining that the church builds up people in their knowledge of Christ and impacts the culture through transformed lives.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The question remains as to the relationship between discipleship and a healthy church and whether a healthy church is the goal for discipleship. Significant difficulty occurs when assessing the relationship between discipleship and the church within modern Christianity. Based on modern church structure, members may believe that church is simply an institution where events and programs occur that, unfortunately, have little impact on driving spiritual growth or transforming lives.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Josh McDowell summarizes the plight of the church by stating, “The various creative approaches attempted over the course of this decade have drawn attention but produce little if any, transformational impact.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) More specifically, H. B. London, Jr. and Neil Wiseman’s research suggests that pastors have the second highest divorce rate among all professions, over 45 percent leave the profession due to depression or burnout, and 33 percent confess to inappropriate sexual behavior with someone in church.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Accordingly, to suggest that the goal of discipleship is a healthy or healthier institution that produces bigger buildings and budgets simply exacerbates the problem. Alternatively, Bill Hull believes that the church’s primary purpose is spiritual transformation, where a believer’s character is forged into the image of Christ within a community of believers.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Accordingly, if the result of discipleship is the spiritual transformation of believers, then the ultimate goal of discipleship is a healthy assembly (*ἐκκλησία*) of transformed believers into the image of Christ. ### **How a Healthy Church is the Goal of Discipleship** If the goal of discipleship is a healthy church, then identifying a few ways how disciples form a healthy body of Christ is an important next step in determining how a healthy church is the result of discipleship. Rod Dempsey provides twenty statements that describe a healthy church, which can be condensed into four main categories: (1) gospel messaging, (2) relational groups, (3) ministry deployment, and (4) generous giving.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) First, disciples must deeply understand and communicate the gospel message within the context of the whole counsel of God.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Mark Taylor suggests that Paul describes the gospel in 1 Cor 15:1-2 as a message of Jesus’s death and resurrection that is preached, believed, appropriated, and salvific.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) In other words, the salvific nature of the gospel message must be preached by disciples, believed by new converts, and then appropriated as new creations in Christ (cf. 2 Cor 5:17) to experience its transformative power. Second, disciples must engage in relational groups. The key to the second trait is the word relational. Sunday school classes, church services, Bible studies, and even small group ministries do not accomplish the group dynamics necessary for healthy body life if relationships do not exist. However, when authentic relationships exist in an environment of growth, nurturing, developing, sharing, and loving, then multiplication can follow. Richard Longenecker comments on the relational dynamics of the early church found in Acts 2:42 by suggesting it consists of teaching, fellowship, the breaking of bread, and prayer.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) The relational dynamics in Acts 2 certainly contrasts significantly from the church environment across America on Sunday mornings where events and programs often trump authenticity and relationships.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Third, disciples must utilize spiritual gifts to minister to others. The Apostle Paul clearly emphasizes the importance of utilizing spiritual gifts for the edification of the body of Christ (cf. Rom 12; 1 Cor 12; Eph 4). Whether the disciple’s giftedness is serving, teaching, mercy, knowledge, wisdom, or any of the other spiritual gifts, discipleship is about deploying these gifts to facilitate the transformation of others. Finally, disciples must give of their time and money generously. Unfortunately, if giving means providing funds to support events and programs that do not transform lives, avoiding personal ministry by funding someone else to minister, or tithing to increase status or power within the institutional church, then the money is wasted. Craig Blomberg explains that 20 percent of the population of the world live in poverty and American Christians give approximately 2.4 percent of their income, slightly higher than non-Christians.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Blomberg insightfully suggests that Wesley’s slogan, “Gain all you can, save all you can, and give all you can,” has been replaced with “money will solve all your problems.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) It is difficult to overestimate the evil perpetuated by the god of money (cf. 1 Tim 6:10) and the benefits of generously giving to both the giver and receiver. In sum, a healthy church body includes disciples who are transformed into communicators of the gospel, deeply involved in relational groups, deploying spiritual giftedness into ministry service, and generously giving of their time and money. ### **Three Areas of Focus** As the Executive Director of Lives Transforming Group, a 501(c)(3) non-profit ministry, my ministry context is discipleship coaching and counseling. Last year the Lives Transforming coaches and counselors facilitated over 2,500 individual discipleship sessions, hundreds of small group sessions, and over 40 large group sessions while leading over 1,000 men and women into a relationship with Christ. Lives Transforming has many areas of the organization that need to improve to create a healthier body of Christ. However, three important areas of focus are (1) additional relational groups, (2) multiplication initiatives, and (3) spiritual formation tracking. First, although Lives Transforming’s strengths are in individual discipleship coaching and large group teaching, the ministry needs additional recovery, relationship, and Bible study groups. Unfortunately, programs such as Celebrate Recovery often miss the mark of transformation by focusing on behavioral modification and accountability, rather than one’s status as a new creation in Christ, who is transformed by the renewing of the mind (Rom 12:1-2). Lives Transforming needs to fill the void. Second, although Lives Transforming currently performs training workshops for discipleship coaches and counselors, an initiative that encourages believers to disciple others is needed. Without this initiative, the organization will continue to grow by addition rather than multiplication. Third, Lives Transforming utilizes a training manual, *Christian Convergence Counseling and Coaching: A Training Guide for Counselors and Coaches*, which provides evaluation forms to assess the growth of the participants and the effectiveness of the discipler after each session. However, Lives Transforming needs to create a system of statistically tracking the results of the sessions to verify transformation is occurring at the pace expected. ### **Steps for Improvement** With the three areas of focus identified, it is important to ascertain the initial steps necessary to implement the three initiatives to improve the spiritual health of the organization. First, regarding additional recovery, relationship, and Bible study groups, the next step is identifying curriculum. Fortunately, Lives Transforming has recently procured the publishing rights to many of Robert McGee’s resources including *Rapha’s Twelve Step Program for Overcoming Codependency*. McGee’s works align with the discipleship process that Lives Transforming uses by focusing on one’s identity in Christ and mind renewal. Accordingly, an initial next step would be to investigate the possibility of repurposing one or more of the resources purchased and deploy them into the Lives Transforming ministry. Second, regarding training believers to disciple others, the Lives Transforming training manual is already available for use, but the logical next step is to develop marketing materials to enhance awareness of the opportunity and benefits of training to the hundreds of current participants. Once the organization has increased awareness, then Lives Transforming can identify qualified trainers and dates for training sessions. This initiative increases the chance for multiplication of the ministry rather than addition. Third, regarding the evaluation of individual sessions, a next step would be to create a comprehensive feedback system based on the fruit of the Spirit. The system would track the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral health of the disciple as well as the effectiveness of the discipler. A potential resource to pull from is Randy Frazee’s book: *The Christian Life Profile Assessment Workbook: Developing Your Personal Plan to Think, Act, and Be Like Jesus*. By focusing on areas of relational groups, multiplication, and spiritual formation tracking, Lives Transforming will contribute to creating a healthier body of Christ. ### **Conclusion** This paper has shown that a healthy church is the goal of discipleship. Since the result of discipleship is spiritual transformation and believers constitute the church, it follows that the goal of transformed believers is a healthy body of Christ. Transformed lives that communicate the gospel, participate in relational living, deploy spiritual giftedness into ministry service, and give generously of time and money form a healthy assembly or church environment. Three important areas of focus for the Lives Transforming discipleship counseling and coaching ministry are the creation of additional relational groups, the deployment of multiplication initiatives, and the integration of spiritual formation tracking. Three initial steps to improve the spiritual health of Lives Transforming are identifying curriculum, developing awareness through marketing materials to participants, and creating a comprehensive feedback system that tracks the growth of the disciple and the effectiveness of the discipler. Finally, an important practical application of the research is that local church leaders must first facilitate the transformation of individual believers into healthy imagers of Christ to have any chance of having a healthy assembly of believers called the church. ### Bibliography Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. Blomberg, Craig L. *Neither Poverty nor Riches: A Biblical Theology of Material Possessions*. Edited by D. A. Carson. New Studies in Biblical Theology. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1999. Earley, Dave, and Rod Dempsey. *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013. Hawkins, Greg, and Cally Parkinson. *Reveal: Where Are You?* Barrington, IL: Willow Creek Association, 2007. Hull, Bill. *Choose the Life: Exploring a Faith That Embraces Discipleship*. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2004. London, H. B., and Neil B. Wiseman. *Pastors at Greater Risk*. Ventura, CA: Gospel Light, 2003. Longenecker, Richard N. *Acts*. Edited by Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland. The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Luke-Acts. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2007. McDowell, Josh. *The Last Christian Generation*. Holiday, FL: Green Key Books, 2006. Putman, Jim, Bobby Harrington, and Robert E. Coleman. *DiscipleShift*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013. Taylor, Mark. *1 Corinthians*. Edited by E. Ray Clendenen. The New American Commentary. Vol. 28. Nashville: B&H, 2014. [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) William Arndt, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer, *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature* (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 303–4. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Dave Earley and Rod Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013), 39–40. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Greg Hawkins and Cally Parkinson, *Reveal: Where Are You?* (Barrington, IL: Willow Creek Association, 2007), 33–60. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Josh McDowell, *The Last Christian Generation* (Holiday, FL: Green Key Books, 2006), 28. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) H. B. London and Neil B. Wiseman, *Pastors at Greater Risk* (Ventura, CA: Gospel Light, 2003), 20, 86, 172. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Bill Hull, *Choose the Life: Exploring a Faith That Embraces Discipleship* (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2004), 129. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Earley and Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is*, 212–13. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 213–14. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Mark Taylor, *1 Corinthians*, ed. E. Ray Clendenen, The New American Commentary (Nashville: B&H, 2014), 28:370. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Richard N. Longenecker, *Acts*, ed. Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland, The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Luke-Acts (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2007), 756. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) For discussion on authenticity and transparency by pastors in the local church, see Jim Putman, Bobby Harrington, and Robert E. Coleman, *DiscipleShift* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 100–6. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Craig L. Blomberg, *Neither Poverty nor Riches: A Biblical Theology of Material Possessions*, ed. D. A. Carson, New Studies in Biblical Theology (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1999), 17–20. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 20. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Disciple Making Plan](https://www.livestransforming.com/disciple-making-plan/) **Published:** July 20, 2017 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## **Disciple Making Plan** ### **Introduction** Due to the modern institutional church focus on the Sunday morning service, many churches face a significant challenge in carrying out the primary directive of the Great Commission–to make disciples. The question at hand is how to make disciples in light of the modern church structure and systems that currently exist. Without a plan to make disciples, modern Christianity risks becoming little more than a sub-culture of the entertainment industry with little life-transforming impact. This paper asserts that it is possible to not only create a disciple making plan, but to develop a strategy of deployment within the context of Lives Transforming Discipleship Coaching and Counseling (LT), a non-profit ministry that focuses on providing Christian coaching and counseling. The following analysis first describes a vision for discipleship, then identifies three core values that support the vision. The analysis then provides the methods that drive the discipleship process, defines certain key terms that pertain to the ministry, and finally, lists key quantitative and qualitative verifiers that assist in tracking the progress of the discipleship making plan. ### **Vision** The Great Commission is the foundational passage for the vision, the preferred future, that Christ communicated to the church: “Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, even to the end of the age” (Matt 28:19-20).[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Any disciple making plan must seriously consider the implications and meaning of the Great Commission. R. T. France notes that the primary verb in the passage is “make disciples” (μαθητεύσατε) written in the imperative mood, which indicates a command, which his then followed by two participles, “baptizing” and “teaching” that explain the *process* of disciple-making.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Furthermore, the imperatival nature of the passive participle “go” (πορευθέντες) must not be overlooked as a necessary aspect of Christ’s vision.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Finally, making disciples must ultimately result in obeying all that Christ commands. In other words, lives must not just be baptized and taught – lives must be transformed to image God.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Accordingly, the foundation upon which LT exists is *sharing* to baptize the lost, teaching to *grow* the saints, and going to *serve* the needy. Succinctly, the vision of LT is to transform lives into image God by sharing, growing, and serving. The focus of LT regarding demographics, ages, and people groups is quite broad. LT has discipleship coaches and counselors who specialize in working with children and adolescents, while others primarily focus on adults. The key to identifying which individuals to focus on is not the age, ethnicity, or demographics of the individuals, but the willingness of the individual. For example, in the letter to the Romans, Paul identifies people who are unwilling to engage in the process of transformation, and thus “God gave them over to a depraved mind, to do those things which are not proper” (Rom 1:28). Furthermore, Matthew records Jesus’s words regarding those unwilling to receive His message: “Whoever does not receive you, nor heed your words, as you go out of that house or that city, shake the dust off your feet” (Matt 10:14). Accordingly, the people that LT focuses on and are aiming to reach and disciple are those who are willing. ### **Values** Building upon the analysis of Matthew 28:19-20 allows for the identification of three distinctive elements that align with modern leadership vernacular. First, the vision of any ministry is what it *aspires to* – its preferred future, which in the case of LT is “to transform lives.” Next, the mission of any ministry is what it *does*, which in the case of LT is “to make disciples.” Finally, core values reflect the *values* and beliefs of a ministry that support the vision and mission by shaping its culture, which in the case of LT is “sharing, growing, and serving.” Jim Collins explains that high functioning organizations must preserve the core ideology (values) and simultaneously stimulate progress.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) In other words, the methods by which sharing, growing, and serving occur may change or progress over time, but the core values of sharing, growing, and serving require preservation. Several important biblical passages support the three core values, which assist in extrapolating the ideology into ministry work. First, before *sharing* can occur, the content of the message requires identification. Unfortunately, many modern Christians assume an understanding of the gospel without truly understanding its meaning. Tim Keller suggests the difficulty arises because the Bible does not provide one standardized approach to sharing the gospel, but instead, provides themes, such as the exilic, covenantal, and kingdom themes, which all may be appropriately utilized to communicate God’s message.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) For the purpose of LT, the basic gospel message is “God’s developing and giving us righteousness through Jesus Christ” (cf. 1 Cor 1:30; cf. 2 Cor 5:21).[\[7\]](#_ftn7) However, the Apostle Paul explains that the good news is not just a new righteous status, but a completely new identity where the “old self was crucified with Him” (Rom 6:6; cf. Gal 2:20). As Craig Keener explains, “We humans tend to identify ourselves in terms such as (naturally) our personal past, our family models, or our social embeddedness,” but “for Paul, this new identity is not merely a cognitive strategy but an affirmation of a new reality.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In a world where emotional turmoil wreaks havoc on individuals identifying the self with the gods of performance, other people’s opinions, and external circumstances, *sharing a new identity* in Christ through faith is good news indeed. The new divinely ordained identity provided to a believer as a gift by God (cf. Rom 5:15-17), with no contribution from humanity, is certainly good news. However, appropriating the individual’s new identity into life requires participation on the part of the believer–it requires *growing*. An important passage in appropriating the individual’s new identity is Rom 6:11, which states, “Even so consider yourselves to be dead to sin, but alive to God in Christ Jesus.” Keener explains that Paul insists that believers must consider or reckon themselves as God reckons them with a new identity in Christ.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Bauer’s Lexicon (BDAG) suggests that the word consider or reckon (λογίζομαι) means to cognitively count or determine something to be true through careful thought.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Paul also highlights the importance of cognition in the appropriation of a new identity in Romans 12:2, “And do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind.” Ultimately, transformation occurs by taking each thought captive (cf. 2 Cor. 10:5) and aligning the thoughts with God’s truth, and thus allowing the Holy Spirit of truth (cf. John 16:13) to transform the individual believer *appropriating the new identity.* Once a new identity exists and is appropriated, the result is righteous living–*serving*. After Paul explains how the new identity is appropriated via reckoning in Romans 6:11, he continues by stating, “Therefore do not let sin reign in your mortal body so that you obey its lusts, and do not go on presenting the members of your body to sin as instruments of unrighteousness…for sin shall not be master over you, for you are not under law but under grace” (Rom 6:12, 14). In other words, a life of sin is no longer a master since believers are under grace because appropriated grace leads to obedience. For example, a husband whose identity, meaning, and value is wrapped up in his wife becomes jealous when she does not provide the attention demanded, but turns into care and service for his wife rather than selfishness when his identity is ripped away from his wife and appropriated in Christ (cf. Luke 14:26). The obedience that results from grace is not man’s doing, it is God’s doing; it is grace. Serving others occurs by *living the new iden*tity. ### **Vehicles** Ministry vehicles encompass both the structure of the ministry organization and the methods support the core values that drive the [discipleship process](https://www.livestransforming.com/spheres-and-stages-of-discipleship/). First, regarding structure, Rod Dempsey suggests four models: (1) traditional (“no” small groups), (2) attractional (“of” small groups), (3) organic (“is” small groups), and (4) hybrid (“with” and “of” small groups).[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Although the organic church model is the most decentralized approach, each of the models identified by Dempsey assume an institution continues to exist in some fashion. Accordingly, the distinction between the structure of the organic model and the LT structure is that the former is a church that “is” small groups and the latter is where small groups are church. Each of Dempsey’s models continue a form of centralization, but LT is structured as a decentralized network. Ori Brafman and Rod Beckstrom explain the difference by comparing a spider to a starfish, where the former is centralized, has a body with legs, and if the head is cutoff, it dies; and where the latter is decentralized, has no head, and the organs are replicated through the arms so, when cut in half, it duplicates.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Two examples of decentralized starfish may assist. First, Alan Hirsch explains that in the late 1960s Mao Tse-tung, Chairman of the Communist Party of China, “nationalized all church property, killed all the senior leaders” and “banned all public meeting with Christians with the threat of death or torture.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The Chinese Christians would not be able to survive any model of institutionalized church; the only option was a decentralized starfish structure, and the result from 1950 to the late 1970s was an increase from 1 million to 60 million Christians.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) A second example may be the most famous. With Alcoholics Anonymous, “There is no one in charge, everyone is responsible for keeping themselves–and everyone else–on track” and the “sponsor doesn’t lead by coercion; that person leads by example. And if you mess up…you’re always welcome to come back.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) The one thing that remains constant is the 12 steps. The biblical support for the starfish structure is represented throughout the Gospels and the book of Acts. The New Testament focus was on movement dynamics as opposed to institutionalism, where the movement was held together by a common purpose and vision. Modern Christians have the special revelation of God in Scripture, but the New Testament cannon was not yet available to first century Christians. Accordingly, the only constant was the guidance of God through the incarnate Christ and through the Holy Spirit in the book of Acts. The most famous example of movement dynamics led by the Spirit is Acts 2:1-47, where the Christian movement began and continued as a starfish that replicated in the face of unbearable persecution. Granted, at times, a certain amount of structure was necessary. For example, a system was necessary to feed the widows in Acts 6:1-7. However, as Tim Keller explains, although some institutionalization may be necessary, it must exist to support the movement dynamics and not the reverse.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Second, vehicles must also encompass the methods that drive the discipleship process. The LT ministry method involves one-to-one discipleship sessions, which occur every day of the week, group discipleship sessions that normally occur weekly, and dozens of large group events each year sharing the gospel and encouraging discipleship groups to form across the nation. No budgets exist for paid staff. However, many coaches and counselors are supported by the participants, and the event speakers are supported financially by the venues. Individuals and organizations remit financial support directly to the coaches, counselors, and speakers. Curriculum consists of three books: (1) *Minds on Fire: What Is Wrong with Our Thoughts and How to Fix It*, which teaches the four steps of thought transformation, (2) *FREEDOM: How Grace Transforms Your Life Now*, which teaches the seven faulty identity beliefs, and (3) *C4–Christian Convergence Coaching and Counseling: A Discipleship Training Guide for Coaches and Counselors (C4)*, which teaches disciplers how to disciple others in sharing, growing, and serving. The LT slogan is “Your Life. Transformed. Now.” The primary form of communication is the internet. LT utilizes a $10,000 per month non-profit Google Adwords Grant for online advertising, organic search advertising, Facebook Page communication, Facebook Closed Group communication, and Twitter messaging. ### **Views** With the identification of vehicles established, the definition of key terms can emerge with clarity and prevent confusion among participants. Accordingly, Jim Putman and Bobby Harrington suggest creating “a common language and definition of terms.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) The definition of key terms for LT emerge from its core values. Regarding the core value of sharing, the definition of the gospel is God giving and the believer appropriating and living his or her righteousness through faith in Jesus Christ (cf. 1 Cor 1:30; 2 Cor 5:21; Rom 3:21-24; 5:15-17). Accordingly, evangelism is the sharing of the good news of the new righteous status and identity in Christ. For LT, sharing the gospel occurs in an environment of conversation, inquiry, curiosity, and Scripture (cf. Rom 10:14-15).[\[18\]](#_ftn18) The term saint is defined as an individual who has received God’s gift of righteousness and appropriates that righteousness into his or her life through faith. [![Discipleship Dietrich Bonhoeffer Works Volume 4 1 182x300 - Disciple Making Plan](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Discipleship-Dietrich-Bonhoeffer-Works-Volume-4-1-182x300.jpg "Disciple Making Plan - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/41PHznR)Discipleship- Dietrich Bonhoeffer Works – Volume 4 The core values of growing and serving involve the terms church and discipleship. The general definition of the term church (ἐκκλησία) means an assembly (cf. Acts 19:39), a gathering (cf. Acts 19:32, 40), or a community of people with shared beliefs.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) However, Dietrich Bonhoeffer explains that due to the crucifixion of the old self that results in a believer’s new identity in Christ, Christians “not only participate in his teaching but also in his body” (cf. 1 Cor 12:27).[\[20\]](#_ftn20) In other words, for LT, church is not only where two or more gather (cf. Matt 18:20) in a relational environment of discipleship, but church is also each believer incarnating Christ by bringing the kingdom of God to earth (cf. Matt 6:10). The term discipleship for LT is the process of personally sharing, growing, and serving, while simultaneously helping others share, grow, and serve in a relational church environment (cf. Matt 28:19-20). The terms pastor and leader are distinct from discipler, not because it is less than discipling, but because it is more. In other words, everyone is called to disciple, but not everyone is called to shepherd and lead. The term pastor (shepherd) refers to an individual who “equips the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ” (Eph 4:11-12). For LT, the role of the pastor is critically important for answering questions, encouraging, and assisting (equipping) disciplers who get “stuck” when discipling others. According to BDAG, the Greek lemma for leader (προΐστημι) means to exercise leadership, show concern for, care for, and give aid.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Leadership is not about exercising authority (cf. Matt 20:25), but about being a servant. The Gospel of Matthew states, “Whoever wishes to become great among you shall be your servant, and whoever wishes to be first among you shall be your slave; just as the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve” (Matt 20:26-28). Accordingly, for LT, leaders fit the modern definition of a catalyst more than the modern definition of a leader. Brafman and Beckstrom suggest that a catalyst is a great listener, wants to help, has a relentless belief in the vision, builds trust, does not attempt to control outcomes, exerts no coercion, inspires, and then most importantly…leaves.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) In many ways, not only does the modern definition of catalyst fit the definition of the Greek lemma for leader, it also aligns with Christ’s ministry on earth. ### **Verifiers** Where the vehicle of the entity and the views of the participants exist in a highly decentralized autonomous environment, it is almost impossible to use traditional verifiers to track success. Last year, LT quantitatively tracked thousands of hours of discipleship coaching, counseling, and small group sessions and tracked that over a thousand individuals gave their life to Christ at the large group discipleship events. Although LT will continue to attempt to track this quantitative information, these numbers neither measure the success of the discipleship process nor provide empirical evidence of discipleship success. The quantitative statistics ultimately measure the wrong data to track the *effectiveness* of discipleship. The question that needs answered is whether individuals’ lives are being transformed. All the sharing, growing, and serving statistics mean nothing if lives are conformed to the world, and not to Christ (cf. 1 Cor 2:16). LT utilizes two qualitative methods of tracking whether lives are being transformed. First, all individual and group discipleship sessions have an evaluation form in the back of the C4 manual that provides feedback to the discipler. The participant evaluates the discipler using a five-point scale regarding such things as whether they felt heard, judged, encouraged, and challenged. Second, Scripture provides several references to track the spiritual health of the individual. The most well-known may be Paul’s reference to the fruit of the Spirit, “But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, self-control; against such things there is no law” (Gal 5:22-23; see also 2 Peter 1:5-7). Accordingly, the C4 manual provides a fruit of the Spirit and a relationship satisfaction evaluation form for all individual and group discipleship sessions. Participants complete the forms at the end of each session. The fruit of the Spirit evaluations uses a five-point scale to assess such things as the level of joy, anxiety, fear, and anger. The relationships satisfaction evaluation uses a five-point scale to assess such things as the ability to build trust, resolve conflict, and serve others. Both scales can be tracked and compared to previous sessions to track progress. Although the verifiers are in place to empirically measure spiritual growth, LT is not currently utilizing the system to its full potential. First, the current scales may need expanded. However, an analysis would need performed to assess whether expanding the evaluations would decrease participation rate. Next, the statistics from the sessions need compiled to show progress and to assist in refining the disciple making plan. The final step is to create an online database system that allows each participant to input the results, compare results to previous data, and compare results to other participants using statistical analysis. By analyzing the data, LT will be able to further track the success of making disciples and refine the disciple making. ### **Conclusion** Without question, this paper has shown that is possible to not only create a disciple making plan, but also develop a strategy of deployment within the context of LT. The analysis first described the ultimate vision for discipleship, which is to transform lives to image God, and then identified three core values that support the vision–sharing, growing, and serving. Next, the research provided methods that drive the discipleship process, which include a starfish decentralized structure and the utilization of LT discipleship resources. Furthermore, several important key terms such as the gospel, evangelism, discipleship, and leader were defined to decrease the risk of confusion. Finally, an examination of current and potential verifiers ensued, which included not only traditional quantitative tracking, but also included qualitative verifiers of discipleship such as tracking the fruit of the Spirit. Regarding practical application, the opportunities appear to be endless as it is possible for the entire disciple making plan to be deployed in any environment where two or more individuals meet with the willingness for their lives to be transformed. ### **Bibliography** Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. *Discipleship*. Edited by Geffrey B. Kelly and John D. Godsey. Translated by Barbara Green and Reinhard Krauss. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003. Brafman, Ori, and Rod Beckstrom. *The Starfish and the Spider: The Unstoppable Power of Leaderless Organizations*. London: Penguin, 2006. Collins, James C., and Jerry I. Porras. *Built to Last: Successful Habits of Visionary Companies*. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. Earley, Dave, and Rod Dempsey. *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013. Fay, William, and Linda Evans Shepherd. *Share Jesus without Fear*. Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999. France, R. T. *The Gospel of Matthew*. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2007. Heiser, Michael S. *The Unseen Realm*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015. Hirsch, Alan. *The Forgotten Ways*. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2006. Keener, Craig S. *The Mind of the Spirit: Paul’s Approach to Transformed Thinking*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016. Keller, Tim. *Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Putman, Jim, Bobby Harrington, and Robert E. Coleman. *DiscipleShift*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013. Wallace, Daniel B. *Greek Grammar: Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax on the New Testament*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996. [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the New American Standard Bible (La Habra, CA: Lockman Foundation, 1995). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) R. T. France, *The Gospel of Matthew*, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2007), 1115 (emphasis mine). [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) See Daniel B. Wallace, *Greek Grammar: Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax on the New Testament* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 640–45. According to Wallace, πορευθέντες is an attendant circumstance participle, and thus picks up the imperative mood of the main verb μαθητεύσατε. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Based on an analysis of Hebrew grammar the image of God is not considered an ability or property, but instead functions as a verb that images God. For further discussion, see Michael S. Heiser, *The Unseen Realm* (Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015), 40–43. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) James C. Collins and Jerry I. Porras, *Built to Last: Successful Habits of Visionary Companies* (New York: HarperCollins, 1994), 80–90. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Tim Keller, *Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 39–44. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 63. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Craig S. Keener, *The Mind of the Spirit: Paul’s Approach to Transformed Thinking* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016), 33. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 45. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) William Arndt, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer, *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature* (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 597–98. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Dave Earley and Rod Dempsey, *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2013), 229–37. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ori Brafman and Rod Beckstrom, *The Starfish and the Spider: The Unstoppable Power of Leaderless Organizations* (London: Penguin, 2006), 33–35. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Alan Hirsch, *The Forgotten Ways* (Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2006), 19. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Brafman and Beckstrom, *The Starfish*, 36–37. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Keller, *Center Church*, 341–42. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Jim Putman, Bobby Harrington, and Robert E. Coleman, *DiscipleShift* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 220. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) For a full discussion regarding this method, see William Fay and Linda Evans Shepherd, *Share Jesus without Fear* (Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999), 29–55. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Arndt, Danker, and Bauer, *A Greek-English Lexicon*, 303–4. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Dietrich Bonhoeffer, *Discipleship*, ed. Geffrey B. Kelly and John D. Godsey, trans. Barbara Green and Reinhard Krauss (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003), 215. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Arndt, Danker, and Bauer, *A Greek-English Lexicon*, 870. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Brafman and Beckstrom, *The Starfish, 120–29.* **Categories:** Research --- ### [Head Coverings in 1 Corinthians 11](https://www.livestransforming.com/head-coverings-in-1-corinthians-11/) **Published:** January 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Head Coverings in 1 Corinthians 11 The Apostle Paul’s language in 1 Corinthians 11:2-16 regarding head coverings has vexed scholars for centuries. Several questions still remain with regard to the interpretation of Paul’s passage, especially in light of the ancient situational context. Without a proper understanding of the passage’s historical background, the interpreter risks missing the author’s intended meaning. Importantly, the following research is not an exegetical analysis and is considered quite controversial, but the point of the examination is to show how an understanding of ancient thought may provide a backdrop to clarify a text’s meaning. Specifically, a proper understanding of the backdrop of ancient physiology as found in medical texts may assist in resolving certain interpretive conundrums of 1 Corinthians 11:2-16. To pursue the argument, the research begins by summarizing the primary issues surrounding the meaning of the passage and then focuses on the concept of nature (φύσις) as a potential key to unlocking the meaning of the passage. The remainder of the research applies the physiological solution of the term *nature* to three other interpretive challenges: the reference to honor and dishonor, the definition of the term *head* (κεφαλή), and the meaning of the reference to angels. ## **Understanding the Argument from Nature** ### The Primary Issues Scholars have often accused the apostle Paul of conveying a convoluted and obscure argument in 1 Corinthians 11:2-16 regarding head coverings.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Several specific phrases and references within the passage vex interpreters. However, at the center of the debate is the distinction between the way Paul addresses males versus females, “Every man who prays or prophesies with his head covered dishonors his head, but every wife who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head” (1 Cor 11:4-5, English Standard Version). Some of the unanswered questions include why a contrast exists between the head coverings of men and women, why the Corinthian women apparently abandoned the head covering, whether Paul is referring to material head coverings, biological hair, or hairstyles, what the word “head” (κεφαλή) means within the context of Paul’s letter, how nature (φύσις) explains the situation, and what angels have to do with women covering their heads. One concept that all scholars appear to agree upon is that the Greco-Roman cultural milieu informs the interpretation of the passage. Anthony Thiselton stresses the importance of Roman cultural and social norms in the first century while recognizing the potential of Greek overtones throughout Paul’s lifetime.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Gordon Fee also highlights the critical nature of integrating the prevailing customs into the analysis while also distinguishing between the Greek, Roman, and Jewish perspectives within the geographical locales.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) [![1 Corinthians 182x300 - Head Coverings in 1 Corinthians 11](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/1-Corinthians-182x300.jpg "Head Coverings in 1 Corinthians 11 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gO0ILr)1 Corinthians: A Paragraph-by-Paragraph Exegetical Evangelical Bible Commentary – BECNT (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament) Finally, David Garland agrees with Thiselton and Fee, but focuses much of his attention on the culture of honor and shame as it relates to head coverings.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Accordingly, the focus of the remainder of the analysis attempts to address the contentious scholarly issues by exploring the historical background of the passage to provide clarity regarding the passage’s meaning. ### The Issue of Nature The argument from nature (φύσις) in 1 Corinthians 11:14-15 is particularly challenging but may be key to unlocking much of the interpretive difficulties surrounding the passage. Garland recognizes that the reference to nature engages the key issue of the passage, which is whether it is proper for women to pray with an uncovered head (1 Cor 11:13). Garland suggests that the word nature must, in some way, reference the societal conventions since it causes shame within the [cultural environment](https://www.livestransforming.com/historical-cultural-background/).[\[5\]](#_ftn5) More specifically, since long hair on a man was not always culturally disgraceful, Thiselton asserts that “Paul simply appeals to ‘how things are’ or ‘how things are ordered’ in the period and context for which he is writing.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Thiselton summarizes four primary interpretive views of ἡ φύσις as follows: (1) an inborn sense of what is right, (2) the way humans are created, (3) the physical world order, or (4) societal customs.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Ancient Greek thinkers provide additional insight into the potential meaning of φύσις. Aristotle assumes that the notion of nature is the essence of something and that which is “by nature can never be anything disorderly” (Aristotle, *Physics* 8.1).[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Regarding hair, Epictetus, the Greek Stoic philosopher, supports the Aristotelian thought by stating that a man “by nature” has bodily hair, and, if he removes the hair, then it is a scandal because it is against the man’s nature.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) It is not unreasonable to assume that Paul would have been aware of the contemporary perspectives of the term nature. Accordingly, Dale Martin narrows down the cultural context by suggesting that Paul is likely talking about the ordered state of how things are physiologically: “The ‘stuff’ of female nature \[that\] is differently constituted from that of male nature.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Thus, within an ancient Greco-Roman context, an investigation of how individuals historically viewed the nature of the male anatomy versus the female anatomy may provide insight into understanding why it was a disgrace for a woman to uncover her head. ### The Solution for Nature The ancient perspective of physiology may provide a historical backdrop to illuminate Paul’s meaning. The analysis specifically focuses on 1 Corinthians 11:15b, “For long hair is given to her as a covering (περιβόλαιον).” Troy Martin acknowledges that scholars have identified the dominant semantic range of περιβόλαιον in verse 15 as a form of covering, but he contends that the semantic range is much broader, as supported by ancient thinkers and medical texts.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) First, Euripides uses a form of περιβόλαιον in the Athenian Tragedy, Herakles when stating: “ἐπεὶ δὲ σαρκὸς *περιβόλαιʼ* ἐκτησάμην ἡβῶντα, μόχθους οὓς ἔτλην τί δεῖ λέγειν” (*Herc fur* 1269-1270, italics mine).[\[12\]](#_ftn12) *The Brill Dictionary of Ancient Greek* (*BrillDAG*) recognizes the physiological nuance of the περιβόλαιον by suggesting it can mean a wrapping of the “flesh about the body.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Accordingly, Martin translates Euripides as follows: “After I received \[my\] bags of flesh, which are the outward signs of puberty, \[I received\] labors about which I \[shall\] undertake to say what is necessary.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) The idea is that the outward signs of puberty were testicles wrapped in flesh. Thus, Euripides uses the term περιβόλαιον to mean a wrapped sexual organ. Other ancient writers also support the sexual connotations of the term περιβόλαιον linguistically. Achilles Tatius uses the term when describing an erotic garden in *The Adventures of Leucippe and Clitophon*: “τῶν πετάλων *περιπλοκαί*, τῶν φύλλων *περιβολαί*, τῶν καρπῶν συμπλοκαί” (Ach. Tat., *Luec. Clit*., 1.15.2, italics mine).[\[15\]](#_ftn15) According to *BrillDAG*, the term περιπλοκή has the connotation of “twining oneself around, clasping around.”[\[16\]](#_ftn16) The context of *The Adventures of Leucippe and Clitophon* is an erotic story of two lovers. Thus, according to Martin, Tatius is referring to sexual organs where περιπλοκαί refers to female hair entangling the lover and περιβολαί refers to male testicles.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) The important aspect of Tatius’s language is the association of male sex organs with female hair. Although Tatius’s writing would not been available to Paul, the concepts would likely have been pervasive during Paul’s lifetime. Hippocrates, the Greek physician, provides the foundation for the ancient perspective of physiology in ancient medical texts. Martin explains that Hippocratic authors assume that hair is like a hollow vacuum that attracts semen; thus, hair grows mostly on the head because semen is stored in the brain (Hippocrates, *Genit*. 1).[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Accordingly, during intercourse the man’s semen has to move from the brain to the genitals (Aristotle, *Probl*. 893b.10-17); thus, it is a shame for a man to have long hair since it is man’s nature (φύσις) to eject not retain the semen.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Alternatively, a woman’s long hair sucks or draws up the semen from her hollow uterus (Aristotle, *Gen an*. 739a.37-739b.20) “by nature” (φύσις) and congeals it to the fetus (Hippocrates, *Genit*. 5; *Nat. puer*. 12).[\[20\]](#_ftn20) In 1 Corinthians 11:13-15, Paul contrasts the female’s long hair with the male’s sex organ by explaining that physiologically (φύσις) long hair is a disgrace to a man, but long hair is “given to her as a testicle (περιβόλαιον),” certainly not an external testicle, but instead, a wrapped, sex organ on the top of her brain.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) When Paul rhetorically asks the Corinthians whether it is proper for a woman to pray with her head uncovered, could the answer not only be that Jewish tradition encourages modesty, but accordingly, that Paul would be forbidding the exposure of genitalia when engaging in services for God (see Isa. 6:2; Exod 20:26)? With the historical backdrop of ancient physiology potentially established, several of the interpretive conundrums may begin to resolve. ## **Ramifications of the Argument from Nature** ### The Shame The ancient historical understanding of physiology and medical concepts may clarify the meaning of certain aspects of 1 Corinthians 11:2-16. For example, Paul explains that it is dishonoring for a man to pray with his head covered, but alternatively, also dishonoring for a woman to pray with her head uncovered. The ramifications are significant within the ancient cultural context of honor and shame. Garland suggests that many scholars assume that unbinding or uncovering hair in public was shameful because it was associated with prostitution or women caught up in the worship of cults such as Dionysius, Cybele, and Isis.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) As opposed to contradicting the ancient medical texts, the assumptions may be supportive. In other words, if hair was considered a type of sexual organ, then it is possible that uncovered hair was a provocative act represented by prostitutes. Likewise, it is also possible that women caught up in the worship of cults that advanced sexual liaisons would also uncover their sexual organs (hair) to elicit a response from the gods. Jewish literature of the Second Temple period also addressed the issue of a covered head. Garland notes that it was considered a disgrace for a Hebrew woman to leave the house with her head uncovered (3 Macc 4:6).[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Similarly, the Testament of Job tells a story of a woman not having enough money for three loaves of bread, so the seller asks the woman to pay with her hair: “He arose and cut my hair disgracefully in the market, while the crowd stood by and marveled” (T. Job 24:9-10).[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Finally, Philo also refers to the potential sexual implications of uncovering the head when suggesting that taking away the head covering deprives a woman of the “symbol of modesty” (Philo, *Spec. Laws* 3:10).[\[25\]](#_ftn25) It is evident that uncovering a woman’s head was disgraceful in light of Second Temple literature, but the reason for the shame in an honor and shame culture is not as obvious. Modesty is often a reason given, but exactly why uncovered hair was immodest is less obvious unless an understanding of ancient physiology is understood whereby an uncovered head represented the exposing of a type of sexual organ. ### The Head Another challenging issue the interpreter faces when addressing 1 Corinthians 11:2-16 is the definition of the term head (κεφαλή). The key verse for the analysis is 1 Corinthians 11:3, which states, “But I want you to realize that the head of every man is Christ, and the head of the woman is man, and the head of Christ is God.” Thiselton has a protracted analysis of the potential meanings of the term head, which include (1) authority or supremacy, (2) source or origin, and (3) a metaphor drawn from the physiological head.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) However, Thiselton admits that Paul is using wordplay in his uses of the term for a physiological head.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Fee seems to understand Paul’s overall theoretical point. Paul appears to be referring to a shift from a woman’s individual freedom to uncover her hair to one of relational responsibility that, in some way, affects the relationship between woman and man as well as potentially between woman and Christ.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Regarding the relationship between the woman and man, the potential rift seems obvious if the ancient man understood his wife’s uncovering to be associated with exposing sexual organs. Furthermore, in light of the creation language in 1 Corinthians 11:8-9 and the new creation language in Paul’s follow up letter (See 2 Cor 5:17), Paul may be reminding the reader that it is Christ who is ultimately in charge of all creative activity, and both men and women must submit to His authority regarding procreative activity. ### The Angels Another issue that has vexed many scholars is Paul’s unanticipated and somewhat shocking reference to the angels when stating, “It is for this reason, and *because of the angels*, the woman ought to have authority over her head” (1 Cor 11:10; italics mine). After spoiling both the Sethite and divinized human ruler interpretation of Genesis 6:1-4, Michael Heiser espouses a supernatural view of the passage where angels perpetuated sexual sin against human women.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) Jude 6 also appears to allude to the event when stating, “And the angels who did not stay within their own position of authority but left their proper dwelling, he has kept in eternal chains” (See also 2 Peter 2:1-10). Second Temple literature also addresses the situation, which not only retells the Genesis 6 episode, but also informs the New Testament writers’ intellectual worldview. In the retelling, 1 Enoch 6:2 explains that the angels desired human women when stating, “Come, let us choose wives for ourselves from among the daughters of man and beget us children.”[\[30\]](#_ftn30) The connection between angels and sexual sin is unmistakable. Most scholars dismiss the connection between Genesis 6:1-6, Jude 6, 2 Peter 2:1-10, and 1 Enoch 6-8 either by denying the possibility of a supernatural worldview or, as Fee does, scoffs at the possibility that women would be in jeopardy due to a lack of evidence.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) However, the reality of potential risk to women misses the point of the intellectual worldview of the ancient writers. Similar to Troy Martin, Loren Stuckenbruck references the Hippocratic and Aristotelian schools when suggesting that the ancient physiological perspective assumed that a woman’s “nature with wetness and porousness was thought to make her especially vulnerable to disease, sexual appetite, irrationality, and pollution.”[\[32\]](#_ftn32) Accordingly, Stuckenbruck asserts that angels have the capacity to violate the cosmic order and, in some way, blur the lines of distinctiveness, and thus, in ancient thought the head covering protects the order, draws boundaries, and decreases the risk of physiological contamination.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Although flexibility of interpretation is necessary when evidence is lacking, to suggest that Paul was absolutely not thinking about Genesis 6 and 1 Enoch when writing the angelic phrase appears to move beyond the evidence. ## **Conclusion** Within an ancient Greco-Roman context, understanding how individuals historically viewed anatomy, and, specifically, how they viewed the male anatomy distinct from the female anatomy may assist in solving why uncovering a woman’s head was disgraceful. Furthermore, ancient texts by Euripides, Achilles Tatius, and the medical texts of Hippocratic authors support the potential anatomical solution, which may unlock meaning related to three difficult interpretive issues within the passage: the issue of honor, the definition of head, and the reference to angels. Accordingly, it appears that a proper understanding of the historical background, specifically of ancient physiology, assists in potentially resolving the interpretive conundrums of 1 Corinthians 11:2-16. Although the conclusion is admittedly controversial and certainly not determinative, this research highlights the importance of expanding the breadth of study beyond the traditional historical background information such as Jewish literature of the Second Temple period or Josephus’s historical writings and into other domains such as ancient physiological, sociological, and scientific thought, which may enhance understanding. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) See Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza, *In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian Origins* (New York: Crossroad, 1983), 227–228; Victor Paul Furnish, *The Theology of the First Letter to the Corinthians* (New York: Cambridge University, 1999), 77. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Anthony C. Thiselton, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2000), 801. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Gordon D. Fee, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, Revised., The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 561. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) David E. Garland, *1 Corinthians*, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 520–521. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Garland, *1 Corinthians*, 509. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Thiselton, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, 844. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Aristotle, “Physica,” in *The Works of Aristotle*, ed. W. D. Ross, R. P. Hardie, and R. K. Gaye, vol. 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930). [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Epictetus, *The Works Of Epictetus: Consisting of His Discourses, In Four Books, the Enchiridion, and Fragments.*, ed. Thomas Wentworth Higginson (Medford, MA: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1890), 2006–2007. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Dale B. Martin, *The Corinthian Body* (New Haven: Yale University, 1999), 248. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Troy W Martin, “Paul’s Argument from Nature for the Veil in 1 Corinthians 11:13-15: A Testicle Instead of a Head Covering,” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 123, no. 1 (2004): 76–77. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Euripides, *Euripidis Fabulae*, ed. Gilbert Murray (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913). [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Franco Montanari, “Περιβόλαιον,” ed. Madeleine Goh and Chad Schroeder, *The Brill Dictionary of Ancient Greek* (Boston: Brill, 2015). [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Martin, “Paul’s Argument from Nature for the Veil in 1 Corinthians 11:13-15: A Testicle Instead of a Head Covering,” 77. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Achilles Tatius, *Leucippe and Clitophon* (Philadelphia: George Barrie & Son, 1902), 82. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Franco Montanari, “Περιπλοκή,” ed. Madeleine Goh and Chad Schroeder, *The Brill Dictionary of Ancient Greek* (Boston: Brill, 2015). [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Martin, “Paul’s Argument from Nature for the Veil in 1 Corinthians 11:13-15: A Testicle Instead of a Head Covering,” 77. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Ibid., 78. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Martin, “Paul’s Argument from Nature,” 78. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Ibid., 78–79. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) See Mark S. Goodacre, “Does Περιβόλαιον Mean ‘Testicle’ in 1 Corinthians 11:15?,” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 130, no. 2 (2011): 391–396 for a critique of Troy Martin’s semantic analysis where Goodacre asserts no lexical basis for translating περιβόλαιον as testicle. Also, see Troy W Martin, “Περιβόλαιον as ‘Testicle’ in 1 Corinthians 11:15: A Response to Mark Goodacre,” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 132, no. 2 (2013): 453–465 where Martin responds to Goodcare and asserts that the necessary lexical basis for any term is its context, which Goodacre completely ignores. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Garland, *1 Corinthians*, 519. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Ibid., 520. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) James H. Charlesworth, ed., *The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha*, vol. 1 (New York: Yale University, 1983), 849. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Philo, *Philo*, trans. F. H. Colson, G. H. Whitaker, and J. W. Earp, vol. 7, The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1929), 511. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Thiselton, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, 12–18. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Ibid., 18. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Fee, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, 553–554. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Michael S. Heiser, *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible* (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2015), 92–100. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) James H. Charlesworth, *The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha*, 1:15. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Fee, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, 576, fn 123. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Loren T Stuckenbruck, “Why Should Women Cover Their Heads Because of Angels? (1 Corinthians 11:10),” *Stone-Campbell Journal* 4, no. 2 (2001): 229. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Ibid., 231. [](#_ftnref1) ## Bibliography - Aristotle. “Physica.” In *The Works of Aristotle*, edited by W. D. Ross, R. P. Hardie, and R. K. Gaye. Vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930. - Epictetus. *The Works Of Epictetus: Consisting of His Discourses, In Four Books, the Enchiridion, and Fragments.* Edited by Thomas Wentworth Higginson. Medford, MA: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1890. - Euripides. *Euripidis Fabulae*. Edited by Gilbert Murray. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913. - Fee, Gordon D. *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*. Revised. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014. - Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schussler. *In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian Origins*. New York: Crossroad, 1983. - Furnish, Victor Paul. *The Theology of the First Letter to the Corinthians*. New York: Cambridge University, 1999. - Garland, David E. *1 Corinthians*. Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003. - Goodcare, Mark S. “Does Περιβόλαιον Mean ‘Testicle’ in 1 Corinthians 11:15?” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 130, no. 2 (2011): 391–396. - Heiser, Michael S. *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2015. - James H. Charlesworth, ed. *The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha*. Vol. 1. New York: Yale University, 1983. - Martin, Dale B. *The Corinthian Body*. New Haven: Yale University, 1999. - Martin, Troy W. “Paul’s Argument from Nature for the Veil in 1 Corinthians 11:13-15: A Testicle Instead of a Head Covering.” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 123, no. 1 (2004): 75–84. - ———. “Περιβόλαιον as ‘Testicle’ in 1 Corinthians 11:15: A Response to Mark Goodacre.” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 132, no. 2 (2013): 453–465. - Montanari, Franco. “Περιβόλαιον.” Edited by Madeleine Goh and Chad Schroeder. *The Brill Dictionary of Ancient Greek*. Boston: Brill, 2015. - ———. “Περιπλοκή.” Edited by Madeleine Goh and Chad Schroeder. *The Brill Dictionary of Ancient Greek*. Boston: Brill, 2015. - Philo. *Philo*. Translated by F. H. Colson, G. H. Whitaker, and J. W. Earp. Vol. 7. The Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1929. - Stuckenbruck, Loren T. “Why Should Women Cover Their Heads Because of Angels? (1 Corinthians 11:10).” *Stone-Campbell Journal* 4, no. 2 (2001): 205–234. - Tatius, Achilles. *Leucippe and Clitophon*. Philadelphia: George Barrie & Son, 1902. - Thiselton, Anthony C. *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*. New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2000. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [New Testament Vision of the Messiah](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/) **Published:** December 29, 2024 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # New Testament Vision of the Messiah The New Testament provides a powerful eschatological vision of Christ the Messiah. Without establishing a proper messianic perspective, the interpreter risks getting bogged down in various eschatological systems and missing the thematic threads that illuminate the expectations and fulfillments of the messianic plan. The following essay first provides a synopsis of the eschatological pattern of expectation and fulfillment found in the New Testament. Next, the essay explores several relevant texts and themes that point to a messianic vision of Christ within the Gospels, the epistles, and the apocalyptic material from Revelation. Finally, the essay provides a brief biblical-theological synthesis of the New Testament’s eschatological vision of Christ. ### **Eschatological Pattern of the Messiah** When asked how the New Testament provides an eschatological vision of Christ, the most natural place to begin is with the end. The emphasis in one’s response would often revolve around attempting to answer questions such as: What will happen when Jesus comes back? Will a rapture occur? If so, will it occur before or after a time of tribulation? Instead of beginning at the end, the New Testament provides an [eschatological vision of Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/knowing-jesus-through-the-old-testament/) that moves from the opposite direction, from expectation to fulfillment. Specifically, the New Testament writers offer echoes, allusions, and references to Old Testament prophetic expectations that have future fulfillment. The writers also recognize the fulfillment of those Old Testament prophecies during their lifetime. In a sense, Christ fulfilled the Old Testament prophetic expectations when He came to earth and inaugurated His kingdom. However, the writers were also documenting new expectations yet to be fulfilled. In short, the pattern of the New Testament’s eschatological vision of Christ is as follows: an initial expectation, an initial fulfillment, a further expectation, and a final fulfillment. ### **New Testament Gospels** Limiting a discussion of the plethora of passages within the four Gospels that point to an eschatological vision of Christ to just a few would be most difficult. Excluding the Olivet discourse, which occurs in all three of the Synoptic Gospels, from consideration of Jesus’s expected Second Coming would be even more difficult. Although numerous passages could be chosen, Matthew 24 will provide the representative passage while recognizing similar content within Mark 13 and Luke 21. The discourse begins with the disciples asking Jesus about the time of the temple destruction and the end of the age (Matt 24:3). In response, Jesus first describes the time before his return, which will encompass false messiahs, war, famine, earthquakes, persecution, deception, and apostasy; however, some will endure, the gospel will be proclaimed to the world, and then, finally, the end will come (Matt 24:4-14). Next, Jesus describes the time of tribulation before his return (Matt 24:15-28). Echoing the prophet Daniel, Jesus references the “abomination of desolation,” which is usually considered an ancient allusion to the desecration of the Jerusalem temple by Antiochus Epiphanes IV (Matt 24:15). A future desecration will also occur, and the impact of the persecution will cause believers to flee Judea (Matt 24:16-20). Notably, the desecration points to a long typological pattern of expectation and fulfillment, likely beginning with Nebuchadnezzar’s efforts toward the end of the seventh century (Dan 5:1-4; 22-23). The pattern of desolation then continues through Epiphanes’ antics, the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, the desolation by Rome in AD 135, and then, finally, the ultimate desolation by the antichrist that Matthew references (Matt 24:15). Rather than viewing Matthew’s reference to the abomination of desolation as one specific point in time such as AD 70, David Turner appropriately suggests that the various historical desolations are “a sequence of anticipatory fulfillments that lead up to the ultimate eschatological desolation.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Furthermore, during the great tribulation, God’s concern for His elect continues (Matt 24:21-22). The efforts of messianic imposters will intensify during these final days, but the coming of the Son of Man will be obvious (Matt 24:23-28). After the tribulation, the Son of Man will come on clouds to reign over His kingdom by gathering his elect from “the four winds” (Matt 24:29-31). The reference to dominion over all the nations as prophesied by Daniel is unmistakable (Dan 7:13-14). Preterists insist that the Messiah’s arrival refers to His place in heaven after the resurrection and points to the judgment of Jerusalem in AD 70. Futurists assume the Evangelist’s words point to a future eschatological fulfillment that may include a rapture event. Nevertheless, from the prophecy of Daniel to the kingdom inaugurated by Christ’s incarnation and then to the destruction of Jerusalem and beyond, missing the sequence of anticipatory fulfillments leading to a further unfolding of Christ’s future reign would be difficult (See also Matthew 26:64, Mark 14:62, Luke 22:69). The Gospel of John also provides an eschatological vision of Christ. First, Jesus refers to Gentile inclusion as He, as the Good Shepherd, gathers all nations under his rule (John 10:14-16). The fulfillment of the Abrahamic covenant and the foreshadowing of an eschatological unity are unmistakable. Second, Jesus promises His disciples that He will prepare a future place and return to take His people with Him (John 14:2-3). Finally, John explains that judgment will occur at the eschatological resurrection of the righteous and unrighteous (John 5:28-29). In sum, the Gospels follow an eschatological pattern that incorporates Old Testament prophetic expectations, recognizes the eschatological reality inaugurated by Christ, and points to a further fulfillment of God’s plan. ### **New Testament Epistles** The New Testament Epistles also provide several eschatological visions of Christ. One thematic initiative already alluded to within the Gospels is the teaching related to a future judgment (John 5:28-29; see also Matt 13:24-20, 36-43). The Apostle Paul writes in his second letter to the Corinthians, “For we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, so that each one may receive what is due for what he has done in the body, whether good or evil” (2 Cor 5:10). Like the gospel accounts, both believers and unbelievers will stand before God in judgment, which God carries out through Christ. C. K. Barrett astutely notes there is no inconsistency between Paul’s doctrine of judgment and his doctrine of justification, as “obedience is not abrogated but made possible by justification.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, what is ultimately due to Christians at the time of judgment is a result of appropriating the gift of righteousness provided by Christ, not due to the autonomous efforts of humanity. A second theme associated with Paul’s eschatological vision of Christ occurs in 1 Corinthians 15. Paul engages the issue of the resurrection of believers, which is also alluded to in the Gospels (John 5:28-29; Mark 12:18-27) as well as other New Testament Epistles (1 Thess 4:13-18). Paul insists that Christ is the “firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep” (1 Cor 15:20). The term “firstfruits” is a metaphor that points to a future, fuller harvest. Christ resurrected, but since believers are in Christ they shall also “all be made alive” (1 Cor 15:22). Ultimately, when Christ comes back, believers’ bodies will become imperishable and immortal (1 Cor 15:53). Furthermore, in 1 Corinthians 15:54-55, Paul quotes Isaiah 25:8 and Hosea 13:14. Gordon Fee explains that Paul’s references to the Old Testament “are in fact fulfilled in Christ, but they simply have yet to be realized.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Once again, like the Gospel writers, a New Testament writer incorporates Old Testament prophetic expectations, recognizes the eschatological reality inaugurated by Christ, and points to a future fulfillment of God’s plan. A third theme associated with an eschatological vision of Christ occurs in the General Epistles. 2 Peter 3:13 states, “But according to His promise we are waiting for new heavens and a new earth in which righteousness dwells” (cf. Rev 21:1-5). Richard Bauckham asserts that God’s promise in this verse refers back to Isaiah 65:1 and 66:22, which describes a renewal, rather than an abolition, of creation (cf. Ezek 37:1-4).[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The vision points to an eschatological reality where Christ is ultimately victorious. Once again, a pattern of the eschatological vision of Christ appears. The New Testament writer recognizes an initial expectation within the Old Testament prophets pointing to a new creation. An initial fulfillment of God’s new creation occurs in Christ (2 Cor 5:17). The author of 2 Peter establishes a further expectation of new heavens and a new earth, which looks forward to a future fulfillment where righteousness dwells. ### Revelation** The quintessential eschatological vision of Christ in the New Testament resides in the Book of Revelation. Several themes already explored in the Gospels and the Epistles pick up steam in Revelation. In Matthew 24, the Evangelist writes that the Son of Man will come on the clouds. Similarly, John turns and sees the voice speaking to him who appears “like a Son of Man” (Rev 1:13). The resurrection theme is also touched upon as the Son of Man replies to John, stating, “I died, and behold I am alive forevermore, and I have the keys of Death” (Rev 1:18). John’s description of his vision seems to highlight Jesus’s power and authority. A second thematic initiative is judgment. John has a vision of a throne, and before the throne is the “book of life” (Rev 20:12). Judgement ensues based on the book’s content. The people are “judged, each one of them, according to what they had done” (Rev 20:13). The Old Testament prophetic corpus attests to judgment (cf. Jer 17:10), as does the New Testament as noted above (see also Rom 2:6; 1 Pet 1:17). In line with other New Testament writers, John reflects upon prophetic expectations and simultaneously looks forward to their future fulfillment. A third theme arises toward the end of Revelation. Once again, a New Testament writer alludes to the reality of a new creation (cf. 2 Pet 3:10-13). John sees a “new heaven and a new earth” and “saw the holy city, new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God” (Rev 21:1-2). Robert Mounce recognizes the challenges in identifying the literalness of the language but suggests that the phrase “New Jerusalem” likely symbolizes the church in an eternal state.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Regardless, John’s point is clear: God’s presence dwells at the site of the Jerusalem temple. This brief analysis has only addressed the tip of the iceberg regarding the eschatological vision of Christ in the Book of Revelation. However, like the numerous examples found in the Gospels and Epistles, John provides echoes and allusions to the Old Testament prophetic expectations, recognizes an already-but-not-yet reality inaugurated through Christ, and simultaneously conveys a powerful vision of a future fulfillment of God’s plan. ### **Biblical Theology** Although limited, a biblical-theological synthesis from the New Testament thematic initiatives surrounding an eschatological vision of Christ is now possible. However, a brief genre analysis informs a proper biblical-theological summary. Although the Gospels primarily fit the genre of biography, Jesus’s role as a prophet allows the interpreter to apply the sub-genre of prophetic biography to certain aspects of the Gospels, especially the Olivet Discourse.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) [![All Things New Revelation as Canonical Capstone 182x300 - New Testament Vision of the Messiah](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/All-Things-New-Revelation-as-Canonical-Capstone-182x300.jpg "New Testament Vision of the Messiah - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4iRH7vL)All Things New: Revelation as Canonical Capstone (Volume 48) (New Studies in Biblical Theology) Similarly, the genre of the New Testament Epistles is that of a letter of correspondence, but the Apostle Paul, at times, takes on the role of a prophetic letter writer (1 Cor 11:23; 2 Cor 12:1). Finally, Brian Tabb recognizes the mixed genre of Revelation, which includes a combination of apocalypse, prophecy, and epistle.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The point is that the prophetic overtones within these three genres provide the glue that allows a biblical-theological synthesis to hold together. The thematic threads that weave together the eschatological vision of Christ throughout the New Testament provide the foundation for a biblical-theological synthesis that assists the interpreter in understanding the movement from expectation to fulfillment. First, a time of persecution or tribulation pervades an eschatological vision of Christ, as does the message that the Son of Man will ultimately overcome evil and arise victoriously. Second, an eschatological vision of Christ entails judgment, resurrection, new heavens, and a new earth. Finally, the pattern by which the New Testament writers convey an eschatological vision of Christ provides insight into the thematic initiatives’ deep structures. Each theme originated with an initial expectation the Old Testament prophets communicated. Each of these themes also, in some way, were fulfilled in Christ as He inaugurated God’s kingdom through His incarnation, death, and resurrection. Each of these themes was then further extrapolated by the New Testament writers, and each will find its ultimate fulfillment in the future when Christ returns. ### Conclusion** This essay has shown that the New Testament provides a powerful eschatological vision of Christ. Several thematic initiatives arise through investigating such a vision, including the motifs of persecution, victory, judgment, resurrection, and new creation. These themes, when taken together in light of the eschatological pattern of expectation and fulfillment, provide an eschatological vision that goes beyond disparate topics or eschatological systems and allows for a broader, canonical perspective. More specifically, the New Testament writers recognize the initial expectation provided by the Old Testament prophets, communicate a realized eschatology partially fulfilled in Christ, convey a further expectation of messianic activity, and provide glimpses into the final fulfillment of God’s plan. For the modern reader, a proper understanding of the messianic vision of Christ and the pattern of eschatology conveyed throughout the New Testament offers hope for Christ’s ultimate victory and the fulfillment of God’s plans. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) David L. Turner, *Matthew* (Baker Academic, 2008), 580. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) C. K. Barrett, *The Second Epistle to the Corinthians*, *Black’s* *New* *Testament* *Commentary* (Baker Academic, 1993), 161. Although Barrett recognizes the linguistic ambiguity in the Greek phrase, Paul’s point remains intact. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Gordon D. Fee, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 803. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Richard Bauckham, *Jude-2 Peter*, ed. David Allen Hubbard, Glenn W. Barker, and Ralph P. Martin, vol. 50, *Word* *Biblical* *Commentary* (Zondervan Academic, 2014), 326. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Robert H. Mounce, *The Book of Revelation*, *The* *New* *International* *Commentary* *on* *the* *New* *Testament* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 382. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) See Richard A. Burridge, *What Are the Gospels?: A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography* (Baylor University Press, 2020). [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Brian Tabb, *All Things New: Revelation as Canonical Capstone*, *New Studies in Biblical Theology* (IVP Academic, 2019), 4. # # Bibliography Barrett, C. K. *The Second Epistle to the Corinthians*. *Black’s New Testament Commentary*. Baker Academic, 1993. Bauckham, Richard. *Jude-2 Peter*. Edited by David Allen Hubbard, Glenn W. Barker, and Ralph P. Martin. Vol. 50. *Word Biblical Commentary*. Zondervan Academic, 2014. Burridge, Richard A. *What Are the Gospels?: A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography*. Baylor University Press, 2020. Fee, Gordon D. *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014. Mounce, Robert H. *The Book of Revelation*. *The New International Commentary on the New Testament*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997. Tabb, Brian. *All Things New: Revelation as Canonical Capstone*. *New Studies in Biblical Theology*. IVP Academic, 2019. Turner, David L. *Matthew*. Baker Academic, 2008. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Literary Correspondence of 2nd Peter and Jude](https://www.livestransforming.com/literary-correspondence-of-2nd-peter-and-jude/) **Published:** January 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Literary Correspondence of 2nd Peter and Jude The literary correspondence between the books of 2 Peter and Jude is unmistakable. Determining the type of literary correspondence between the two books and in which direction the dependency flows offer an important issue for analysis. A proper understanding of literary dependence not only provides insight into issues such as authenticity but also has the opportunity to illuminate the meaning of the respective texts. The following essay asserts that 2 Peter depends on Jude, not due to issues involving correspondence or authenticity, but due to the nature of the polemic of 2 Peter. The analysis first identifies a few areas of overlap between the content of the two books and then analyzes several similarities and differences between their structure and vocabulary. Next, the essay addresses how an investigation of authenticity relates to the discussion of literary dependence. Finally, a close examination of syntax and the canonical relationship between the two books ensues, which assists in revealing how literary dependence may inform the interpretive process. ## **Correspondence** Certain similarities between Jude and 2 Peter suggest a literary correspondence between the two books. Richard Bauckman offers four explanations for the striking resemblance between Jude and 2 Peter: Jude could be dependent on 2 Peter; 2 Peter could be dependent on Jude; both could be dependent on a common source; or both could share joint authorship.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Bauckman explains that the differences in style make joint authorship implausible, and although a common source is possible, the complications associated with the hypothesis make literary dependence more likely.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, the following essay focuses primarily on the direction of dependency: whether Jude is dependent on 2 Peter or 2 Peter is dependent on Jude. The following provides several examples of content, structure, and vocabulary relevant to both Jude and 2 Peter that may assist in determining the direction of the literary dependency. A careful reading of Jude and 2 Peter reveals a clear relationship between the content of the two books. First, according to Jude 4, certain opponents “secretly slipped in among you” who “deny Jesus Christ our only Sovereign and Lord” (New International Version). Likewise, the opponents in 1 Peter 2:1 “secretly introduce destructive heresies, even denying the sovereign Lord.” Second, Jude 5-7 references three Old Testament stories, including the Israelites’ deliverance from Egypt, the story of fallen angels, and the Sodom and Gomorrah episode, all three serving as examples of punishment. Similarly, 1 Peter 2:4-9 references the Old Testament stories of fallen angels, Noah, and Sodom and Gomorrah. Third, both Jude 8-10 and 2 Peter 2:10-12 accuse their opponents of slandering celestial beings, asserting that even stronger beings, such as angels, would not engage in such slanderous activities and suggesting that their opponents are like animals. Fourth, Jude 11 and 2 Peter 13-16 accuse their opponents of following the ways of Balaam. Fifth, Jude 12-13 metaphorically describes the opponents as “clouds without rain, blown along by the wind…for whom the blackest darkness has been reserved forever.” Second Peter 2:17 uses similar language, describing the opponents as “springs without water and mists driven by a storm. Blackest darkness is reserved for them.” Sixth, Jude 14-16 and 2 Peter 2:18 both highlight the boasting of their opponents. Finally, Jude 17-19 and 2 Peter 3:1-3 request their listeners to remember the apostles’ words who prophesied that in the last days, scoffers will come and “follow their own evil desires.” The similarities between the content of the two books are striking and prompt interpreters to investigate the possibility of literary dependence. A straightforward comparison of content does provide evidence for literary dependence but, unfortunately, does not provide conclusive evidence of the direction of that dependence. An analysis of literary dependence must also consider the structure of the passages under investigation. Mark Mathews makes two relevant structural observations. First, Mathews explains that 2 Peter 2:4-10a offers an example of poorly constructed grammar since the author writes an unwieldy conditional sentence that begins with an introductory protasis followed by six inconsistent protases resulting in a series of structural lapses.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) On the other hand, Jude 5-8 provides clarity and concision that surpasses the comparable 2 Peter passage. A second observation pertains to the description of the opponents in 2 Peter 2:10 and Jude 8. Mathews notices that in 2 Peter 2:10, the writer breaks up the threefold malfeasances by concatenating fleshly desires and rejection of authority to the end of the unwieldy conditional sentence, and then the author comments on blasphemy as an additional appendage.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Alternatively, Jude 8 provides a tight construction that succinctly states that the ungodly individuals “pollute their own bodies, reject authority, and heap abuse on celestial beings.” Unfortunately, the distinction between the clumsily structured language of 2 Peter and the neatly constructed argument of Jude can provide evidence of literary dependence in either direction. On the one hand, Mathews asserts that it is more likely that Jude would have utilized 2 Peter and edited the material into a more coherent structure.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) On the other hand, Richard Bauckham states, “The most important literary reason for preferring 2 Peter’s dependence on Jude” is that Jude 4-18 “has been composed with exquisite care, whereas the corresponding parts of 2 Peter . . . are by comparison more loosely structured.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Vocabulary offers another set of clues that may assist in determining literary dependence. A few examples relating to vocabulary should suffice to highlight the differences between the two books. First, the vocabulary between 2 Peter 2:4 and Jude 6 provides certain similarities. David Jones recognizes that both 2 Peter and Jude utilize the term ἄγγελος concerning fallen angels, whereas, more commonly, the New Testament uses the term δαιμόνιον for a fallen angel.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Furthermore, both 2 Peter and Jude utilize the term ζόφος, which, according to Jones, would be unlikely for both writers to use absent of literary dependence due to the rarity of the word.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Another relevant vocabulary example is that Jude 6 uses the term δεσμός, which is a common term for chains, while 2 Peter 2:4 uses σειρά, which is a *hapax legomenon*. The UBS Editorial Committee contends that 2 Peter likely replaced the more familiar word used by Jude (δεσμός) with the less common term (σειρά) due to its elegance, which supports 2 Peter’s dependence on Jude. Still, Mathews believes that it is just as likely that Jude recognized the rarity and potential confusion that the term σειρά could cause and thus replaced it with the more common term, which supports Jude’s dependence on 2 Peter.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) In short, to conclusively determine the direction of literary dependence based solely on content, structure, and vocabulary is unlikely. ## **Authenticity** An investigation of the authenticity of Jude and 2 Peter may assist in explaining literary dependency. Biblical authenticity refers to a multi-faceted approach to the genuineness and reliability of the text. Authenticity often hinges upon examining specific aspects of the text, which include, but are not limited to, authorship, historical accuracy, originality, and coherence. Joseph Mayor summarizes modern scholarship’s view by stating that 2 Peter “was not written by the author of 1 Peter. . . . We conclude, therefore, that the second Epistle is not authentic.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) According to Michael Kruger, the argument that 2 Peter is pseudonymous rests upon problems surrounding external attestation, style, and doctrine.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) More specifically, external attestation comes under suspicion due to early Church Fathers and certain Reformers questioning the following: the canonicity of 2 Peter; the style of 2 Peter, which does not seem to align with 1 Peter; and the doctrine of apostate angels alluded to in 2 Peter and Jude, which cause concern for many interpreters. Although the canonicity of Jude has also been questioned, the availability of evidence explaining the reasons for the suspicion is lacking in comparison to 2 Peter. The relevance of the authenticity debate, particularly the issue of pseudonymity to literary dependence, rests on dating and chronology. For example, if a later pseudonymous author wrote 2 Peter after the book of Jude, then Jude could not have utilized the content of 2 Peter. Furthermore, if the Apostle Peter were the author of 2 Peter, then that would open the possibility that the book was written before Jude, and, accordingly, Jude could have utilized the content of 2 Peter. Alternatively, if Jude came before 2 Peter, then the possibility exists that 2 Peter depends upon Jude, which aligns with the current consensus. Dating also plays into the analysis. For instance, if the interpreter dates Jude after the life of Peter and presupposes that 2 Peter depends on Jude, then Peter could not have authored 2 Peter. The determination that 2 Peter is pseudonymous is far from conclusive. First and foremost, 2 Peter 1:1 states that Simon Peter wrote the book of 2 Peter for righteous believers. Furthermore, P. H. R. van Houwelingen points out that the epistle also shows the author as having the qualities of an apostle when he states he was an eyewitness (2 Pet 1:16), defends Scripture (2 Pet 1:20-21; 3:16), warns against error (2 Pet 2:1-22; 3:3-7), and provides a unity of content in the letter that includes Christology (2 Pet 1), ethics (2 Pet 2), and eschatology (2 Pet 3).[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Accordingly, it is reasonable to maintain the authenticity of 2 Peter. [![The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude 182x300 - Literary Correspondence of 2nd Peter and Jude](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Letters-of-2-Peter-and-Jude-182x300.jpg "Literary Correspondence of 2nd Peter and Jude - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/49UYZlB)The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude: The Pillar New Testament Commentary (PNTC) Also, the book of Jude also identifies its author in Jude 1:1: “Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James to those who have been called.” Although other options exist, and some scholars assume Jude is also pseudonymous, Peter Davids asserts that the most likely author of Jude is Judas, Jesus’s younger brother (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3).[\[13\]](#_ftn13) If Jude is Jesus’s brother, then the book was likely written before AD 66, and if Peter wrote 2 Peter and were martyred under Nero as espoused by church tradition, then 2 Peter would have been written before AD 68, the year Nero died.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Furthermore, Peter attests to familiarity with other New Testament letters (2 Pet 3:16); thus, it would be reasonable to suggest that Peter was familiar with Jude or that Jude was knowledgeable of Peter’s letters. In sum, the authenticity of both 2 Peter and Jude is likely; Peter and Jude are likely the authors of 2 Peter and Jude, respectively, and the dating of the two books is before the death of Nero. Accordingly, from the perspective of authorship and dating, the interpreter can only say that 2 Peter may have been dependent on Jude or that Jude may have been dependent on 2 Peter. ## **Interpretation** Although a straightforward comparison of content, structure, and vocabulary alongside an analysis of authenticity and authorship does not provide the evidence necessary to determine the direction of dependency, a closer examination of syntax and the canonical relationships between the books may assist. The purpose of the book of Jude is to encourage his readers to fight for their faith in light of the ungodly and immoral individuals who have infiltrated their community (Jude 3-4). The aorist verb παρεισέδυσαν solidifies the present reality of the ungodly infiltrators. However, when Peter describes the false teachers, he uses the future tense verb παρεισάξουσιν to predict the arrival of the destructive heresies (2 Pet 2:1). Terrance Callen contends that the shift in tense provides evidence that Peter used Jude’s situation as a historical precedent, adapting the content to serve as an argument against the opponents that Peter’s audience faced.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Making the argument in the other direction would be less likely. In other words, using a past reality as an argument to predict a potential future outcome is far more powerful and credible than using a past possibility to argue a current reality. Further syntactical evidence occurs when comparing Jude 10 with 2 Peter 2:12. When comparing his opponents to “irrational animals,” Jude uses the present passive indicative φθείρονται, which, contra the New [International Version](https://www.livestransforming.com/intertestamental-period/), is best rendered as “they are being destroyed” (Jude 10). When Peter compares the false teachers to animals, he uses the future passive indicative φθαρήσονται, which suggests that, like the unreasoning animals, “they too will perish” (2 Pet 2:12b). The point is that, according to Callan, 2 Peter “transformed Jude’s critique of present opponents into a prediction that opponents will arise in the future.”[\[16\]](#_ftn16) If Callan is correct, then the more grandiose, less structured, or possibly Asiatic style of 2 Peter may be due to Peter’s desire to elaborate on the content of Jude for polemical purposes to convince his listeners to beware of the dangers of the heretical teachers. Accordingly, the direction of literary dependence is likely from Jude to 2 Peter. Furthermore, by 2 Peter utilizing Jude to warn his readers, the literary dependency provides insight into the interpretive process by encouraging the exegete to consider the present reality of Jude’s opponents in juxtaposition with Peter’s predictions associated with the false teachers. ## **Conclusion** Although the identification of content similarities, the performance of structural analysis, and the execution of vocabulary comparisons are necessary aspects of any investigation of literary correspondence, determining conclusively the direction of literary dependence between 2 Peter and Jude solely from such activity is difficult. Likewise, the issue of authenticity may also assist in determining the direction of literary dependence between 2 Peter and Jude, and, for some scholars, the lack of authenticity is the determining factor upon which literary dependence rests. However, asserting that either book is pseudonymous is not determinative, and it is just as likely that the books were written by the Apostle Peter and Jude, the brother of Jesus, as documented in their respective first chapters. Instead, by investigating syntax and canonical correlations, it becomes evident that Jude was likely addressing a situation of ungodly individuals. At the same time, Peter utilized Jude’s current reality to predict a similar outcome to his readers experiencing the potential deception of false teachers. Accordingly, it seems reasonable that 2 Peter depends on Jude due to the nature of his polemic as a warning against what will happen if the believers succumb to the deception of the false teachers. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Richard Bauckham, *Jude-2 Peter*, ed. David Allen Hubbard, Glenn W. Barker, and Ralph P. Martin, vol. 50, *Word Biblical Commentary* (Zondervan Academic, 2014), 141. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Bauckham, 50:141–42. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Mark Dewayne Mathews, “The Literary Relationship of 2 Peter and Jude: Does the Synoptic Tradition Resolve This Synoptic Problem?,” *Neotestamentica* 44, no. 1 (2010): 59. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Mathews, 60. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Mathews, 61. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Bauckham, *Jude-2 Peter*, 50:142. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) David W. Jones, “The Apostate Angels of 2 Pet. 2:4 and Jude 6,” *Faith and Mission* 23, no. 2 (2006): 24. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Jones, 25. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Mathews, “The Literary Relationship of 2 Peter and Jude,” 63. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Joseph B. Mayor, *The Epistles of Jude and II Peter* (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979), cxxiv. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Michael J Kruger, “The Authenticity of 2 Peter,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 42, no. 4 (December 1999): 645. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) P. H. R. van Houwelingen, “The Authenticity of 2 Peter: Problems and Possible Solutions,” *European Journal of Theology* 19, no. 2 (2010): 125. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Peter H. Davids, *The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude*, *The Pillar New Testament Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 9–10. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Peter H. Davids, *2 Peter and Jude: A Handbook on the Greek Text* (Waco: Baylor University, 2011), xviii–xxi. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Terrance Callan, “Use of the Letter of Jude by the Second Letter of Peter,” *Biblica* 85, no. 1 (2004): 44. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Callan, 62. ## Bibliography - Bauckham, Richard. *Jude-2 Peter*. Edited by David Allen Hubbard, Glenn W. Barker, and Ralph P. Martin. Vol. 50. *Word Biblical Commentary*. Zondervan Academic, 2014. - Callan, Terrance. “Use of the Letter of Jude by the Second Letter of Peter.” *Biblica* 85, no. 1 (2004): 42–64. - Davids, Peter H. *2 Peter and Jude: A Handbook on the Greek Text*. Waco: Baylor University, 2011. - ———. *The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude*. *The Pillar New Testament Commentary*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006. - Houwelingen, P. H. R. van. “The Authenticity of 2 Peter: Problems and Possible Solutions.” *European Journal of Theology* 19, no. 2 (2010): 119–29. - Jones, David W. “The Apostate Angels of 2 Pet. 2:4 and Jude 6.” *Faith and Mission* 23, no. 2 (2006): 19–30. - Kruger, Michael J. “The Authenticity of 2 Peter.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 42, no. 4 (December 1999): 645–71. - Mathews, Mark Dewayne. “The Literary Relationship of 2 Peter and Jude: Does the Synoptic Tradition Resolve This Synoptic Problem?” *Neotestamentica* 44, no. 1 (2010): 47–66. - Mayor, Joseph B. *The Epistles of Jude and II Peter*. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [1 Corinthians 1:18-31 Historical Context](https://www.livestransforming.com/1-corinthians-1-18-31-historical-context/) **Published:** January 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # 1 Corinthians 1:18-31 Historical Context In his first letter to the Corinthians, the Apostle Paul asserts that the crucifixion of Christ is a stumbling block to the Jews and folly or foolishness to the Gentiles. Three questions arise from this assertion: What did Paul mean by stumbling block? What was objectionable about the Christian gospel to the Jews and Gentiles? How does the historical background that forged these objections inform the interpretation of 1 Corinthians 1:18-31? Without correctly understanding the cognitive environment and cultural milieu, the interpreter risks missing Paul’s meaning and anachronistically applying modern concepts to an ancient text. The following essay suggests that the term “stumbling block” refers to an event offensive to both Jews and Gentiles due to their religious traditions. In turn, Paul’s message of the cross paradoxically trumps each of their perspectives. The essay first discusses Paul’s assertion that the [gospel](https://www.livestransforming.com/authors-of-the-gospels/) is a “stumbling block to Jews and folly to the Gentiles” (1 Cor 1:23, English Standard Version). Next, the objectionable or unattractive aspects of the Christian gospel are identified from both the Jewish and Gentile perspectives. Finally, the essay explains how the historical backdrop of the ancient Jewish and Gentile views inform the interpretation of 1 Corinthians 1:18-31. ## **Stumbling Block** Any discussion regarding Paul’s phrase written to the Corinthians asserting that the gospel is a “stumbling block to Jews and folly to Gentiles” must, at a minimum, consider the immediate literary context of the clauses (1 Cor 1:23). The ESV appears to appropriately delineate the sentence or complete thought when stating, “For Jews demand signs and Greeks seek wisdom, but we preach Christ crucified, a stumbling block to Jews and folly to Gentiles, but to those who are called, both Jews and Greeks, Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God” (1 Cor 1:22-24). Specifically, the term “stumbling block” (σκάνδαλον) provides the focal point of the adjectival phrase describing Christ’s crucifixion. The Greek word σκάνδαλον has three possible connotations: a device to entrap, an act to tempt or entice, or an event that offends.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The term is uncommon in extrabiblical material but is utilized fifteen times in the New Testament, thus supporting all three potential meanings. Romans 9:33, 1 Peter 2:8, and Galatians 5:11 all appear to use σκάνδαλον to suggest an offensive act. Galatians 5:11 points explicitly to crucifixion on a cross as an offensive act. Accordingly, within context, it makes more sense that Paul refers to an event that offends rather than an act that ensnares or entices. The initial phrase in the passage, “for Jews demand signs and Greeks seek wisdom,” requires explanation (1 Cor 1:22). The Jews already had access to ancient wisdom in the form of scripture. Accordingly, the Jews did not require access to wisdom; they needed signs or proof that Jesus fulfilled the divine promise the Old Testament prophets communicated. Anthony Thiselton explains that, in a sense, the Jews were correct; it is reasonable that the Jews were careful in establishing the credibility of the Messiah, especially when the process of salvation occurred in such a shockingly disgraceful event.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The Jews had the preconceived notion that the Messiah must be proud, not humble, and mighty, not weak, to effectuate God’s kingdom. Alternatively, Paul argues that Christ crucified is “the power of God and the wisdom of God” (1 Cor 1:24). The manifestation of God’s power and wisdom occurs through His paradoxical meta-narrative that offended the Jews. Alternatively, the Greeks sought wisdom (1 Cor 1:22). The wisdom of the Greeks did not arise from Hebrew Scriptures but from their ancient traditions. Everett Ferguson explains that the Greek wisdom tradition was built upon a foundation of “social, economic, and cultural life, as well as political, that was interwoven with the polytheistic tradition.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Although the paganism of the Greeks had similarities with the Christian tradition, such as divine births and immortal gods, the concept of an incarnation and crucifixion had no precedent and was repugnant to their senses.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Like the Jews, the paradox of power, where weakness displays the power of God and sacrifice, reveals the wisdom of God’s love, grated against the Greek worldview and its traditions. The Apostle Paul succinctly points to the lack of signs for the Jews and the lack of wisdom for the Greeks precisely because the cross was offensive. The assumption is that the original audience would have known the Jewish and Greek objections to the Christian gospel within their cultural milieu. However, the modern reader requires a brief immersion into the historical background to identify the Christian gospel’s unattractive aspects from Jewish and Gentile perspectives. ## **Christian Objections** From a Jewish perspective, the objections to the Christian gospel are, in some ways, straightforward and understandable. Deuteronomy 21:22-23 states, “And if a man has committed a crime punishable by death and he is put to death, and you hang him on a tree, his body shall not remain all night on the tree, but you shall bury him the same day, for a hanged man is cursed by God.” Not only does God curse a man hanging from a tree, but if the man is left overnight, the dead man defiles God’s land. The Jews sought a messiah to overthrow their enemies and possibly triumph over the Roman Empire. They were not looking for an executed criminal as their Messiah. Trypho represents the Jewish perspective well when, in response to Justin Martyr’s apology for Christ, he states, “These and such like Scriptures, sir, compel us to wait for Him who, as Son of man, receives from the Ancient of days the everlasting kingdom. But this so-called Christ of yours was dishonorable and inglorious, so much so that the last curse contained in the law of God fell on him, for he was crucified.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) In light of the prophecy in Daniel 7 regarding the Messiah’s dominion and glory, for a Jewish Messiah to be crucified as a criminal was unthinkable. Often, the arguments of the ancient Jews focused on passages such as Daniel 7 without regard to other relevant prophetic voices, such as the messianic prophecy in Isaiah 53. The risk associated with interpreters closing their canonical eyes remains with modern exegesis, for it is easy to observe only what one is predisposed to see. From a Greek perspective, the objections to the Christian gospel and, more specifically, to the crucifixion are more complex. A basic understanding of Greek wisdom is necessary before addressing the complaints and the resultant persecution of Christians by the Greeks. A relevant example of the origination of Greek wisdom arises from a powerful Greek religious institution called the Delphic oracle, which purportedly delivered prophecies from the Greek god Apollo. The Greeks would ask questions of the oracle regarding success, career opportunities, infertility, marriage partners, and health issues.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) [![Conflict and Community in Corinth 182x300 - 1 Corinthians 1:18-31 Historical Context](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Conflict-and-Community-in-Corinth-182x300.jpg "1 Corinthians 1:18-31 Historical Context - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gPsgQS)Conflict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians In other words, as Ben Witherington explains, what the Greeks sought from religion was “blessings in the present such as health, wealth, rescue from peril, or the promise of a good harvest or of a child.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Upon reviewing the inscriptional evidence of paganism within the Roman Empire, Ramsay MacMullen contends that salvation to the Greeks had to do with health and other material matters rather than matters of the soul or eternity.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Accordingly, the wisdom of the Greeks consisted of following a path of honor and reputation from the broader society through health, wealth, achievement, and success derived from the blessings of their gods. As a result, Larry Hurtado highlights several ancient proponents of paganism who object to Christianity. For example, following the thought of Pliny the Younger, Emperor Trajan punished Christians for not worshipping their gods, Tacitus and Suetonius accused Christianity of being a superstition, and Lucian believed that Christianity’s great transgression is its refusal to engage in polytheism.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) For the Greek pagans, Christianity risked angering their many gods and cutting off their pipeline of blessings that provided prosperity and esteem. Unsurprisingly, suffering and death on a cross, representing failure and shame, was considered folly to the Greeks, who saw the crucifixion as the opposite of mastering a life that brings honor. In light of Paul’s argument against the worldview of the Greeks, it is possible that the Apostle also attempts to undermine the rhetoric of the Sophists. Paul asks in 1 Corinthians 1:20, “Where is the one who is wise? Where is the scribe? Where is the debater of this age? Has not God made foolish the wisdom of the world?” Witherington asserts that Paul references the Jews and Gentiles, the Jewish scribes, and the Sophists as the debaters of the age, respectively.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) The Sophists had a long reputation dating back several hundred years as teachers to help people learn how to succeed. Although Socrates and Plato criticized Sophists for using eloquent words to manipulate, Jan Lodewyk de Villiers explains that the Sophists were best known as itinerant teachers who commonly taught public speaking and rhetoric, especially in areas of politics and the law.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Paul, similar to the ancient philosophers, was concerned with the Sophists using eloquent language to convince their listeners of an empty philosophy. In the Apostle’s case, he opposed a Sophist delivery that tickled their listeners’ ears and contradicted the gospel’s true wisdom. In light of the objections to Christianity by the Jews, the unattractiveness of Christianity to Greek paganism, and the empty philosophy of the Sophists, the interpreter is now prepared to utilize this historical background information to inform the interpretation of 1 Corinthians 1:18-31. ## **Interpretative Impact** For non-believers, the message, meaning, or λόγος of the cross is folly or foolishness (1 Cor 1:18). The Jews had a preconceived idea of the Messiah’s identity based on their understanding of the Torah and Old Testament prophets, and the Greeks had their man-made wisdom that served their illusion of security and self-sufficiency; thus, the word of the cross was folly to them. Paul then masterfully invokes the prophet Isaiah to further his argument in verse 19, highlighting that his message aligned with the Scriptures that the Jews hold dear. Paul’s rhetorical questions in verse 20 drive home the point that God’s significant reversal has made human wisdom foolish at the foot of the cross, while non-believers confuse God’s wisdom with folly. Thiselton captures the paradox well when stating, “Paul invites his addressees to say what is left of human wisdom which God’s saving acts have left high and dry in light of the cross. The cross places giving, receiving, and serving above achieving or ‘finding the right formula.’”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) At this point, ignoring how relevant Paul’s message is to modern society in light of its historical backdrop would be difficult. Humanity seems to constantly be moving toward either a Jewish or Greek worldview. On the one hand, modern believers often have a natural affinity to worship a preconceived notion of a Jewish God. For example, it might be easy to honor a living God but more difficult to worship a dying God. It might be easy to worship a strong God but more difficult to worship a weak God. It might be easy to worship a God who demands to be served but more challenging to embrace a God who serves. It is also likely much easier to image an alive, strong, and served God than a dying, weak, and serving God. On the other hand, modern believers also seem to have an insatiable desire for a Greek God. Suppose one can please the deity or deities and obtain the blessings of health, wealth, prosperity, and recognition. In that case, humanity feels secure in controlling their lives and futures. In this view of things, God becomes the one doing man’s bidding. Alternatively, Paul exclaims that “the foolishness of God is wiser than men, and the weakness of God is stronger than men” (1 Cor 1:25). God’s ways are not about the worldly standards of power, recognition, or noble birth (1 Cor 1:26). Instead, God’s ways turn humanity’s world upside down through the paradox of the cross, which undermines both the preconceived notions of the Jews and the dubious Greek notion that the value and worth of humanity rest in one’s health, wealth, and esteem. Society desperately searches for meaning, but, as Paul explains, it will not come from political power or achievements. Instead, because of Christ and the cross, believers are placed “in Christ Jesus” (1 Cor 1:30). The benefits of being in Christ solve humanity’s most significant needs of security and value. Ben Witherington appropriately suggests translating verse 30 as structured, “But you *are* – from God in Christ, who was made wisdom for us by God – righteousness, sanctification, and redemption.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) In other words, Witherington continues, through the cross, “there is a sense in which believers *are* these things.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Paul drives home the point that the only way that Jews or Greeks find real meaning, worth, and value comes from becoming a new creation in Christ, which provides the righteousness, sanctification, and redemption that non-believers so desperately seek outside of Christ to no avail. Accordingly, no manufactured efforts or accomplishments by humankind will satisfy; thus, as it is written, “Let the one who boasts boast in the Lord” (1 Cor 1:31). ## **Conclusion** The stumbling block Paul refers to in 1 Corinthians 1:23 refers to an offensive event, the crucifixion. The Jews had a preconceived notion regarding the identity of the Messiah. They could not imagine a man crucified as a criminal under the Roman Empire. On the other hand, the Greeks could not fathom an incarnate God coming to earth to suffer and die an excruciating death in light of their religious tradition, where pleasing a pantheon of gods brought health, wealth, and esteem. Alternatively, rather than the illusion of man-made value from success, power, and recognition, Paul communicates a message of hope that provides access to real meaning, worth, and security in Christ Jesus’s weakness and suffering. The event that Paul refers to as the stumbling block was offensive to both the Jew and Gentile religious traditions. In response, Paul masterfully communicates the paradox of the cross where the offense not only trumps their perspectives but becomes salvation for all humanity. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) William Arndt et al., *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 926. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Anthony C. Thiselton, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, *New International Greek Testament* *Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2000), 122–23. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Everett Ferguson, *Backgrounds of Early Christianity*, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 608. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ferguson, 609. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Justin Martyr, “Dialogue of Justin with Trypho,” in *The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus*, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 1 (Buffalo: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 210. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Joseph Fontenrose, *The Delphic Oracle: Its Responses and Operations* (Berkeley: University of California, 1978), 39. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ben Witherington, *Conflict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1995), 111. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ramsay MacMullen, *Paganism in the Roman Empire* (New Haven: Yale University, 1981), 55–57. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Larry W. Hurtado, *Destroyer of the Gods: Early Christian Distinctiveness in the Roman World* (Waco: Baylor University, 2017), 22–29. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Witherington, *Conflict and Community in Corinth*, 109. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) J. L. de Villiers, “Philosophical Trends in the Graeco-Roman World,” in *The New Testament Milieu*, ed. A. B. du Toit, vol. 2 (Johannesburg: Orion Publishers, 1998), 563–66. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Thiselton, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, 162. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Witherington, *Conflict and Community in Corinth*, 117. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Witherington, 117. Emphasis mine. # Bibliography - Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, Walter Bauer, and F. Wilbur Gingrich. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. - de Villiers, J. L. “Philosophical Trends in the Graeco-Roman World.” In *The New Testament Milieu*, edited by A. B. du Toit, Vol. 2. Johannesburg: Orion Publishers, 1998. - Ferguson, Everett. *Backgrounds of Early Christianity*. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. - Fontenrose, Joseph. *The Delphic Oracle: Its Responses and Operations*. Berkeley: University of California, 1978. - Hurtado, Larry W. *Destroyer of the Gods: Early Christian Distinctiveness in the Roman World*. Waco: Baylor University, 2017. - MacMullen, Ramsay. *Paganism in the Roman Empire*. New Haven: Yale University, 1981. - Martyr, Justin. “Dialogue of Justin with Trypho.” In *The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus*, edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, Vol. 1. Buffalo: Christian Literature Company, 1885. - Thiselton, Anthony C. *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*. *New* *International* *Greek* *Testament* *Commentary*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2000. - Witherington, Ben. *Conflict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1995. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Exegesis of Romans 8.18-28](https://www.livestransforming.com/exegesis-of-romans-8-18-28/) **Published:** January 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Exegesis of Romans 8.18-28 Romans 8 may arguably be the most profound chapter from the entire Pauline corpus. The broad thematic initiatives and deep theological messaging require careful examination. To misinterpret such an essential chapter risks missing the message of the gospel of Jesus Christ. Alternatively, a proper exposition of Romans 8:18-28 in light of its contextual backdrop provides insights into some of the most profound words in the New Testament. Accordingly, this essay explores Romans’ historical, literary, and theological contexts. First, a brief verse-by-verse commentary on Romans 8:18-28 ensues by addressing the topics of creation’s longing, the believer’s adoption, the Spirit’s intercession, and God’s promise. Finally, the essay concludes by presenting a few additional intertextual connections followed by three overarching thematic initiatives and their correlation to other parts of the canon. ## **Historical Context** The historical context of the book of Romans provides an integral part of the framework for interpretation. Consensus exists around several book features: date, authorship, and provenance. The book asserts that the author is [Paul the Apostle](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-apostle-pauls-perspective-on-jewish-law/) (Rom 1:1). Based on Romans 16:22, it is likely that Paul utilized an amanuensis named Tertius. James Dunn acknowledges that the date and provenance of the letter do not significantly impact its exegesis. Still, the date was likely sometime during the 50s AD, possibly when Paul was staying in Corinth in preparation for his benevolent trip to Jerusalem (Rom 15:25).[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Of greater importance is the historical backdrop of Paul and his work. First, Paul was a Jew from the tribe of Benjamin trained as a Pharisee (Phil 3:5). Second, Paul’s apostolic mission was not to the Jews but, instead, “to the Gentiles” (Rom 11:13, English Standard Version). Finally, Paul’s work led to strong opposition by certain Jews and Jewish Christians (cf. Gal 1:6-9; Phil 3:2). According to Dunn, a proper interpretation of Romans is nearly impossible without understanding Paul’s history.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Paul’s audience also informs the interpretive analysis. During Pentecost, Peter’s message of Christ to all people swept up visitors from various locations (Acts 2:10). The Jewish visitors from Rome, who, according to Douglas Moo, had likely converted certain Gentiles to Christianity in that city, traveled back to their hometowns.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Unfortunately, under Emperor Claudius, a shift occurred. A Roman historian, Suetonius, states, “Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he \[Claudius\] expelled them from Rome.” [\[4\]](#_ftn4) The expulsion of the Jews probably occurred in the late 40s AD, and, as Moo explains, Jews likely did not return to Rome until Claudius died in AD 54, but then they were probably outnumbered by the Gentiles.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The social tensions between the Jews and Gentiles increased due to these unfortunate historical events; however, as Gordon Fee asserts, what drives the whole argument of Romans is that the “Jew and Gentile, equally disadvantaged through sin and thus equally advantaged through Christ, form *one people of God*.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) In short, the historical backdrop of Paul and the social setting of the Jews and Gentiles must be kept front of mind for a proper exegetical analysis of the passage, especially as it relates to Paul’s language of adoption in Romans 8:23. ## **Literary Context** [![The Letter to the Romans 182x300 - Exegesis of Romans 8.18-28](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Letter-to-the-Romans-182x300.jpg "Exegesis of Romans 8.18-28 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DG6zEk)The Letter to the Romans: New International Commentary on the New Testament (NICNT) The literary context of the letter includes an investigation of the book’s structure, the content that brackets Romans 8:18-28, and the genre utilized by the author. First, regarding structure, the opening (Rom 1:1-17) and closing (Rom 15:14-16:27) are self-evident due to the personal nature of Paul’s language. Moo divides the remainder of the content as follows: the introduction through Romans 4 focuses on justification, Romans 5-8 focuses on salvation, Romans 9-11 focuses on Israel’s problem, and the remainder of the chapters focus on Christian behavior.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Accordingly, from within the broader literary context, Romans 8:18-28 finds a salvific focus. The immediate literary context concentrates on the nature of the soteriological content within Romans 8:18-28. The freedom from the bondage of sin and the Law addressed in Romans 6-7 seems to naturally culminate in Paul’s discussion of eternal life in the Spirit within Romans 8. Specifically, Paul discusses the present reality of living in the Spirit (Rom 8:1-8) and living as children of God (Rom 8:12-17). Next, within Romans 8:18-28, Paul moves from the present to a future glory and its implications. Finally, Paul concludes with an exposition of God’s security for believers of His everlasting love (Rom 8:29-39). The form of Paul’s literary work points to the genre of a letter with a requisite opening (Rom 1:1-17) and closing (Rom 15:14-16:27). A strong consensus suggests the book’s genre is that of a letter. Still, the question remains about the type of letter Paul wrote because it does not fit the typical occasional letter commonly found during the first century. Moo is correct when stating that the main body of Romans is a treatise or tractate.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In other words, Paul provides an exposition of specific theological issues throughout his correspondence that point beyond the limited scope of local problems faced by one particular community in Rome. Accordingly, the literary backdrop supports exegeting the passage with an eye for broader and more timeless theological initiatives. ## **Theological Context** A controversy regarding Paul’s theological message revolves around the scholarly attempt to identify Paul’s primary focus or central initiative.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The Reformers emphasized justification by faith, especially as teased out in Romans 1-5. Others, such as Albert Schweitzer and E. P. Sanders, held that Paul’s emphasis on participation or a believer’s union with Christ, especially within Romans 5-8, took center stage. Those who believe Paul’s central message can be found in Romans 9-11 assert that Paul’s main focus was how Gentiles and Jews fit together within salvation history. Finally, those who place the occasional nature of the letter at the center of Paul’s thought find his emphasis on Christian conduct and unity to be the letter’s focus. Rather than one central theological message, it is more likely that Paul intended to communicate several essential theological messages rather than attempting to identify a hierarchy of thematic initiatives. A tapestry of theology with interwoven threads likely explains Paul’s approach better than the idea of a pecking order or ranking of themes. Notwithstanding the argument for variegated initiatives, Moo makes a reasonable case that Christology is the theological foundation of Romans, and the gospel message, where Christ climactically divides history into two epochs, is Paul’s overarching initiative.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) God has entered the world in a new way. In short, Christ has inaugurated a new era that has not eradicated the old but provided a way for individuals to transfer into a new cosmic reality by participating in Christ in a way that has both already occurred but not yet been fully consummated. ## **Commentary on Romans 8:18-28** ### Romans 8:18-21: Creation’s Longing The passage under study begins with the topic of suffering and glory: “For I consider that the sufferings of this present time are not worth comparing with the glory that is to be revealed to us” (Rom 8:18). The exact nature of the suffering (πάθημα) continues to be debated, but likely refers to the type of suffering shared with Christ (cf. Phil 3:10, 1 Cor 1:5). The participatory overtones of Paul’s language are evident (cf. Gal 2:20). The suffering may also refer to tribulations experienced by Christians for confessing Christ or, more generally, the hardships faced by all humanity, such as physical infirmities or a loss of a loved one. Paul’s reference to glory points to an eschatological reality that ultimately will be revealed. Although Dunn asserts that glory relates solely to the future, Cranfield suggests that the aorist indicative in Romans 8:30 (ἐδόξασεν) supports the assertion that glory is “in some sense already ours.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) To indicate that glory has, in some sense, been inaugurated but not realized is not out of the question. Paul now turns to the topic of creation. The definition and scope of creation used in Romans 8 have created significant controversy. Jonathan Moo contends that scholars have proposed at least ten different meanings for the term κτίσις; however, most modern interpreters assume the meaning encompasses either all of creation or, more likely, only sub-human creation.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) The eschatological tensions rise as creation longs for the revelation of the sons of God (Rom 8:19). Douglas Moo notes that what creation anticipates in verse 19 is the “‘unveiling’ of the true nature of Christians.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) However, Paul has previously acknowledged that believers in Christ and those led by the Spirit are already “sons of God” (Rom 8:14-15). Once again, the concept of inaugurated eschatology emerges from Paul’s language. Each believer’s actual ontological reality or nature is manifested in Christ, but, as Romans 8:19 suggests, it is not fully realized. The following sentence explains why creation longs for the future eschatological unveiling. In a likely allusion to Genesis 3:17-18, the Fall subjected creation to frustration because its pristine condition was impaired. The question regarding who specifically subjected creation to futility remains debated. Although the straightforward options include Adam, Satan, and God, the latter is necessary; otherwise, God’s sovereignty in the Genesis account would be untenable. The next question pertains to the meaning of the term “hope” utilized by Paul. Moo likely is correct when explaining that personified creation looks forward with hopeful expectations to participating in an eschatological future reality, which suggests that the final destination of creation is “not annihilation but transformation.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) ### Romans 8:22-25: Believer’s Adoption Paul continues his discussion by explaining that creation has, in some way, been experiencing either groaning together with suffering or groaning separate from suffering (Rom 8:22). Laurie Braaten makes the case for the latter and contends that Paul is channeling Joel 1-2; thus, the groaning occurs due to humanity’s continual sin and the consequential judgment by God, rather than due to the Fall as Genesis 3 suggests.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Braaten’s assertion is certainly reasonable, but bifurcating creation’s fall and humanity’s sin when explaining why creation would experience travails seems unnecessary. Regardless, personified creation points to certain eschatological overtones; as Dunn explains, “the present labor pains give promise of the cosmic birth of the new age.”[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Next, by establishing a connection between sub-human creation and human creation, Paul provides the central principle of the entire pericope: believers also groan, but since they have the “firstfruits of the Spirit,” they are assured of their participation in the redemptive eschatological event, which includes adoption and bodily redemption (Rom 8:23). Gordon Fee is correct in identifying the phrase, “firstfruits of the Spirit,” as an appositional genitive, translated as “the firstfruits, the Spirit himself,” rather than a partitive genitive, which would suggest the Spirit has not fully arrived.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Accordingly, believers have the Spirit fully poured into them, which initiates the adoptive and redemptive process. As Caroline Johnson Hodge suggests, adoption or kinship creation is not based on the material entity of shared blood but the material entity of shared spirit; thus, believers have been “transformed into the same being as Christ but embodied in separate persons.”[\[18\]](#_ftn18) The payoff is twofold. First, it provides the matter necessary for a believer’s bodily redemption. Second, although Hodge’s language does not presume theosis or divination, it does point to an ontological shift inaugurated within believers as adopted sons and daughters eagerly await final consummation for both the Jew and the Gentile. Paul now reinforces the incompleteness of the believer’s salvation. Because of the Spirit, believers are assured of their status that already exists as an adopted son or daughter of God, but there is more to come. The same creative power that inaugurates salvation will ultimately consummate the believer’s salvation; thus, Paul’s words exhort the believer to wait patiently with an invisible hope (Rom 8:24-25). ### Romans 8:26-27: Spirit’s Intercession Paul now considers the work of the Holy Spirit. The Spirit comes to the aid of believers and assists them in their weaknesses (Rom 8:26a). First, how the Spirit helps believers is likely revealed in Romans 8:16. The Spirit bears witness with the believer’s spirit to communicate a message of aid. Second, knowing what specific weakness or weaknesses Paul refers to in this sentence is difficult. As Moo explains, it could be a specific weakness, such as not knowing what or how to pray; however, it could also be a more general weakness due to humanity’s creatureliness during the time between the new cosmic order and its final eschatological consummation.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) The discussion then turns specifically to prayer in Paul’s next sentence. The primary question revolves around the nature of the Spirit’s intercession, which encompasses “groanings too deep for words” (Rom 8:26b). The central debate centers on the issue of glossolalia. On the one hand, aligned with Dunn, Moo believes that the adjective describing groaning, ἀλάλητος, which is a *hapax* *legomenon*, means “unspoken” rather than “ineffable.” [\[20\]](#_ftn20) Accordingly, glossolalia is not applicable since a prayer language must be verbalized; thus, Paul is talking about the Holy Spirit’s prayer language on behalf of a believer rather than a believer’s prayer language. Unsurprisingly, Fee’s admittedly Pentecostal background points him in a different direction. Fee believes that ἀλάλητος means “without words, but not without sounds,” and he further argues that Paul’s language corresponds well with the Apostle’s other discussions regarding praying in the Spirit (cf. 1 Cor 14:14-15; Eph 6:18).[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Holding firm to a definitive conclusion would be difficult. Accordingly, scholars need to extend credibility to both perspectives. Paul continues his discussion regarding the Spirit’s intercession in the next verse, where the Apostle explains why the Spirit is effective at a ministry of intercession. It is difficult to ignore the perichoretic aspects of Paul’s words. God not only searches the inner being of believers but also knows the motivations and intentions of the Holy Spirit within the believer; thus, the Spirit can intercede for the believer in perfect alignment with God’s will because the Spirit and God are in perfect harmony (Rom 8:28). According to Fee, such sentences by Paul are the ”stuff out of which all future ontological discussion takes place.”[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Stanley Stowers provides additional insight into Fee’s statement by explaining that those in Christ “actually possess as part of them the stuff of Christ, a portion of his pneuma” and “part of Christ’s vital essence endowed by God.”[\[23\]](#_ftn23) The ontological overtones have led scholars, such as James Gifford, to conclude that a believer’s union with Christ is a type of perichoresis.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Suggesting a form of Eastern Orthodox theosis is unnecessary. Still, an ontological reality must be acknowledged, even if the inauguration of such a reality is without its final eschatological consummation. ### Romans 8:28: God’s Promise Paul’s final sentence within the passage under study may be one of the most recognizable verses in the entire Pauline corpus, “And we know that for those who love God all things work together for good, for those who are called according to his purpose” (Roman 8:28). The questions seem to pop off the page of Paul’s scroll. What is the subject of the initial clause? What is the scope of “all things?” Does the term “good” refer to a present or future reality? First, regarding the sentence’s subject, the options are threefold: God, the Spirit, and all things. Fee argues for the Spirit based on the immediate context, the σύν verb (συνεργέω), which is often associated with the Spirit, and evidence from extrabiblical literature (cf. Testament of Gad 4.7).[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Ultimately, the sovereignty of God provides the foundation for all things working together regardless of the subject, so little rests on an unequivocal resolution of the matter. Second, regarding the scope of all things, accepting the theoretical solution is easier than embracing the pastoral one. As Moo explains, theoretically, “all things” should not be limited in scope because even sin can contribute to “good.” James 1:2-4 may come to mind as one recognizes that even the most difficult circumstances can contribute to spiritual growth. Unfortunately, from a pastoral perspective, it is difficult to embrace the idea that “all things,” including horrific acts like murder, rape, incest, war, and child molestation, would contribute to “good.” Instead, it is tempting to engage the context of the previous verse and conclude that all things work together for good, but only if they are according to the will of God (Rom 8:27-28). The term “good” has been debated in scholarly circles. Moo explains that it is reasonable for interpreters to suggest that the good that Paul refers to is an eschatological glory due to a couple of Old Testament examples where the term “good” refers to the blessings of a future age (cf. Isa 52:7; Jer 8:15).[\[26\]](#_ftn26) If the definition of good is eschatological glory, then it may be more palatable if “all things” include horrific acts, knowing that God will ultimately right all wrong. Indeed, many situations that believers suffer through will contribute to spiritual growth (cf. James 1:2-4; Rom 5:2-4), but if the consequential “good” includes horrific acts, then believers need to humbly concede that God’s wisdom regarding “all things” is often beyond the grasp of human wisdom. Finally, a couple more clarifications regarding the content-packed final verse are in order. Moo correctly recognizes that “those who love God” in Romans 8:28 is an inner initiative of all Christians, not that certain Christians do not love God and miss out on the blessing.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Furthermore, the second subordinate clause, for those “who are called according to His purpose,” highlights God’s effectual calling upon believers as recipients of grace and further qualifies the term “good” (Rom 8:28b). In other words, for believers called by a sovereign God according to His purpose, even horrific acts will ultimately land God’s children in his heavenly lap. ## **Intertextual Links and Thematic Correlation** Several intertextual links have already been identified in the commentary above.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Accordingly, the following briefly expands two relevant intertextual connections. First, Jonathan Moo asserts that Isaiah 24-27 provides the source documents for Paul’s reference to the term “groanings” in Romans 8:22-23 and 26, which specifically points to a cosmic covenant in Isaiah where the earth is cursed but ultimately restored through Yahweh with “Glory to the Righteous One” (Isaiah 24:16a). Paul’s potential allusion appears to point to the future glory of Christ, the Righteous One, who will reverse the effects of the curse on all of creation. Second, Laurie Braaten provides a relatively comprehensive analysis of how the language of groaning, which includes the verb συστενάζω and the nominal cognate στεναγμός, were utilized in the LXX.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) The relevant intertextual links are numerous, but Braaten argues that creation’s groaning is explicitly related to ongoing human sin at least nine times in the prophetic Hebrew Scriptures.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Accordingly, Paul utilizes the backdrop of the Hebrew prophets to highlight that God’s “family” includes both human and sub-human creation. Therefore, humanity is called to not only a proper relationship with Christ but also a proper relationship with the rest of creation. A comprehensive analysis of the major themes of Romans 8 and their correlation to the canon would likely require an entire monograph; however, three important themes stand out within the passage under study. First, the work of the Spirit in a believer’s life is an important theme also found throughout John’s Gospel (see John 3:5-8; 7:37-39; 14:15-17; 16:7-15). Second, the thematic initiative of adoption echoes the entire Old Testament story of Israel as God’s son or chosen people (e.g., Exod 4:22-23; Hosea 11:1; Jer 31:9). Third, the theme of suffering and glory is also evident in other passages in the canon, such as 1 Corinthians 4:17-18 where afflictions prepare believers for glory. These and other sweeping thematic initiatives in Romans 8:18-28 necessitate a much broader correlation analysis beyond the scope of this brief exposition. ## **Conclusion** The historical, literary, and theological contexts of Romans 8:18-28 provide a solid interpretive infrastructure. The historical context assists in understanding Paul’s audience of both Jews and Gentiles, the analysis of literary genre encourages the interpreter to expand the exegesis beyond local peculiarities, and the theological context points to a participatory soteriology that may have ontological overtones. Without question, a proper exposition of Romans 8:18-28 in light of its historical, literary, and theological contexts provides insights into some of the most profound words in Pauline Scripture, which include the ultimate eschatological redemption of all of God’s creation, the sonship of both Jews and Gentiles, the intercessory work of the Spirit in the believer’s life, and God’s sovereign ability to work all things together for good. Finally, the Apostle’s Jewish background allowed him to pull from the entire corpus of Old Testament Scripture while influencing much of the New Testament writings to create a tapestry of intertextual links and thematic correlations that provide a wealth of insight to his readers. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) James D. G. Dunn, *Word Biblical Commentary: Romans 1-8*, vol. 38A, *Word* *Biblical* *Commentary* (Dallas: Thomas Nelson, 1988), xliii. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Dunn, 38A: xliii. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Douglas J. Moo, *Romans*, *The* *NIV* *Application* *Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2000), 18. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Suetonius, *The Life of Claudius* 25.4. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Douglas J. Moo, “Romans,” in *Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Romans to Philemon*, ed. Clinton E. Arnold, vol. 3 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2002), 8. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Gordon D. Fee, *God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul* (Baker Academic, 2012), 515–16. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Douglas J. Moo, *The Epistle to the Romans*, *The New International Commentary on the New Testament* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 33–35. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Moo, 14. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) For a relatively comprehensive analysis of scholarly perspectives on Pauline’s thought, see N. T. Wright, *Paul and His Recent Interpreters: Some Contemporary Debates* (London: Fortress, 2015). [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Moo, *The Epistle to the Romans*, 26. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) See Dunn, *Word Biblical Commentary*, 38A:468. See also C. E. B. Cranfield, *A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans*, *International Critical Commentary* (New York: T&T Clark International, 2004), 409–10. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Jonathan Moo, “Romans 8.19-22 and Isaiah’s Cosmic Covenant,” *New Testament Studies* 54, no. 1 (January 2008): 75. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Moo, *The Epistle to the Romans*, 515. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Moo, 517. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Laurie J. Braaten, “All Creation Groans: Romans 8:22 in Light of the Biblical Sources,” *Horizons in Biblical Theology* 28, no. 2 (2006): 153–54. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Dunn, *Word Biblical Commentary*, 38A:473. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Fee, *God’s Empowering Presence*, 573. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Caroline Johnson Hodge, *If Sons, Then Heirs: A Study of Kinship and Ethnicity in the Letters of Paul* (Oxford: Oxford University, 2007), 76–77, 115–16. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Moo, *The Epistle to the Romans*, 26. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Moo, 525. See also Dunn, *Word Biblical Commentary*, 38A:478. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Fee, *God’s Empowering Presence*, 580–85. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Fee, 586. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Stanley K. Stowers, “What Is ‘Pauline Participation in Christ’?,” in *Redefining First-Century Jewish and Christian Identities: Essays in Honor of Ed Parish Sanders*, ed. Fabian E. Udoh (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame, 2008), 362. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) See James D. Gifford, *Perichoretic Salvation: The Believer’s Union with Christ as a Third Type of Perichoresis* (Wipf & Stock, 2015). [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Fee, *God’s Empowering Presence*, 589. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Moo, *The Epistle to the Romans*, 529, fn122. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Moo, 530. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) The intertextual links include Genesis 3:17-18; Isaiah 52:7; Jeremiah 8:15; Joel 1-2; Romans 5:24; 1 Corinthians 1:5, 14:14-15; Galatians 2:20; Ephesians 6:18; Philippians 3:10; James 1:2-4. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Braaten, “All Creation Groans,” 137–41. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Braaten, 131. ## Bibliography - Braaten, Laurie J. “All Creation Groans: Romans 8:22 in Light of the Biblical Sources.” *Horizons in Biblical Theology* 28, no. 2 (2006): 131–59. - Cranfield, C. E. B. *A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans*. *International* *Critical* *Commentary*. New York: T&T Clark International, 2004. - Dunn, James D. G. *Word Biblical Commentary: Romans 1-8*. Vol. 38A. *Word* *Biblical* *Commentary*. Dallas: Thomas Nelson, 1988. - Fee, Gordon D. *God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul*. Baker Academic, 2012. - Gifford, James D. *Perichoretic Salvation: The Believer’s Union with Christ as a Third Type of Perichoresis*. Wipf & Stock, 2015. - Hodge, Caroline Johnson. *If Sons, Then Heirs: A Study of Kinship and Ethnicity in the Letters of Paul*. Oxford: Oxford University, 2007. - Moo, Douglas J. *Romans*. *The NIV Application Commentary*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2000. - “Romans.” In *Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Romans to Philemon*, edited by Clinton E. Arnold, Vol. 3. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2002. - *The Epistle to the Romans*. *The* *New* *International* *Commentary* *on* *the* *New* *Testament*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996. - Moo, Jonathan. “Romans 8.19-22 and Isaiah’s Cosmic Covenant.” *New Testament Studies* 54, no. 1 (January 2008): 74–89. - Stowers, Stanley K. “What Is ‘Pauline Participation in Christ’?” In *Redefining First-Century Jewish and Christian Identities: Essays in Honor of Ed Parish Sanders*, edited by Fabian E. Udoh. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame, 2008. - Wright, N. T. *Paul and His Recent Interpreters: Some Contemporary Debates*. London: Fortress, 2015. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Exegesis of 1 Peter 2.4-10](https://www.livestransforming.com/exegesis-of-1-peter-2-4-10/) **Published:** January 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Exegesis of 1 Peter 2.4-10 An ongoing debate continues regarding how the Old Testament and, more specifically, Jewish tradition informs a believer’s understanding of salvation and their relationship to Christ. Without a proper understanding of how Jewish tradition informs New Testament soteriology, the believer risks landing in the extremes: either moving toward a form of supersessionism that cuts off any connection with their spiritual heritage or, alternatively, moving toward an amalgamation that misses the important distinctions between Jews and Christians as espoused by the New Testament. In Peter’s first letter, he candidly addresses this topic head-on with his fellow believers in mind. *Specifically, in 1 Peter 2:4-10, the Apostle Peter shows how his Jewish tradition informs a proper understanding of a believer’s new identity in Christ through the internalization of the Holy Spirit.* The research begins by providing a brief historical analysis that addresses such topics as authorship, date, purpose, and audience followed by a literary analysis that engages a discussion around genre, sub-genre, and structure, which assists in understanding the overarching historical and literary context of the passage. Next, the interpretive analysis dives deeper into an exegetical analysis of 1 Peter 2:4-10, which supports the overarching argument. A canonical analysis follows, which explores certain Old and New Testament intertextual connections that provide additional support and solidify the interpretive process. Finally, a brief application of 1 Peter 2:4-10 ensues by relating the problems that Peter’s ancient readers faced to modern-day believers. ## **Historical Analysis** The historical backdrop of the book of 1 Peter provides the ancient context for understanding its message. Regarding authorship, internal evidence is explicit as to both the author and the recipients: “Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, to those who are elect exiles of the Dispersion” (1 Pet 1:1, English Standard Version). Other internal evidence exists. The author was an elder and an eyewitness to Christ’s sufferings, which also points to Peter as the author (1 Pet 5:1). J. Ramsey Michaels asserts that attempting to definitively identify the author of 1 Peter is futile.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The other option is that 1 Peter was written by a pseudonymous author. S. H. Mathews highlights the three most popular arguments against Petrine authorship: the language and style, the lack of quotations by Jesus, and the similarities between 1 Peter and other New Testament books, especially Paul’s letters to the Romans and Ephesians.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Acts 4:13 states that Peter was a common, uneducated man; thus, the argument regarding style asserts that Peter would not have been sophisticated enough to write the book of 1 Peter. However, no extant copies of Petrine texts exist to compare with 1 Peter, and it is possible that Peter used an amanuensis who provided certain stylistic features. Furthermore, although Peter was an eyewitness to Jesus, the fact does not require him to quote Jesus in his correspondence, and Peter does refer specifically to Christ and the crucifixion within the book (cf. 1 Pet 2:21-24). Finally, Peter and Paul both arise from the same Jesus tradition; thus, one would likely expect some overlap in content. Accordingly, for the remainder of the research, the assumption exists that Peter is the author of the book of 1 Peter. Determining the date of 1 Peter depends heavily on the identification of the author and the content of the book. If the book is pseudonymous, then, according to Karen Jobes, a later date between AD 70 and 90 is reasonable.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) However, Petrine authorship points to an earlier date. Michaels explains that scholars have often used John 21:18-19 as pointing to Peter’s martyrdom possibly under Nero’s persecution in Rome, but he also acknowledges that the time of Peter’s death is unknown.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Furthermore, Mathews observes that the topic of suffering within the book of 1 Peter may also suggest official persecution under Nero, especially in light of the author’s reference to Babylon, which is likely an allusion to Rome.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Regardless, Petrine authorship from the city of Rome is compatible with a date in the sixties. Although several purposes for the book of 1 Peter are possible, Peter specifically states in 1 Peter 5:12, “I have written briefly to you, exhorting and declaring that this is the true grace of God. Stand firm in it.” It seems evident that Peter’s goal was to encourage his readers to stand firm in the face of suffering and persecution. The question remains as to the specific occasion and nature of the suffering that may have prompted Peter to initiate the correspondence. Various theories relating to the form of persecution exist. Paul Achtemeier notes that, although unlikely, the persecution could have originated from Nero (AD 54-68), Vespasian (AD 69-79), Domitian (AD 81-96), or Trajan (AD 97-117).[\[6\]](#_ftn6) More likely, the Christians Peter wrote to experienced local persecution from the general population, because the believers were unwilling to participate in many of the local customs common throughout the Roman Empire.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The environment of suffering naturally leads to the questions regarding the identity of Peter’s audience and the location of such persecution. The identification of Peter’s audience is challenging and will be addressed more fully in the section below. However, a brief introduction is relevant to the discussion of 1 Peter’s historical backdrop. Peter specifically identifies his audience at the outset of his letter as follows: “To those who are elect exiles of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia” (1 Pet 1:1). Certain scholars go so far as to assume that not only did Peter not write the letter, but that the audience identified in verse 1 is fictive.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) However, the conclusion is highly unlikely. The key question surrounding Peter’s audience is whether they are primarily Jewish Christians or Gentile Christians. A verse that stands at the crossroads of the debate is 1 Peter 1:18, which suggests that Peter’s recipients have a futile inheritance from their forefathers. Jobes points out that another significant issue revolves around whether the terms foreigners (1 Pet 1:1) and resident aliens (1 Pet 2:11) should be interpreted literally or metaphorically.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The modern consensus is that the terms should be taken metaphorically, and that the audience was primarily Gentile.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) The exegetical focus of 1 Peter 2:4-10 centers around the idea that believers as living stones participate in the living Christ, the One who is the chosen Cornerstone. The historical backdrop potentially supervenes upon an interpretation of 1 Peter 2:4-10 in four ways. First, Peter, as an apostle and eyewitness to Jesus, is uniquely qualified to communicate the message of a believer’s new identity. Second, the dating and occasion of the book during a time of persecution emphasize that a believer’s new identity inaugurated in Christ is relevant for those facing severe persecution, trauma, and difficulty. Third, the identified purpose of Peter’s letter points to the idea that a believer’s placement in Christ as a living stone not only is a message of encouragement, but also assists in the process of standing firm when experiencing suffering. Fourth, the identification of a Gentile audience highlights the fact that a believer’s new identity does not only apply to individuals with a Jewish descent, but also to those with no Semitic lineage. ## **Literary Analysis** Throughout the previous few centuries, scholars have espoused various potential genres for 1 Peter. Mark Dubis explains that, in the early twentieth century, a common view was to assert that 1 Peter represented a baptismal homily, baptismal liturgy, or, more specifically, an Easter baptismal liturgy.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The genre of a letter is more likely, but the question remains as to the type of letter that Peter wrote. More recently, William Schutter suggests that 1 Peter is a circular letter, Michaels opens the possibility of an apocalyptic diaspora letter, Troy Martin identifies 1 Peter’s genre as a paraenesis, and Paul Holloway asserts that1 Peter is a consolatory letter.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) In general, the consensus points to the genre of a letter, but the debate continues around the sub-genre or specific type of letter. [![The First Epistle of Peter 182x300 - Exegesis of 1 Peter 2.4-10](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-First-Epistle-of-Peter-182x300.jpg "Exegesis of 1 Peter 2.4-10 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gR5GHr)The First Epistle of Peter: New International Commentary on the New Testament (NICNT) Although form-criticism and tradition criticism that point to various forms and themes of the work have their place, the reason the popularity of the letter genre has increased is due to the basic structure and internal evidence of the text itself. Peter Davids recognizes the form of a letter because the book commences with a salutation in 1 Peter 1:1-2, moves to a thanksgiving in 1:3-12, and then proceeds to the body of the letter followed by a summary in 5:8-11, a greeting in 5:12-14, and a benediction in 5:14.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Thus, it seems reasonable to conclude that Peter’s work is some form of personal correspondence. Jobes notes that the popularity of a diaspora letter is on the rise and defines the sub-genre as a distinctively Jewish form “written by a recognized spiritual authority who urges a distinctive and holy way of life for those living in a society not conducive to it.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Although the definition certainly fits the overarching perspective of 1 Peter, Davids agrees with Jobes when asserting that it is questionable whether the diaspora letter can be identified as a distinct genre as the content of such writings are quite diverse.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) In sum, in agreement with Davids, the genre of 1 Peter is first and foremost a Christian letter to distant churches with overtones that mirror a typical diaspora letter to Israel.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) As mentioned above, a relationship exists between the audience and the genre of 1 Peter. The question is whether the personal letter was written to Jewish or Gentile Christians. Upon first impressions, it appears that Peter’s letter is written to Jewish Christians because even the book’s opening salutation appears to reflect the opening of James’s letter written to the twelve tribes of Israel (Jas 1:1). Furthermore, Jesus is described as a cornerstone laid in Zion (1 Pet 2:6), and the recipients are referred to as “a chosen race” and a “holy nation” (1 Pet 2:9). The readers are also referred to as “aliens and strangers” (Pet 2:11). The letter appears to be written to Jewish Christians. However, Michaels points out that a near consensus exists that Peter wrote a personal letter not to Jewish Christians, but to Gentile Christians.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) On reason for the consensus is that 1 Peter 1:18 refers to its readers as having an empty or futile heritage. Also, after stating that his readers are a chosen race and holy nation, Peter then adds “once you were not a people, but now you are God’s people” (1 Pet 2:10). It would be nearly impossible to think that Peter could refer to ancient Jews with such language. Thus, in agreement with Michaels, 1 Peter was written to Gentile Christians in Asia Minor, but importantly, Peter addressed these recipients “as if they were Jews.”[\[18\]](#_ftn18) In sum, 1 Peter’s genre is a personal letter written to Gentile Christians facing localized persecution. The implications of the 1 Peter’s genre are significant. The ramifications of the genre of 1 Peter include personalization and evangelization wrapped up in identity, the latter of which is the ultimate message of 1 Peter 2:4-10. First, the personal nature of the letter reflects the intimate nature of personal identity. When under attack and persecution, it is easy to lose one’s sense of self. The genre of a personal letter allows Peter to encourage recipients who are in need a solid foundation of identity to stand. Second, in the footsteps of Paul, Peter appears to use Jewish language and imagery to both extend a message of hope to all Gentiles, while simultaneously highlighting the grafting of Gentile believers into God’s community through Christ. As Michaels states, “The Jewish past became their past.”[\[19\]](#_ftn19) The inclusive nature of the Jewish language not only pulls Gentiles into God’s community, but also avoids leaving Jews behind, as the notion of a displaced Israel is nowhere evident in 1 Peter. Finally, and most importantly, Peter’s use of Jewish imagery provides a clear illumination of the newly inaugurated personal identity obtained by the Gentile believers who are described as a chosen race, royal priesthood, and holy nation in Christ Jesus (1 Pet 2:9). It would be difficult to imagine a more appropriate genre than a personal letter to communicate the message of identity to a people under fire. 1 Peter 2:4-10 fits into the argument and presentation of the book as a whole in two significant ways. After the salutations of the first three verses, Peter’s letter commences with a strong statement of renewed identity by stating that God “has cause us to be born again to a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ” (1 Pet 1:3). Accordingly, Caleb Friedeman makes a strong case that 1 Peter 2:4-10 structurally concludes the first major section of the letter, which spotlights the new existence of Peter’s audience.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Furthermore, by concluding the identity-focused first section of the letter, 1 Peter 2:4-10 provides the indicative foundation necessary for Peter’s imperative initiatives in the remainder of the book to be built upon. As Jobes explains, with the believer’s new identity intact, Peter is “now ready to instruct his readers how to discharge their role as people chose for God’s own possession.”[\[21\]](#_ftn21) In sum, the literary genre and structure of the work provide the relevant framework for which to communicate how Peter’s [Jewish tradition](https://www.livestransforming.com/intertestamental-period-jewish-worldview/) informs a proper understanding of a believer’s new identity. ## **Interpretive Analysis** As mentioned above, the transformative initiative presented by Peter in 1:3 comes to a brilliant climax in the imagery provided in 1 Peter 2:4-10. Within the passage, Peter describes the new reality that his audience has been born into, which ultimately has a profound impact not only on how believers see themselves, but also how believers relate to God and others. Peter communicates his message by drawing upon his Jewish tradition, and, more specifically, six Old Testament passages from the Septuagint (LXX). As Jobes explains, Peter “creatively transposes them \[the Old Testament passages\] in light of the new reality inaugurated by Christ’s resurrection.”[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Furthermore, the structure of Peter’s thought also affirms the relationship between Christ and humanity by juxtaposing the believers as living stones with Christ as the Living Stone (1 Pet 2:4), juxtaposing the believers as a spiritual house with Christ as its cornerstone (1 Pet 2:5-6), juxtaposing the believers’ absence of shame with Christ’s honor (1 Pet 2:6-7), and, finally, juxtaposing the believers’ new identity with unbelievers’ alternative reality and destiny (1 Pet 2:8-10). Peter begins the pericope by referencing a building project as follows: “As you come to him, a living stone rejected by men but in the sight of God chosen and precious, you yourselves like living stones are being built up as a spiritual house, to be a holy priesthood, to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ” ( 1 Pet 2:4-5). The initial phrase reflects the language of Psalm 33:6 in the LXX, προσέλθατε πρὸς αὐτὸν καὶ φωτίσθητε: “Come to Him and you will be enlightened” where the same lemma is used in verse 1 Peter 2:4 (προσέρχομαι). The basic idea is that as the Psalmist exhorted Israel to come to Yahweh, in like manner, Peter calls his readers to come to Christ. Nijay Gupta observes that προσέρχομαι is also used in cultic contexts when followers of Yahweh approached the temple of God (see Lev 9:7-8; 21:17-18, 21, 23; 22:3; Heb 4:16; 10:1, 22).[\[23\]](#_ftn23) However, Peter’s audience is no longer to draw near to a building made of stone or certainly ever to enter the temples of local deities but, instead, come to Jesus Christ through faith. Peter then introduces and summarizes the stone image in 1 Peter 2:4a. The imagery will be further developed in 1 Peter 2:6-8, but currently the Living Stone appears to be in a state of constant rejection by man since Peter utilizes the perfect tense to describe Christ’s rejection (ἀποδεδοκιμασμένον). Peter’s language appears to intentionally highlight the relationship between the rejection Christ experienced and the rejection and persecution that the Gentile believers faced. Next, Peter clarifies the reality of Christ’s position through the Christological statement that the Living Stone is both chosen and precious to God. Translators often render the preposition παρὰ with the dative (θεῷ) as “in the sight of” God chosen and precious. However, the phrase is not quite strong enough to adequately render the meaning of the preposition. It is not that God “sees” Christ as something that He is not through an adjudicated legal fiction. Instead, from God’s viewpoint and judgement, Christ is, in reality, both chosen and precious, which has significant ramifications for Peter’s readers.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Since the Living Stone is chosen and precious, Peter implies that the Gentile believers are also “acceptable to God” as chosen and precious “through Christ” (1 Pet 2:5b). Accordingly, the believers are living stones like the Living Stone. As Gupta explains, “Peter’s intention is to re-map their concept of worth based on the one doing the judging.”[\[25\]](#_ftn25) At this point, overtones of participatory soteriology become evident. Jobes highlights the concept by stating, “When Peter describes those who come to Jesus Christ as ‘living stones,’ he is implying that their nature derives from the nature of the resurrected Christ.”[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Next, Peter explains in 2:5 that the living stones are being built into a spiritual house (οἶκος). A question that remains is what exactly Peter means by house. Jim Sibley explains that οἶκος can refer to a physical building or it can refer to a family or lineage such as the house of David.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Witherington is probably correct by noting that Peter may have wanted to refer to both the house as a temple and a family dynasty, which is why ἱερόν was not utilized.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) In other words, the living stones, the Gentile believing community, is portrayed both as part of the familial lineage of God’s people (cf. 1 Pet 2:9) and God’s temple. The temple is not a literal temple built of stone, but, nonetheless, the dwelling place of God via the Holy Spirit. Once again, Jobes recognizes that the Living Stone’s placement alongside the living stones within the temple implies “the close relationship of Christ with believers and their common nature as human beings,” which is a living organism “by virtue of the resurrection.”[\[29\]](#_ftn29) Peter’s next two phrases are intimately connected as the apostle asserts that the living stones are to be priests that offer sacrifices to God. However, one must recognize the necessity of the adjectives for a proper interpretation. The priests must be holy, “a holy priesthood” (1 Pet 2:5). The sacrifices must be spiritual, not physical sacrifices, “spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ” (1 Pet 2:5). As Michaels asserts, it is impossible to dislocate the concept of holiness from the ethical obligations of believers.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) However, it is also necessary to recognize that the attribute of holiness within the temple in the first century had more to do with God than man. As Jobes explains, it was God’s presence that sanctified or made the Jerusalem temple holy, not the ethical conduct of believers.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) Similarly, although certainly God’s presence has an ethical component, it is the Holy Spirit that sanctifies or causes believers to be holy via God’s presence (cf. 1 Cor 6:19). The believers’ holiness due to the Spirit’s internalization is another layer in revealing the true identity of the Gentile believers. Believers are to *be* holy by living a life of holiness from the reality of their holy nature via the inhabitation of the Spirit. The final question related to 1 Peter 2:4-5 pertains to the nature of the sacrifices offered to God by the holy priests, the living stones. Peter utilizes another key adjective in verse five. The sacrifices offered must be spiritual sacrifices. John Elliot emphasizes acts of praise and thanksgiving as representative of spiritual sacrifices.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) In a slight contrast, Joel Green accentuates the concept of mutual love regarding spiritual sacrifices.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) However, in light of Peter’s Gentile audience, Philip Richardson insightfully explores spiritual sacrifices in Hellenistic writings to determine what Peter might have expected his readers to understand. Specifically, Richardson observes that, in Philo’s writings, God does not look upon literal sacrifices, “but on the mind (διάνοια) and willingness of him who offers them.”[\[34\]](#_ftn34) The Hellenistic perspective also aligns with 1 Peter 1:13, “Therefore, preparing your minds for action and being sober minded.” In other words, spiritual sacrifices are those initiatives that arise from the purity of the mind, which is prompted by the Holy Spirit who empowers upright behavior.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) In sum, 1 Peter 2:4-5 clearly articulates a believer’s newly forged identity as living stones, chosen and precious, who are holy priests offering spiritual sacrifices by participating in the newly inaugurated reality revealed through Christ Jesus. Peter now utilizes the Hebrew Scriptures to shore up his arguments. He begins by citing Isaiah’s prophecy, “For it stands in Scripture, ‘Behold, I am laying in Zion a stone, a cornerstone chosen and precious, and whoever believes in him will not be put to shame’” (1 Pet 2:6). Peter’s words are a clear allusion to Isaiah 28:16, “Therefore thus says the Lord God, ‘Behold, I am the one who has laid as a foundation in Zion, a stone, a tested stone, a precious cornerstone, of a sure foundation.’” Peter’s point is that when God used Isaiah to prophecy that a cornerstone would be laid as a solid foundation for Zion, the prophet was pointing forward to the building constructed in 1 Peter 2:5: The building comprised of Christ as the Living Cornerstone and believers as the living stones.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) In light of the persecution and suffering experienced by the Gentile believers, Peter solidifies his message of hope through the words of Isaiah that those who believe in Christ as their foundation will never be rejected and never be put to shame. In other words, the worth, value, and identity of the believers resides in Christ and not in the opinion of the pagan people who are persecuting and ridiculing them. Certain scholars have highlighted the possibility of an exegetically significant difference between Peter’s quote in verse six and the LXX. Specifically, the LXX states, “Behold, I am the one who has laid (ἐμβαλῶ) as a foundation in Zion” (Isa 28:16a); however, Peter states, “Behold, I am laying (τίθημι) in Zion a stone” (1 Pet 2:6). Paul Himes provides three reasons for asserting that Peter’s modification of the verb was likely deliberate, which include lexical, contextual, and structural reasons.[\[37\]](#_ftn37) Lexically, Himes notes that ἐμβάλλω normally means throwing or casting and often has a negative connotation (e.g., Luke 12:5; Gen 37:22); contextually, ἐμβάλλω never has the connotation of appointment but τίθημι does; and, structurally, Peter uses the term τίθημι to frame verse 6-8 and highlight the contrast between believers and unbelievers.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) It does not appear unreasonable that Peter deliberately utilized the term τίθημι instead of ἐμβάλλω, but not for the purpose of changing the meaning of the LXX but, instead, for the purpose of illuminating the messianic nature of the prophecy in Isaiah within Peter’s Jewish tradition in order for his readers to better understand Isaiah’s original intent. Peter now moves in a different direction, and, for the first time within the pericope, he focuses on unbelievers by stating, “So the honor is for you who believe, but for those who do not believe, ‘The stone that the builders rejected has become the cornerstone’” (1 Pet 2:7). The key concept in the first phrase is the term honor. Jobes explains that the believers’ honor “is a share in the honor that God has bestowed on Christ, with whom they are united in the spiritual house.”[\[39\]](#_ftn39) Once again, Peter alludes to the benefits of a believer’s union and participation in Christ and one of those benefits was honor. Peter seems to emphasize the term honor as a way of spotlighting the ironic contrast that his audience faced. The Gentile believers likely experienced shame from their pagan society while desiring honor; however, Peter is teaching his readers that they are the ones experiencing honor, and the pagans are the ones experiencing shame. Peter recognizes that if his audience understands that their identity resides in Christ and not in the opinions of their persecutors, then they will not only be honored by God, but will also experience the honor lavished on them in Christ. In 1 Peter 2:7b, Peter quotes Psalm 118:22, which states, “The stone that the builders rejected has become the cornerstone.” Peter applies the Psalmist’s words to unbelievers as those who have rejected the Cornerstone, Jesus Christ. The quote from the Psalter also occurs in the Gospels (Mark 12:10; Matt 21:42; Luke 20:17). Michaels explains that the builders referred to in the Psalm applies to the Jewish religious leaders in the gospels, but, for Peter, the builders who reject the Cornerstone include any unbeliever, but specifically include the citizens of Rome who were harassing the Gentile believers.[\[40\]](#_ftn40) Ultimately, as I. Howard Marshall summarizes, the quotation from Psalm 118 functions to assist Peter’s message that since the rejection of Christ was predicted in the Hebrew Scriptures, it should come as no surprise that their pagan friends would also reject Christ.[\[41\]](#_ftn41) Peter, once again, provides comfort to the Gentile believers experiencing torment from other’s opinions and persecution by showing how his Jewish tradition informs a proper understanding of his readers’ new identity. Peter immediately moves into providing another Old Testament quote by stating that to unbelievers, Christ is not a cornerstone, but instead, a “stone of stumbling, a rock of offense (σκανδάλου)” (1 Pet 2:8a). The quotation is an allusion to Isaiah 8:14, “And he \[the Lord\] will become a sanctuary and a stone of offense and a rock of stumbling to both houses of Israel.” Peter focuses only on the portion of Isaiah 8:14 that addresses those who reject the stone. When reflecting upon Jesus’s accusation that Peter, as the rock, was also a rock of offense (σκάνδαλον+), it is difficult to miss the irony (Matt 16:23). However, Peter’s point, as Jobes recognizes, is that each individual has the opportunity to either reject or embrace Christ, the Cornerstone.[\[42\]](#_ftn42) Once Peter finishes quoting Isaiah 8:14, he then provides one of the most controversial statements within the pericope: “They stumble because they disobey the word, as they were destined to do” (1 Pet 2:8b). The first phrase is rather straightforward; Peter relates the rejection of the Cornerstone with sin. Rejection of Christ is not an amoral decision based on individual religious preferences but, instead, a decision that has both internally ontological and externally ethical ramifications as the Spirit’s inhabitation not only changes the believer’s spiritual DNA but also their motives and behavior (cf. Rom 4:1-25; Gal 3:6-29). The second phrase is less straightforward. The phrase, εἰς ὃ καὶ ἐτέθησαν, translated “as they were destined to do” (1 Pet 2:8b) by the ESV points to God’s intent. Did God intend, destine, or determine (ἐτέθησαν) that certain individuals would stumble and disobey by rejecting Christ? The larger context of Scripture suggests otherwise (cf. Ezek 33:11; 1 Tim 2:4). Helpfully, Armin Panning recognizes that Peter uses τίθημι in 2:6 to convey the appointment of the Cornerstone and to simultaneously communicate the result of the appointment: Believers “will not be put to shame” (1 Pet 2:6b).[\[43\]](#_ftn43) Accordingly, by applying the same logic to the use of the verb τίθημι in 2:8b, Armin contends that it is not the appointment to unbelief that is determined but the resultant punishment for unbelief that is determined.[\[44\]](#_ftn44) Scot McKnight summarizes the concept well by stating, “God’s act of appointing Jesus as the living Stone has become both honor for believers and judgement for unbelievers; this was God’s design, and everything happens according to his will.”[\[45\]](#_ftn45) Peter now moves toward a flurried climax in 2:9-10 through the use of several identity designations that might remind the modern reader of Tchaikovsky’s conclusion to his 1812 Overture. The rapid-fire sequence of identity commences as follows: “But you are a chosen race (γένος), a royal priesthood, a holy nation (ἔθνος), a people (λαὸς) for his own possession” (1 Pet 2:9a). Peter draws heavily from Exodus 19:5-6, which states, “You shall be my treasured possession among all peoples … and you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” Peter clearly applies three key terms of ethnic identity to Christians and the Church: γένος, ἔθνος, and λαὸς. In other words, as Gupta explains, Peter links and transfers the imagery and identity of his Jewish tradition onto Christians.[\[46\]](#_ftn46) David Horrell observes that most commentators focus on appropriating Israel’s identity in terms of ecclesiological or Jewish character designations, but they often lack focus on ethnoracial terms of identity as presented by Peter.[\[47\]](#_ftn47) Based on the ethnic categories utilized by Peter (γένος, ἔθνος, and λαὸς), Horrell convincingly argues that, although Christian identity draws on a Jewish tradition applied to ecclesiology, it is better to utilize the language of ethnicity and race to refer to the new identity appropriated by Christians through Christ.[\[48\]](#_ftn48) Denise Kimber Buell agrees by stating, “Early Christians perceived ethnicity/race as concepts flexible enough to encompass both the radical transformation of identity attributed to the conversion process and the stability of identity hoped for in its wake.”[\[49\]](#_ftn49) The payoff is significant. If Peter’s identity-designations move beyond ecclesiological categories and into an ethnoracial reality, then the door opens to the possibility that Peter is more aligned with the participatory soteriology that Paul engages so forcefully in his letters. In other words, Peter may be pointing toward an ontological “in Christ” reality that occurs through both a common spiritual race and a common spiritual culture appropriated via the infusion of the Holy Spirit.[\[50\]](#_ftn50) Peter’s next step is to explain the result of the newly forged identity: “So that you may proclaim the excellencies of him who called you out of darkness into his marvelous light” (1 Pet 2:9b). Gupta insightfully connects the dots between the role of the priesthood and the missional focus of Peter’s initiative; the priests have the job of proclaiming.[\[51\]](#_ftn51) Channeling Luther, Jobes points out that *all* believers with their newly forged identity are to not only offer spiritual sacrifices, but also proclaim their new in Christ reality to all the nations, thus playing their part in the inauguration of Christ’s “on earth as it is in heaven” existence (Matt 6:10).[\[52\]](#_ftn52) In sum, informed by Peter’s Jewish tradition, all believers are grafted into an ethnoracial reality of God’s people via their newly forged identity for the purpose of proclaiming Christ. Peter completes the book’s opening salvo with a final recapitulation of identity by reengaging the topic of God’s possession of His people, “Once you were not a people, but now you are God’s people; once you had not received mercy, but now you have received mercy” (1 Pet 2:10). Peter’s words appear to be a clear allusion to Hosea 2:23, “And I will have mercy on No Mercy, and I will say to Not My People, ‘You are my people’; and he shall say, ‘You are my God’” (Hos 2:23). Peter appears to be arguing that his audience is the fulfillment of the prophetic words spoken by Hosea, which is another clear application of Peter’s Jewish tradition. The message of Hosea was traditionally viewed as God’s promise to reconstitute the Jewish people sent into exile. However, God had something much more expansive in mind. As Jobes eloquently and summarily explains, “God’s regathered royal priesthood and holy nation – his newly chosen race, according to Peter – would be those who had been reborn as the children, not of Abraham, but of God the Father himself through the resurrection of Jesus Christ.”[\[53\]](#_ftn53) Without question, the totality of 1 Peter 2:4-10 points back to Peter’s Jewish tradition to inform and illuminate the believer’s new identity forged through participating in Christ Jesus. Peter’s audience is to understand themselves not as society perceives them, but as they really are in Christ Jesus. ## **Canonical Analysis** A comprehensive intertextual analysis of 1 Peter 2:4-10 is beyond the scope of this brief study. However, a few important Old and New Testament connections will provide insight into the passage from a canonical perspective. Although numerous Old Testament echoes, allusions, and quotes have already been explored above due to the nature of the pericope, one more is worth mentioning. The remainder of the canonical analysis will focus on New Testament connections. Regarding the Old Testament, it was noted above that the language of 1 Peter 2:9, which referred to a chosen race, a royal priesthood, and God’s possession, were clear allusions to Exodus 19:5-6. However, D. A. Carson emphasizes that Peter’s language also draws from Isaiah 43 in the LXX, “… to give drink to my chosen race (γένος), my people (λαόν) whom I have preserved” (Isa 43:20-21, translation mine).[\[54\]](#_ftn54) Peter takes the idea of a chosen race, Abraham’s descendants, as spoken by Isaiah and applies it directly to his Christian readers. Furthermore, the language of God’s people (λαόν) in Isaiah 43 is also reflected in Peter’s words in 1 Peter 2:9a and, according to Carson, highlights God’s desire to rescue the exiled Jews, which is exactly what Peter has in mind for his Christian readers.[\[55\]](#_ftn55) The allusion to Isaiah 43 provides an additional layer of support, alongside Exodus 19:5-6, for Peter’s argument, which is the appropriateness of drawing on his Jewish tradition to inform his readers’ understanding of their new identity. The New Testament also provides several relevant echoes and allusions to 1 Peter 2:4-10. First, two literarily relevant near passages written by Peter are located in 1 Peter 1:1 and 5:13. The former refers to the “elect exile of the Dispersion” (1 Pet 1:1, ESV). The latter verse sends greetings from “Babylon,” which appears to be a symbolic reference to the capital of the exile (1 Pet 5:13). The significance of the Dispersion and Babylon reference is to highlight Peter’s continuous effort to link his Jewish tradition to his Christian readers in an attempt to clearly communicate their new identity in 1 Peter 2:4-10. Moving literarily further away but still within the words of Peter, it is difficult to avoid a conversation around the references to stones within the New Testament. In response to inquiries asked by the high-priestly families in Jerusalem, Peter states, “This Jesus is the stone that was rejected by you, the builders, which has become the cornerstone” (Act 4:11-12). In Acts, Peter applies the concepts in Isaiah 8:14 and 28:16 to the Jewish people. However, the context of 1 Peter 2:4-10 expands and suggests that the “stone of stumbling” applies to any and all who reject Christ (1 Pet 2:8a). Jobes also observes that the source for Peter’s stone imagery was likely Jesus Himself in light of the references in the Synoptics (Mark 12:10-11; Matt 21:42-44; Luke 20:17-18).[\[56\]](#_ftn56) The significance of the intertextual relationships is that it adds credibility to Peter’s message of identity in 1 Peter 2:6-8 when his audience recognizes his language aligns with various other sources including the words of Jesus (see also Rom 9:32-33; Eph 2:20-22). Ultimately, in 1 Peter 2:4-10, the echoes, allusions, and quotes of Old and New Testament passages are weaved together into a beautiful mosaic that provides reciprocal beams of light, illuminating both the meaning of the author and the understanding of the recipient. ## **Application** Walking across the 1 Peter 2:4-10 hermeneutical bridge is likely a rather straightforward affair for anyone who has struggled with the emotional angst that occurs when living for the opinion of others or being somehow belittled for not going along with the crowd. As adolescents, youth ministries might call it succumbing to peer pressure but, as the believer ages, often very little changes. A friend once defined the devil’s biggest lie as follows: “My value and worth come from my performance plus other peoples’ opinions.”[\[57\]](#_ftn57) A friend, a relative, a co-worker looks down on the believer, and she immediately begins to question her value and worth. She feels as if she must be less valuable than other people. She does not think or feel that she is good enough. Inevitably, the people around her will likely try to convince her that if she only thought, felt, or acted the way they did, then she would be good enough. It appears that Peter’s audience was facing the same issue that most believers face today. The early Christians were likely experiencing the emotional wear and tear that arises from being constantly berated and belittled by the opinions of others. Peter’s answer to his readers is just as applicable and effective today as it was a couple thousand years ago. Believers are not who others say they are; their identity is not based on other people’s opinions. Instead, a believer is who God says they are. They are children of God. They are heirs to the throne. In Peter’s words, they are “a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for his own possession” (1 Pet 2:9). The way a believer thinks about herself must align with the way God thinks about her; otherwise, the believer is not aligning her thinking with God’s truth. Accordingly, Christian counseling and Christian discipleship are fields ripe for the application of Peter’s message. When a counselor or mentor highlights the reality of a believer’s identity in Christ via the inhabitation of the Holy Spirit, rather than the delusion of placing one’s identity and worth in the opinions of others, then freedom is just around the corner (cf. Gal 1:10; 5:1). ## **Conclusion** Peter’s letter of hope to the distant persecuted believers is much more than a pep talk or a simple word of encouragement to a group of Gentile Christians. Peter moves well beyond motivational speaking and into the realm of intertextual exegesis, ancestral heritage, and practical solutions. Peter’s masterful use of the Old Testament not only assists his readers in understanding his own Jewish heritage, but, more importantly, it allows his audience to re-map their understanding of themselves as God’s people through their spiritual ancestry. Without question, in 1 Peter 2:4-10, the Apostle Peter shows how his Jewish tradition informs a proper understanding of a believer’s new identity in Christ through the internalization of the Holy Spirit. Peter pounds home the message that his beloved readers are not who their persecutors say they are, but, instead, they are who God says they are. They are chosen; they are precious; they are living stones; they are building blocks; they are a holy priesthood; they are honored; they are a chosen race; they are a royal priesthood; they are a holy nation; they are possessed by God; they are God’s people; and they are recipients of mercy. The practical implication of the believers’ new identity in Christ is freedom – a freedom that provides an escape route from the debilitating persecution and opinions of others. Peter has provided God’s solution to mankind’s identity crisis and now is the time for modern believers to appropriate their identity in Christ and live accordingly. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) J. Ramsey Michaels, *1 Peter*, ed. David Allen Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, vol. 49, *Word* *Biblical* *Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2018), lxiii. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Steve H Mathews, “Rhetorical Criticism for Expository Preaching: An Analysis of 1 Peter 2:4-10,” *Journal of Biblical Theology* 5, no. 3 (July 2022): 59–61. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Karen H. Jobes, *1 Peter*, *Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2005), 19. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Michaels, *1 Peter*, 49:lviii–lxi. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Mathews, “Rhetorical Criticism for Expository Preaching,” 62. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Paul J. Achtemeier, *1 Peter: A Commentary on First Peter*, ed. Eldon Jay Epp, *Hermeneia* (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996), 28–32. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 34–36. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Will Robinson and Stephen R. Llewelyn, “The Fictitious Audience of 1 Peter,” *The Heythrop Journal* 61, no. 6 (2020): 939. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Jobes, *1 Peter*, 22. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Mark Dubis, “Research on 1 Peter: A Survey of Scholarly Literature since 1985,” *Currents in Biblical Research* 4, no. 2 (February 2006): 206. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 206–7. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Peter H. Davids, *The First Epistle of Peter*, 2nd ed., *The New International Commentary on the New* *Testament* (Eerdmans, 1990), 13. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Jobes, *1 Peter*, 54. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Davids, *The First Epistle of Peter*, 14. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Michaels, *1 Peter*, 49:xlvi. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Michaels, *1 Peter*, 49:xlvi. For a robust analysis contra Michaels, which asserts an audience of Jewish believers, see Jim R Sibley, “You Talkin’ to Me? 1 Peter 2:4–10 and a Theology of Israel,” *Southwestern Journal of Theology* 59, no. 1 (Fall 2016). [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid., 49:l. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Caleb T. Friedeman, “The Rhetorical Design of 1 Peter 2,9-10,” *Biblica* 101, no. 1 (2020): 124, 130–31. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Jobes, *1 Peter*, 164. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Jobes, *1 Peter*, 142. For a detailed intertextual analysis pertaining to stone passages, see Jocelyn A Williams, “A Case Study in Intertextuality: The Place of Isaiah in the ‘Stone’ Sayings of 1 Peter 2,” *The Reformed Theological Review* 66, no. 1 (April 2007). [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Nijay K. Gupta, “A Spiritual House of Royal Priests, Chosen and Honored: The Presence and Function of Cultic Imagery in 1 Peter,” *Perspectives in Religious Studies* 36, no. 1 (2009): 71. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) For the various uses of παρὰ with the dative case, see William Arndt et al., *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 757. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Gupta, “A Spiritual House of Royal Priests, Chosen and Honored,” 71. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Jobes, *1 Peter*, 148. The intention here is not to suggest a form of theosis, but that 1 Peter 2:4-10 appears to move beyond a forensic understanding of salvation and into a new spiritual reality participating in Christ via the inhabitation of the Spirit. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Sibley, “You Talkin’ to Me? 1 Peter 2:4–10 and a Theology of Israel,” 72. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Ben Witherington, III, *Letters and Homilies for Hellenized Christians: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1-2 Peter* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2010), 114–15. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Jobes, *1 Peter*, 148–49. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Michaels, *1 Peter*, 49:101. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Jobes, *1 Peter*, 149. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) John H. Elliott, *1 Peter: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary*, Anchor Bible (New York: Anchor Bible, 2001), 422. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Joel B. Green, *1 Peter*, *Two Horizons New Testament Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2007), 61. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Philip Richardson, “What Are the Spiritual Sacrifices of 1 Peter 2:5?: Some Light from Philo of Alexandria,” *The Evangelical Quarterly* 87, no. 1 (January 2015): 10. See also the connection between the mind and presenting sacrifices to God in Romans 12:1-2. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Ibid., 16. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) At no time does 1 Peter 2:4-10 place Peter himself into a foundational role in the building, contra Roman Catholic tradition. See Jobes, *1 Peter*, 151. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Paul A. Himes, “Why Did Peter Change the Septuagint?: A Reexamination of the Significance of the Use of Τίθημι in 1 Peter 2:6,” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 26, no. 2 (2016): 237–41. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Ibid., 237–44. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) Jobes, *1 Peter*, 152. See also Francis W. Beare, *The First Epistle of Peter*, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1970), 124. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Michaels, *1 Peter*, 49:105. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) I. Howard Marshall, *1 Peter*, *The IVP New Testament Commentary Series* (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1991), 73. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Jobes, *1 Peter*, 153–54. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Armin J. Panning, “What Has Been Determined (Ετέθησαν) in 1 Peter 2:8?,” *Wisconsin Lutheran Quarterly* 98, no. 1 (2001): 50–52. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Ibid. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Scot McKnight, *1 Peter*, *The NIV Application Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 1996), 109. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) Gupta, “A Spiritual House of Royal Priests, Chosen and Honored,” 73. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) David G. Horrell, “‘Race’, ‘Nation’, ‘People’: Ethnic Identity-Construction in 1 Peter 2.9,” *New Testament Studies* 58, no. 1 (January 2012): 124. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48) Ibid., 138, 143. [\[49\]](#_ftnref49) Denise Kimber Buell, “Race and Universalism in Early Christianity,” *Journal of Early Christian Studies* 10, no. 4 (2002): 436. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50) Once again, the ontological change is not a form of deification or theosis, but instead an ontological transformation of being occurring within man’s spirit (cf. Rom 8:16). [\[51\]](#_ftnref51) Gupta, “A Spiritual House of Royal Priests, Chosen and Honored,” 74. [\[52\]](#_ftnref52) Jobes, *1 Peter*, 160-61. Note that Jobes clarifies that the point of Luther’s initiative was neither to encourage nor deny clerical authority, but to highlight the theme of obedience as presented in Exodus 19. For further reflections on the relationship between the missional hermeneutics and participatory soteriology, see Michael J. Gorman, *Becoming the Gospel: Paul, Participation, and Mission* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015). [\[53\]](#_ftnref53) Jobes, *1 Peter*, 164. [\[54\]](#_ftnref54) D. A. Carson, “1 Peter,” in *Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 1030. [\[55\]](#_ftnref55) Ibid., 1031. [\[56\]](#_ftnref56) Jobes, *1 Peter*, 146. [\[57\]](#_ftnref57) Prior to his death, I had the opportunity to briefly work together with Robert McGee, and I owe him a debt of gratitude for his work in applying the gospel to our everyday lives through an understanding of a believer’s identity in Christ. See Robert McGee, *The Search For Significance: Seeing Your True Worth Through God’s Eyes*, Revised. (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2003), 100. # Bibliography - Achtemeier, Paul J. *1 Peter: A Commentary on First Peter*. Edited by Eldon Jay Epp. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996. - Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, Walter Bauer, and F. Wilbur Gingrich. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. - Beare, Francis W. *The First Epistle of Peter*. 3rd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 1970. - Buell, Denise Kimber. “Race and Universalism in Early Christianity.” *Journal of Early Christian Studies* 10, no. 4 (2002): 429–468. - Carson, D. A. “1 Peter.” In *Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament*, 1015–1044. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007. - Davids, Peter H. *The First Epistle of Peter*. 2nd ed. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Eerdmans, 1990. - Dubis, Mark. “Research on 1 Peter: A Survey of Scholarly Literature since 1985.” *Currents in Biblical Research* 4, no. 2 (February 2006): 199–239. - Elliott, John H. *1 Peter: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary*. Anchor Bible. New York: Anchor Bible, 2001. - Friedeman, Caleb T. “The Rhetorical Design of 1 Peter 2,9-10.” *Biblica* 101, no. 1 (2020): 124–131. - Gorman, Michael J. *Becoming the Gospel: Paul, Participation, and Mission*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015. - Green, Joel B. *1 Peter*. Two Horizons New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2007. - Gupta, Nijay K. “A Spiritual House of Royal Priests, Chosen and Honored: The Presence and Function of Cultic Imagery in 1 Peter.” *Perspectives in Religious Studies* 36, no. 1 (2009): 61–76. - Himes, Paul A. “Why Did Peter Change the Septuagint?: A Reexamination of the Significance of the Use of Τίθημι in 1 Peter 2:6.” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 26, no. 2 (2016): 227–244. - Horrell, David G. “‘Race’, ‘Nation’, ‘People’: Ethnic Identity-Construction in 1 Peter 2.9.” *New Testament Studies* 58, no. 1 (January 2012): 123–143. - Jobes, Karen H. *1 Peter*. Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2005. - Marshall, I. Howard. *1 Peter*. The IVP New Testament Commentary Series. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1991. - Mathews, Steve H. “Rhetorical Criticism for Expository Preaching: An Analysis of 1 Peter 2:4-10.” *Journal of Biblical Theology* 5, no. 3 (July 2022): 55–75. - McGee, Robert. *The Search For Significance: Seeing Your True Worth Through God’s Eyes*. Revised. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2003. - McKnight, Scot. *1 Peter*. The NIV Application Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 1996. - Michaels, J. Ramsey. *1 Peter*. Edited by David Allen Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker. Vol. 49. *Word* *Biblical* *Commentary*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2018. - Panning, Armin J. “What Has Been Determined (Ετέθησαν) in 1 Peter 2:8?” *Wisconsin Lutheran Quarterly* 98, no. 1 (2001): 48–52. - Richardson, Philip. “What Are the Spiritual Sacrifices of 1 Peter 2:5?: Some Light from Philo of Alexandria.” *The Evangelical Quarterly* 87, no. 1 (January 2015): 3–17. - Robinson, Will, and Stephen R. Llewelyn. “The Fictitious Audience of 1 Peter.” *The Heythrop Journal* 61, no. 6 (2020): 939–950. - Sibley, Jim R. “You Talkin’ to Me? 1 Peter 2:4–10 and a Theology of Israel.” *Southwestern Journal of Theology* 59, no. 1 (Fall 2016): 59–75. - Williams, Jocelyn A. “A Case Study in Intertextuality: The Place of Isaiah in the ‘Stone’ Sayings of 1 Peter 2.” *The Reformed Theological Review* 66, no. 1 (April 2007): 37–55. - Witherington, III, Ben. *Letters and Homilies for Hellenized Christians: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1-2 Peter*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2010. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Righteousness Theme in the Book of Matthew](https://www.livestransforming.com/righteousness-theme-in-the-book-of-matthew/) **Published:** January 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Righteousness Theme in the Book of Matthew Scholars have long recognized the importance of the theme of righteousness within the Gospel of Matthew. However, no scholarly consensus exists around the meaning of righteousness in the First Gospel. Some interpreters assume that the thematic initiative points to God’s demand upon man, while alternatively, others suggest Matthew’s righteousness is a gift reflective of Pauline soteriology.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Without a proper understanding of Matthew’s use of righteousness, the interpreter risks inappropriately conflating Matthew’s understanding with the remainder of the New Testament or otherwise missing the author’s intended meaning of the term righteousness. Specifically, this study is limited to the seven uses of the noun form of righteousness, δικαιοσύνη, spoken by Jesus in Matthew*. It appears that Matthew’s use of the noun form of righteousness points beyond God’s demands upon man and to a righteousness that reflects a new eschatological reality inaugurated through Christ.* The research begins by providing a very brief summary of the theme of righteousness in recent scholarship followed by an analysis of the scope and range of the term δικαιοσύνη in the New Testament. Next, the analysis examines the background usage of the term in the Old Testament, the Pseudepigrapha, and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Finally, the research concludes by investigating each of the seven uses of the noun δικαιοσύνη in Matthew: 3:15; 5:16, 10, 20; 6:1, 33; 21:32. ## **The Theme of Righteousness** ### The Thematic Initiative The fact that righteousness, or, more specifically, δικαιοσύνη, is an important theme within the Gospel of Matthew is practically undisputed by scholars. Prominent Matthean scholars such as W. D. Davies and Dale C. Allison identify δικαιοσύνη as an important theme in Matthew.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Furthermore, John Nolland acknowledges not only the importance but also the broad implications of the concept of righteousness in Matthew.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Kolawole Oladotun Paul takes a step further by asserting that righteousness “forms the central significant theme of Matthew’s gospel.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Other scholars note the importance of the thematic initiative within the Sermon on the Mount, while not discounting its value to the remainder of the Gospel.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The nature of the term δικαιοσύνη is so theologically rich within New Testament studies that few scholars would deny its theological relevance. When analyzing the theme of righteousness in Matthew’s Gospel, the challenge revolves primarily around how Matthew utilizes the term to develop the theme. Accordingly, the interpreter is tested from several different directions. First, δικαιοσύνη has a broad semantic range, which will be explored in detail shortly. Second, the context of Matthew’s righteousness passages alongside the backdrop of the Old Testament, the Pseudepigrapha, and the Dead Sea Scrolls provides additional potential nuances to the meaning of the term. Finally, the interpreter faces the issue of how Matthew’s utilization of the term and thematic development relate to the rest of the New Testament canon. Regarding the canonical context, Benno Przybylski explains that the state of the question pertains to whether δικαιοσύνη refers to “God’s gift to man or God’s demand upon man.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Przybylski explains that certain scholars contend that δικαιοσύνη is always considered a demand of God, while others assume it is both a demand of God and a gift, or they find a mediating position between the two perspectives.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The task of addressing the challenges begins with the scope of the semantic analysis. ### The Semantic Scope Matthew addresses the concept of righteousness within the δικαι- word group. A lemma search within the Gospel of Matthew reveals the use of the adjectival form, δίκαιος, seventeen times, the use of the verbal form, δικαιόω, twice, and the use of the noun form, δικαιοσύνη, seven times. The adjective pertains primarily to being in accordance with high standards of conduct or moral principles and can apply to both humans and transcendent beings.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) The neuter form of the adjective can also refer to an obligation relating to certain requirements of justice or rightness.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Six times Matthew utilizes the adjective, δίκαιος, to describe a man (Matt 1:19; 10:41; 13:7; 27:19), twice Matthew uses δίκαιος to describe right versus wrong (Matt 20:4, 23:28), twice he uses the term to describe blood (Matt 23:35), and seven times the term is used to juxtapose righteous people with the unrighteous or wicked (Matt 5:45; 9:13; 13:43, 49; 23:29, 25:37; 25:46). Regarding the verbal form, the following possibilities exist: taking up legal action, rendering a favorable verdict, releasing from claims, and demonstrating moral rightness.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Matthew utilizes the verbal form δικαιόω once to suggest vindication via deeds (Matt 11:19) and next to suggest justification via words (Matt 12:37). Both the adjectival and verbal δικαι- word groups point to a standard of being or normative actions that provide a backdrop of meaning for the analysis of the noun form.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) ### The Semantic Range The broad semantic range of δικαιοσύνη poses a challenge for interpreters when analyzing the noun within Matthew. In general, three major entries for the term exist: the quality of judicial responsibility with a focus on fairness, the quality of juridical correctness with a focus on redemption, and the quality of upright behavior with a focus on morality.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Similar to the adjectival form, δικαιοσύνη can apply to both human and transcendent beings. Furthermore, the quality of behavioral righteousness can be subdivided into a morality in general, a fulfillment of intrinsically divine expectations, or an uprightness determined by specific legal standards or ordinances.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) A significant challenge facing the interpreter of Matthew is whether the focus of Matthew is on the second entry, redemption, or on the third entry, behavior. In other words, does Matthew’s understanding of δικαιοσύνη in his seven noun references center on righteousness as an eschatological gift from God or does Matthew’s view of righteousness center on a righteousness whereby God demands certain behavior from humanity? To answer the question, a summary of dictionary entries is inadequate. Instead, a brief analysis of δικαιοσύνη within the context of the Old Testament, the Pseudepigrapha, and the Dead Sea Scrolls is a necessary next step to evaluate Matthew’s perspective within his ancient context. ## **The Background of Righteousness** ### The Old Testament The seven occurrences of the noun form of δικαιοσύνη in Matthew all represent words spoken by Jesus. Five of them occur within the Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5:6, 10, 20; 6:1, 33) and two of them occur with reference to John the Baptist (Matt 3:5; 21:32). Robert Bratcher notes that of the 476 occurrences of the צדק root words, the LXX translates 452 of them with the δικαι- word group; thus, the vast majority of the time the Hebrew word connoting righteousness is translated into the Greek term δικαιοσύνη in the LXX. [\[14\]](#_ftn14) Przybylski agrees with Bratcher’s basic premise and adds that only between 23 and 32 uses of צדק are not represented “by some form of the δικαι- word group.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) More specifically, the primary definitions of the noun and adjectival forms of צדק are what is right, righteousness in government, justice in a case or cause, rightness in speech, ethical rightness, vindication, God’s attribute as sovereign, truthfulness, and righteous acts.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) The definitions of the verbal form of צדק include being in the right, being justified, being just, being righteous in character and conduct, doing justice as in administering the law, declaring righteous, justifying as in vindicating the cause or saving, and making righteous.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Bratcher explains that when צדק is applied to an individual, the word normally means the degree by which an individual is faithful to Yahweh; when applied to a king, the word normally means the way he rightly exercised power; when applied to a nation, the word normally means the people’s devotion to the Law.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) However, when צדק is applied to God, righteousness detaches from an external norm or moral standard, and instead, it means the actions that Yahweh performs as required by the covenant with Israel.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) The result is that righteousness in an Ancient Near Eastern culture often is an attribute represented by a virtuous king. Accordingly, Bratcher contends that the righteousness Jesus refers to in Matthew’s Gospel pertains to God’s “way of ruling the Kingdom,” which is the same “righteousness that belongs to the citizens of the Kingdom” that is inaugurating Christ’s eschatological Kingdom (Matt 6:10).[\[20\]](#_ftn20) ### The Pseudepigrapha Matthew often echoes the concept of righteousness in the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, which may provide insight into meaning. First, Matthew 5:10 echoes the *Testament of Levi* and provides an interesting juxtaposition: “You shall set aside the Law and nullify the words of the prophets by your wicked perversity. You persecute just men: and you hate the pious \[δικαίους\]; the word of the faithful you regard with revulsion” (*T. Levi* 16:2).[\[21\]](#_ftn21) The concept of righteousness is contrasted with those who ignore the Law and the prophets, while righteousness aligns with those who are just and faithful. The implication is that the righteous follow the Law and the words of the prophets even when they are persecuted (Matt 5:10). Second, Matthew 5:10 echoes the *Testament of Judah*, “Like a whirlwind shall be the false prophets: They shall harass the righteous \[δικαίους\]” (*T. Jud.* 21:9).[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Similar to Matthew 5:10, the righteous are persecuted. However, the righteous are now contrasted with false prophets, and, by implication, the righteous are those who follow the ordinances of God’s true prophets. Finally, Matthew 5:20 echoes *1 Enoch* when stating, “Fear not, Enoch, righteous \[ἀληθινὸς\] man and scribe of truth” (*1 En.* 15:1).[\[23\]](#_ftn23) George Nickelsburg translates ἀληθινὸς as righteousness due to the parallel formulation in *1 Enoch* 12:4, “Enoch, righteous \[δικαιοσύνης\] scribe.”[\[24\]](#_ftn24) The importance of Enoch’s attribute of righteousness is understood in light of 1 Enoch 1:2, “Enoch, a righteous \[δίκαιός\] man whose eyes were opened by God, who had the vision of the Holy One and of Heaven, which he showed me.”[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Nickelsburg explains that it was Enoch’s righteousness that allowed him to enter God’s presence.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Interestingly, Matthew 5:20 references a type of righteousness similar to Enoch’s righteousness that encounters God’s presence and exceeds that of the Jewish leaders required to enter the kingdom of heaven. ### The Dead Sea Scrolls A comprehensive analysis of the Hebrew term צדק, righteousness, within the non-biblical texts of the Qumran is beyond the scope of this study. However, the term plays a particularly important role in the Damascus Document (CD). As Przybylski explains, within the corpus of the Dead Sea Scrolls it is only within the CD that צדק is used primarily as a conceptual term.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Accordingly, the following brief study focuses on the CD as representative of the term’s usage. The noun form occurs twelve times in the CD as follows: 1:1, 11, 16; 3:15; 4:17; 6:11; 20:11, 17, 29, 31, 32, 33. The first instance of צדק in CD 1:1 identifies the recipients of the document as “all those who know justice (צדק).”[\[28\]](#_ftn28) In CD 1:11 and 20:32 the phrase מורה צדק occurs, which means [Teacher of Righteousness](https://www.livestransforming.com/martin-luthers-righteousness-of-god/). No scholarly consensus exists regarding the precise meaning of the title. However, Jacob Weingreen argues that no moral connotation exists, and instead, the phrase is simply a title that conveys legitimacy.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) It would not be unreasonable to conclude that the צדק referred to throughout the CD would pertain to the Teacher’s instructions. In addition to the references to the Teacher’s title, several of the instances of צדק pertain to either moral conduct or have legal overtones. The context of CD 1:16 points to the nation of Israel straying from Yahweh and “from the tracks of justice (צדק)” by persecuting those who walked in perfection.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Certainly, the language seems to connote a lack of morality by God’s people. Similarly, CD 3:15-16 refers to the behavior of humanity by exhorting Israel to follow “His just (צדק) stipulations and his truthful paths, and the wishes of His will which man must do in order to live by them.”[\[31\]](#_ftn31) The language appears to have juridical overtones. Alternatively, the language of CD 4:17 promotes a more general concept of normative conduct that opposes the evil Belial who catches the Israelites with three nets of supposed justice (צדק): fornication, wealth, and temple defilement. John Kampen explores the nets of the evil Belial in detail and concludes that they demonstrate a coherent legal tradition in order to promote purity.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) CD 6:11 also points to the law and utilizes a variation of the leader’s title by referring to the one “who teaches justice (צדק) at the end of the days.”[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Although eschatological overtones may exist, the context does not provide a determinative conclusion. The instances of צדק in CD 20 further support both a righteousness exhibited by proper moral conduct and continues to associate laws or stipulations to the concept of righteousness. Accordingly, Przybylski decisively concludes that within the CD צדק is a “technical term designating proper conduct according to a specific norm.”[\[34\]](#_ftn34) Przybylski’s conclusion is not incorrect, but it is incomplete. A standard of conduct is insufficient; the connotation of צדק is more than normative behavior and also relates to a way of life of a specific community, which is why Kampen concludes that the significance of righteousness is its relationship to a “chosen” group where צדק is “directly related to the group’s sectarian identity.”[\[35\]](#_ftn35) In other words, the Damascus Document ultimately indicates the possibility of righteousness in Matthew’s Gospel being representative of a sectarian identifier or sectarian way of life. It is the backdrop of righteousness within the Old Testament that points to God’s way of ruling His Kingdom. It is the righteousness within pseudepigraphal works such as Enoch that allowed entrance into God’s presence. It is the righteousness of the Qumran community that not only points to normative conduct, but also to a sectarian identity by which the thematic initiative of righteousness in Matthew’s Gospel can be further pursued. In sum, the Old Testament, certain pseudepigraphal works, and the Qumran evidence all associate the concept of righteousness with God’s kingdom that foreshadows the rule, presence, and identity of an eschatological reality inaugurated through Christ. ## **The Utilization of Righteousness** ### Matthew 3:15 and 21:32 The following section analyzes each of the seven instances of δικαιοσύνη used by Matthew in the First Gospel within their respective contexts. The first verse under consideration is Matthew 3:15, “But Jesus answered him, ‘Let it be so now, for thus it is fitting for us to fulfill all righteousness.’ Then he consented” (ESV). At the outset it is acknowledged that Przybylski’s rather comprehensive study of δικαιοσύνη in Matthew’s Gospel concludes that all seven occurrences of the noun refers to man’s conduct: God’s “demand upon man.”[\[36\]](#_ftn36) Regarding Matthew 3:15, R. T. France substantially agrees with Przybylski and translates the δικαιοσύνη phrase as “the right way for us to fulfill all that is required of us.”[\[37\]](#_ftn37) However, instead of a general principle of conduct, France suggests a specific requirement.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) The requirement does not reference humanity in general, but a specific baptismal task that Jesus and John must participate in for the former to carry out His God-ordained mission. Forcefully, Craig Blomberg focuses on the fulfillment aspect of the verse and suggests that it is time for Christ to obey all the moral demands of God; and thus, to fulfill all righteousness means “to complete everything that forms part of a relationship of obedience to God.[\[39\]](#_ftn39) Blomberg’s emphasis arises from Matthew’s frequent use of the lemma πληρόω when citing the Old Testament (Matt 1:22; 2:15, 17, 23; 4:14; 5:17; 8:17; 12:17; 13:35; 21:4: 26:54, 56; 27:9), which confirms that the activity is aligning with God’s will as noted in the Hebrew Scriptures. Granted, ethical conduct may be in view in certain contexts of Matthew, but it is not a requirement in every instance. Since δικαιοσύνη has a broad semantic range, the author may use the word in different senses. A more contextually based understanding of the term in Matthew 3:15 points to a salvation-historical understanding of δικαιοσύν. Donald Hagner notes that no commandment exists within the biblical canon commanding Jesus to submit to John’s baptism and, accordingly, to suggest that somehow baptism fulfills all righteousness is quite difficult.[\[40\]](#_ftn40) Instead, Hagner asserts that through baptism and “the accompanying anointing by the Spirit” (Matt 3:16) the two men inaugurate “God’s saving activity.”[\[41\]](#_ftn41) Likewise, in Matthew 21:32 John the Baptist comes “in the way of righteousness,” which, according to Hagner, also references the process of God accomplishing salvation through history by sending the Baptist ahead of Jesus.[\[42\]](#_ftn42) Importantly, the descent of the Spirit may have a significant role in a contextual understanding of righteousness in Matthew 3:15. If the purpose of baptism is to fulfill all righteousness and the vehicle through which baptism occurs is the receipt of God’s Spirit (cf. Acts 2:38), then the fulfillment of righteousness may look beyond a behavioral standard demanded by God and point to a righteousness beyond human effort in verse 15. Paul McCuistion, Colin Warner, and Francois Viljoen recognize that the “ontological aspect of God’s righteousness is at the root of all actions.”[\[43\]](#_ftn43) The actions referred to by the authors include the activity of both God and humanity, thus Jesus fulfilling all righteousness “satisfies a greater reality than moral living.”[\[44\]](#_ftn44) The greater reality is a Messianic reality whereby Christ expresses the righteousness of God via the incarnation, and then, as a representative, He introduces humanity to God’s righteousness. As McCuistion, Warner, and Viljoen explain, the “baptism becomes the incarnational agency through which the righteousness of God…is accessed by the believing world.”[\[45\]](#_ftn45) In sum, the literary contexts suggest that the meaning of the term righteousness in Matthew 3:15 and 21:32 appears to move beyond human conduct and points to a righteousness that reflects a eschatological reality inaugurated through Christ. ### Matthew 5:6, 10; 6:1, 33 Although the term δικαιοσύνη does not have to refer to a behavioral standard, it often has a connotation that seems to indicate God’s demand upon man. Toward the beginning of the Sermon on the Mount, a straightforward reading of Matthew 5:10 provides a good example by stating, “Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness’ sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.” The suffering righteous is not an uncommon theme within Jewish literature (2 Ch 34:16; Wis 1:16-2:24; 4:20-5:8; 2 Bar 52:4-5). Nolland concludes that persecution accompanies those who will not compromise or commit apostasy.[\[46\]](#_ftn46) For believers in Christ, the pressure likely arose from multiple sources such as Jewish religious leaders, the Roman government, or Hellenistic influences. Regardless, Hung-Sik Choi explains that most scholars conclude that righteousness within the context of suffering refers to obedient, righteous conduct, thus “God’s demand, not God’s gift.”[\[47\]](#_ftn47) However, two important contextual clues suggest otherwise. First, in the second half of Matthew 5:10, the author makes a connection between the suffering of the righteous and the kingdom of heaven. Hagner explains that the kingdom of heaven, a circumlocution for the kingdom of God, represents an important fulfillment theme in Matthew that points to the rule of God inaugurated through Jesus.[\[48\]](#_ftn48) Second, in Matthew 5:11 the generalized third person shifts to Jesus’s audience by utilizing the second person pronoun. Nolland suggests that the audience now recognizes that a new situation is emerging where identification with Jesus is critical to participation in the newly inaugurated kingdom.[\[49\]](#_ftn49) Accordingly, the possibility remains that the attacks arise due to the onset of a new eschatological reality inaugurated through Christ rather than behavioral norms. [![Matthew Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament 182x300 - Righteousness Theme in the Book of Matthew](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Matthew-Baker-Exegetical-Commentary-on-the-New-Testament-182x300.jpg "Righteousness Theme in the Book of Matthew - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/408kVWR)Matthew: A Paragraph-by-Paragraph Exegetical Evangelical Bible Commentary – BECNT) (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament) The term δικαιοσύνη also occurs previously in the Beatitudes, “Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they shall be satisfied” (Matt 5:6). Even when used within the same pericope, righteousness does not require the same meaning. Of the seven nouns under review, the lack of consensus surrounding the interpretation of Matthew 5:6 may be eclipsed only by the controversy surrounding verse 20. David Turner decisively concludes that righteousness in verse 6 refers to behavior before God and not justice, and he asserts that a Pauline forensic righteousness is not part of the Matthean perspective.[\[50\]](#_ftn50) In contrast, Hagner asserts that δικαιοσύνη actually means social justice and not personal righteousness because the context refers to those who have experienced injustice, such as the poor.[\[51\]](#_ftn51) However, Hagner also suggests that δικαιοσύνη points to the coming of God’s eschatological rule and salvific activity.[\[52\]](#_ftn52) Choi provides three reasons for this view: (1) δικαιοσύνη pertains to God’s salvific activity in the LXX (cf. Ps 51:14; 22:13; 35:28; 40:10; Isa 46:13; 51:5, 6, 8), (2) the future passive χορτασθήσονται, “they shall be satisfied” (Matt 5:6), suggests a provision given by God, and (3) the feast language suggests the coming kingdom (cf. 8:11; 22:2-14; 25:10).[\[53\]](#_ftn53) In sum, Matthew 5:6 refers to those who hunger and thirst for a salvific eschatological reality they hope to receive, a new eschatological reality inaugurated through Christ. Unlike the controversy surrounding Matthew 5:6, significant consensus surrounds the meaning of righteousness in Matthew 6:1: “Beware of practicing your righteousness before other people in order to be seen by them, for then you will have no reward from your Father who is in heaven.” The language is clear that the righteousness Matthew is referring to is a type that is performed or, more specifically, a type of righteousness that you are not to do, ποιεῖν, before others. Accordingly, the meaning of righteousness appears to clearly point to man’s conduct or behavior. Interestingly, in contrast to the command that prohibits practicing righteousness before others, an apparent contradiction appears to exist between Matthew 6:1 and Matthew 5:16 where the believer is exhorted to let others “see your good works.” However, France identifies two important differences: (1) Matthew 5:16 refers to character in general, but Matthew 6:1 refers specifically to religious duties, and (2) the purpose of Matthew 5:16 is to glorify God, while the purpose of the righteous acts warned against in Matthew 6:1 is to glorify man.[\[54\]](#_ftn54) The literary context identifies the three specific aspects of Jewish piety that comprise righteousness: almsgiving (Matt 6:2), praying (Matt 6:5), and fasting (Matt 6:16). Without question, the context points to the performance of righteous acts with proper motives. However, one may wonder how much Jesus’s understanding of the new eschatological reality He inaugurates sheds light on the prohibition against the performance aspects of religious duties. An ethical meaning for the term δικαιοσύνη may also occur in Matthew 6:33, “But seek first the kingdom of God and his righteousness, and all these things will be added to you.” Nolland highlights several challenges that face the interpreter when investigating the meaning of righteousness. One challenge is the referent of the dislocated αὐτοῦ as some translations assume it is the kingdom’s righteousness, which, per Nolland, is a grammatical impossibility due to the feminine nature of the noun for kingdom.[\[55\]](#_ftn55) Accordingly, the antecedent is more likely God, thus, the righteousness referred to is God’s righteousness. Nolland then provides three ways that the righteousness could be considered God’s: as exemplary, as a source, or as a requirement.[\[56\]](#_ftn56) In other words, the verse may suggest that God’s righteousness could be an example to be imitated, could originate from God as its source, or could refer to what God requires of man. Nolland seems to reluctantly choose the latter. However, the context of the passage revolves around human needs such as eating and drinking (Matt 6:25-32). Accordingly, if the meaning of righteousness is God’s requirement of man, then it appears the verse could be translated: “But seek first…God’s requirements of man, and then all humanity’s needs, such as food and clothing, will be added to you.” Unfortunately, the verse now appears to place man into a relationship with his Creator whereby man will be able to control God’s provision through proper conduct, which essentially reverses the role of God and man. At this point, France may assist by suggesting that seeking God’s kingdom or kingship is to live under the umbrella of God’s direction.[\[57\]](#_ftn57) Similarly, seeking God’s righteousness in Matthew 6:33 more likely means to live under the umbrella of an eschatological reality of God’s salvific activity. Choi highlights the possibility by noting the juxtaposition of βασιλεία and δικαιοσύνη, which seeks to make the eschatological reality a priority.[\[58\]](#_ftn58) Furthermore, Matthew would have likely been familiar with the Old Testament connections between righteousness and salvation as noted in Isaiah 51:5, which states, “My righteousness draws near, my salvation has gone out.” Accordingly, it is by drawing near to God’s righteousness, which is eschatologically inaugurated through Christ, that the believer finds all his human needs met (cf. Matt 6:25-32). ### Matthew 5:20 Possibly the most debated use of the noun δικαιοσύνη within the First Gospel occurs in Matthew 5:20, “For I tell you, unless your righteousness exceeds that of the scribes and Pharisees, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven.” The debate revolves around the verb “exceeds,” περισσεύω, modified by a form of πολύς. In other words, the righteousness referred to by Jesus must not only exceed the scribes and Pharisees, but it must greatly surpass that of the religious leaders for the believer to enter the kingdom. Consistent with previous interpretations of the noun in Matthew, Przybylski argues that δικαιοσύνη in Matthew 5:20 refers to man’s conduct or behavior in accordance with the law with the ultimate goal of perfection.[\[59\]](#_ftn59) Przybylski correctly recognizes that it is within the context of the law that δικαιοσύνη in verse 20 must be interpreted. Without question, Jesus’s intention is that every minute detail of the law must be kept (Matt 5:18-19). However, what Przybylski seems to either miss or ignore are two important phrase modifiers in verse 18. Don Garlington observes that verse 18 “exudes the language of apocalyptic eschatology.”[\[60\]](#_ftn60) More specifically, Jesus explains that nothing will pass from the Law “until heaven and earth pass away,” and “until all is accomplished” (Matt 5:18). Garlington explains that the heaven and earth phrase is an apocalyptic metaphor that points to the passing away of the old creation and the inauguration of the new (cf. Jer 31:35-37; Joel 2:28-32; Hag 2:6-7). The second phrase also has eschatological or salvation-historical overtones by pointing to the accomplishment of all things in Christ, which appears to intentionally follow the fulfillment language (πληρόω) of verse 17. Finally, the language of the Law and the Prophets in verse 17 is canonical in nature and summarizes God’s salvific plan to date, while prompting the reader to recognize a new cosmic reality is on the horizon. Accordingly, it is within the literary context of a new eschatological reality that the better righteousness of Matthew 5:20 needs examined. Much of the discussion regarding the nature of the δικαιοσύνη in verse 20 revolves around whether the verb περισσεύω is qualitative or quantitative. Przybylski asserts both a qualitative and quantitative aspect of the verb, but he limits his understanding of the δικαιοσύνη to a seemingly pre-eschatological trope that demands man to follow an “extremely meticulous and strict interpretation” of the law, albeit a “different interpretation of the law.”[\[61\]](#_ftn61) France notes that understanding righteousness in terms of literal obedience would seem to be an absurd idea if one’s δικαιοσύνη had to surpass that of the scribes and Pharisees; thus, Jesus is referring to a qualitatively different type of righteousness rather than trying to beat the scribes and Pharisees at their own game.[\[62\]](#_ftn62) Further, John Meier contends that περισσεύω is an eschatological catchword connoting a fullness that is “present and proclaimed in the age of salvation, as compared with the old aeon, or a new standard that is required in the new age.”[\[63\]](#_ftn63) To be clear, Matthew’s righteousness is not a gift in the sense of a father giving a vehicle to a teenager on his sixteenth birthday, but instead, a gift in the sense of a father providing the capacity for the teenager to drive the vehicle. As David Turner acknowledges, “Christology is the foundation of ethics.”[\[64\]](#_ftn64) In sum, Garlington provides a poignant paraphrase of Matthew 5:20, “But, you see, your end-time righteousness must surpass that of the people of old, as exemplified by the scribes and Pharisees. Otherwise, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven in its finalized manifestation.”[\[65\]](#_ftn65) Accordingly, the righteousness in Matthew 5:20 is not first and foremost a demand on man, but instead, it is a demand on Christ. Matthew’s righteousness is not a demand upon man to observe every iota and dot as Christ did. Instead, Matthew’s righteousness in verse 20 is a demand upon man to live in a new eschatological present reality of God’s kingdom inaugurated through Christ, which qualitatively surpasses the righteousness of the religious leaders, that ultimately leads the believer into an eschatological future reality of the kingdom’s final manifestation. ## **Conclusion** The thematic initiative of righteousness within Matthew is practically undisputed. However, the broad semantic range of the term provides significant challenges to the interpreter. An examination of the term’s usage in the Old Testament, Pseudepigrapha, and the Dead Sea Scrolls suggest, although the idea of behavioral standards does exist, all three also point to the possibility that δικαιοσύνη has kingdom-oriented eschatological overtones. Furthermore, each of the literary contexts of Matthew’s seven uses of the noun form of righteousness also point to a newly inaugurated eschatological reality. First, the use of righteousness in Matthew 3:15 and 21:32 appear to encompass the inauguration of God’s salvific activity through the obedience of Jesus and the Baptist. Second, the literary context and use of righteousness in Matthew 5:6, 10; 6:1, and 33 also jointly point to a new salvific eschatological reality inaugurated through Christ. Finally, Matthew 5:20 also lends itself to an eschatological understanding of righteousness in light of the new creation context that underpins the type of righteousness that qualitatively surpasses the current understanding of righteousness. Accordingly, it appears that Matthew’s use of the noun form of righteousness points beyond God’s demands upon man and to a righteousness that reflects a new eschatological reality inaugurated through Christ. The most significant aspect of the research may be its potential contribution to the longstanding debate surrounding the potential bifurcation of Matthean and Pauline soteriology. An area of further research may be an exploration of integrative connection points between Matthew’s overtones of eschatology in his thematic initiative of righteousness and an understanding of righteousness within the Pauline corpus especially in relationship to the apocalyptic initiatives within the texts of second temple Judaism. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Benno Przybylski explains that scholars such as Georg Strecker view all seven noun forms of righteousness in Matthew, δικαιοσύνη, as God’s demand upon man. However, scholars such as M. J. Fiedler assert that all instances of δικαιοσύνη are a gift from God that precedes a demand. Other mediating positions also exist such as J. A. Ziesler’s view that righteousness in Matthew 5:20 is a demand but a gift in Matthew 5:6. See Benno Przybylski, *Righteousness in Matthew and His World of Thought* (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1981), 1. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) W. D. Davies and Dale C. Allison, *Matthew 1-7*, ed. J. A. Emerton, C. E. B. Cranfield, and G. N. Stanton, vol. 1, *International Critical Commentary* (New York: T&T Clark, 2004), 79–80. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) John Nolland, *The Gospel of Matthew*, *The New International Greek Testament Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), 95. Furthermore, Jonathan Pennington not only contends that righteousness is a major theme in the First Gospel, but that Matthew also has a specific way in which he functionally utilizes the term. See Jonathan T. Pennington, *Reading the Gospels Wisely: A Narrative and Theological Introduction* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012), 43–44. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Kolawole Oladotun Paul, “A Critical Examination of the Concept of Righteousness in the Gospel of Mathew,” *Asia-Africa Journal of Mission and Ministry* 20 (2019): 96. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) See Walter T Wilson, “A Third Form of Righteousness: Theme and Contribution of Matthew 6.19-7.12 in the Sermon on the Mount,” *New Testament Studies* 53, no. 3 (2007): 321.; Francois P Viljoen, “The Righteousness of Jesus and John the Baptist as Depicted by Matthew,” *In die Skriflig* 47, no. 1 (2013): 5–7. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Przybylski, *Righteousness in Matthew*, 1. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) William Arndt et al., *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 246–47. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 247. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Arndt et al., *A Greek-English Lexicon,* 249. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Although neither the adjectival nor verbal δικαι- word groups detract from the analysis of the noun form, a more comprehensive analysis that includes the verbal and adjectival forms would be the logical next step to further support or frustrate the conclusions of this study. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Arndt et al., *A Greek-English Lexicon*, 247–48. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 248. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Robert G. Bratcher, “‘Righteousness’ in Matthew,” *The Bible Translator* 40, no. 2 (1989): 231. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Przybylski, *Righteousness in Matthew*, 77. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Francis Brown, Samuel Rolles Driver, and Charles Augustus Briggs, *Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon* (Oxford: Clarendon, 1977), 841–42. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Brown, Driver, and Briggs, *Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs*, 842. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Bratcher, “‘Righteousness’ in Matthew,” 229–30. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid., 230. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Ibid., 235. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) James H. Charlesworth, ed., *The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments*, vol. 1 (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Academic, 2010), 794. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Charlesworth, *The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha,* 1:801. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) George W. E. Nickelsburg and James C. VanderKam, *1 Enoch: The Hermeneia Translation* (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2012), 36. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) George W. E. Nickelsburg, *1 Enoch 1: A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch, Chapters 1-36*, ed. Klaus Baltzer (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001), 270. Nickelsburg’s point is that Aramaic noun translated as ἀληθινὸς can mean either righteousness or truth. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Nickelsburg and VanderKam, *1 Enoch*, 19. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Nickelsburg, *1 Enoch 1*, 270. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Przybylski, *Righteousness in Matthew*, 35. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Florentino García Martínez and Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, eds., *The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition*, vol. 1 (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2019), 551. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Jacob Weingreen, “Title Môrēh Tsedek,” *Journal of Semitic Studies* 6, no. 2 (1961): 169. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Martínez and Tigchelaar, *The Dead Sea Scrolls*, 1:553. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Martínez and Tigchelaar, *The Dead Sea Scrolls*, 1:555. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) John Kampen, “‘Righteousness’ in Matthew and the Legal Texts from Qumran,” *Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah* 23 (1997): 470. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Martínez and Tigchelaar, *The Dead Sea Scrolls*, 1:559. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Przybylski, *Righteousness in Matthew*, 22. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Kampen, “‘Righteousness’ in Matthew,” 479. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Przybylski, *Righteousness in Matthew*, 78–99. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) R. T. France, *The Gospel of Matthew*, *New International Commentary on the New Testament* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007), 119. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Ibid., 120. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) Craig L. Blomberg, *Matthew: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*, *The New American Commentary* (Nashville: Holman Reference, 1992), 81. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Donald A. Hagner, *Matthew 1-13*, vol. 33A, *Word Biblical Commentary* (Dallas: Word, 1995), 56. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) Ibid. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Donald A. Hagner, *Matthew 14-28*, vol. 33B, *Word Biblical Commentary* (Dallas: Word, 1995), 614. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Paul Raymond McCuistion, Colin Warner, and Francois P Viljoen, “Fulfilment of Righteousness: Historical and Ontological Perspective of Matthew 3:15,” *In die Skriflig* 48, no. 1 (2014): 4. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Ibid. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Ibid., 7. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) Nolland, *The Gospel of Matthew*, 207. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) Hung-sik Choi, “A Study of Δικαιοσύνη in Matthew,” *Korea Journal of Christian Studies* 39 (2005): 54. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48) Hagner, *Matthew 1-13*, 33A:lx. [\[49\]](#_ftnref49) Nolland, *The Gospel of Matthew*, 208. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50) *David L. Turner, Matthew, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008), 151. [\[51\]](#_ftnref51) Hagner, *Matthew 1-13*, 33A:93. [\[52\]](#_ftnref52) Ibid. [\[53\]](#_ftnref53) Choi, “A Study of Δικαιοσύνη,” 52. [\[54\]](#_ftnref54) France, *The Gospel of Matthew*, 234. [\[55\]](#_ftnref55) Nolland, *The Gospel of Matthew*, 314. [\[56\]](#_ftnref56) Ibid., 315. [\[57\]](#_ftnref57) France, *The Gospel of Matthew*, 271. [\[58\]](#_ftnref58) Choi, “A Study of Δικαιοσύνη,” 58. [\[59\]](#_ftnref59) Przybylski, *Righteousness in Matthew*, 85–87. [\[60\]](#_ftnref60) Don Garlington, “The ‘Better Righteousness’: Matthew 5:20,” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 20, no. 4 (2010): 481. [\[61\]](#_ftnref61) Przybylski, *Righteousness in Matthew*, 87. [\[62\]](#_ftnref62) France, *The Gospel of Matthew*, 189. [\[63\]](#_ftnref63) John P. Meier, *Law and History in Matthew’s Gospel: A Redactional Study of Matt.5:17-48* (Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1976), 108–9. [\[64\]](#_ftnref64) Turner, *Matthew*, 164. [\[65\]](#_ftnref65) Garlington, “The ‘Better Righteousness’,” 487. # Bibliography - Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, Walter Bauer, and F. Wilbur Gingrich. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. - Blomberg, Craig L. *Matthew: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*. The New American Commentary. Nashville: Holman Reference, 1992. - Bratcher, Robert G. “‘Righteousness’ in Matthew.” *The Bible Translator* 40, no. 2 (1989): 228–35. - Brown, Francis, Samuel Rolles Driver, and Charles Augustus Briggs. *Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon*. Oxford: Clarendon, 1977. - Charlesworth, James H., ed. *The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments*. Vol. 1. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Academic, 2010. - Choi, Hung-sik. “A Study of Δικαιοσύνη in Matthew.” *Korea Journal of Christian Studies* 39 (2005): 47–64. - Davies, W. D., and Dale C. Allison. *Matthew 1-7*. Edited by J. A. Emerton, C. E. B. Cranfield, and G. N. Stanton. Vol. 1. International Critical Commentary. New York: T&T Clark, 2004. - France, R. T. *The Gospel of Matthew*. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007. - Garlington, Don. “The ‘Better Righteousness’: Matthew 5:20.” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 20, no. 4 (2010): 479–502. - Hagner, Donald A. *Matthew 1-13*. Vol. 33A. Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word, 1995. - ———. *Matthew 14-28*. Vol. 33B. Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word, 1995. - Kampen, John. “‘Righteousness’ in Matthew and the Legal Texts from Qumran.” *Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah* 23 (1997): 461–87. - Martínez, Florentino García, and Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, eds. *The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition*. Vol. 1. 2 vols. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2019. - McCuistion, Paul Raymond, Colin Warner, and Francois P Viljoen. “Fulfilment of Righteousness: Historical and Ontological Perspective of Matthew 3:15.” *In die Skriflig* 48, no. 1 (2014): 1–8. - Meier, John P. *Law and History in Matthew’s Gospel: A Redactional Study of Matt.5:17-48*. Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1976. - Nickelsburg, George W. E. *1 Enoch 1: A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch, Chapters 1-36*. Edited by Klaus Baltzer. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001. - Nickelsburg, George W. E., and James C. VanderKam. *1 Enoch: The Hermeneia Translation*. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2012. - Nolland, John. *The Gospel of Matthew*. The New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. - Paul, Kolawole Oladotun. “A Critical Examination of the Concept of Righteousness in the Gospel of Mathew.” *Asia-Africa Journal of Mission and Ministry* 20 (2019): 97–106. - Pennington, Jonathan T. *Reading the Gospels Wisely: A Narrative and Theological Introduction*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012. - Przybylski, Benno. *Righteousness in Matthew and His World of Thought*. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1981. - Turner, David L. *Matthew*. Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008. - Weingreen, Jacob. “Title Môrēh Tsedek.” *Journal of Semitic Studies* 6, no. 2 (1961): 162–74. - Wilson, Walter T. “A Third Form of Righteousness: Theme and Contribution of Matthew 6.19-7.12 in the Sermon on the Mount.” *New Testament Studies* 53, no. 3 (2007): 303–24. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Modern Pauline Bible Scholarship](https://www.livestransforming.com/modern-pauline-bible-scholarship/) **Published:** January 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Modern Pauline Bible Scholarship An explosion of interest in Pauline studies has arrived on the shores of New Testament scholarship within the past fifty years. N. T. Wright provides an academic survey and assessment of the primary contributions to recent Pauline studies in his book *Paul and His Recent Interpreters: Some Contemporary Debates*.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Wright attempts to provide an overview that answers a question that many students may ask, which is how to make sense out of the vast array of Pauline materials published during the past several decades. [![Paul and His Recent Interpreters 182x300 - Modern Pauline Bible Scholarship](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Paul-and-His-Recent-Interpreters-182x300.jpg "Modern Pauline Bible Scholarship - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/406ZIN9)Paul and His Recent Interpreters Without a proper understanding of the terrain, the interpreter not only risks misunderstanding certain scholars, but also misrepresenting the scholars and movements surrounding Paul’s theology. Prior to engaging various scholarly perspectives, Wright provides a brief introduction identifying the dangers surrounding anachronism and anatopism. Wright then highlights the importance of synergistically incorporating a fourfold approach to the interpretive process for all Pauline perspective, which includes history, theology, exegesis, and application. The following essay identifies the major ideas and developments of Pauline scholarship associated with four different time periods or movements. The segments include Pauline scholarship in the late modern period, the New Perspective on Paul, the apocalyptic readings of Paul, and the social-cultural studies of Paul and his world. The examination concludes with a brief critique of the strengths and weaknesses of each segment and the identification of areas that need further attention in Pauline scholarship. ## Pauline Scholarship During the Late Modern Period** The scholarly foundation of Pauline scholarship during the late modern period, which spanned the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, was the history-of-religions school where German Protestant theologians attempted to place Paul’s religion as one among many for comparison purposes. Wright explains that the history-of-religions school asked the question, “Was his (Paul’s) ‘religion’ basically Jewish or basically hellenist?” (12). Wright then introduces his first scholar, F. C. Baur, whose two most influential works were *Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ* and *Church History of the First Three Centuries*. Bauer utilized Hegelian Idealism, and more specifically, Hegel’s concept of Absolute Spirit alongside Hegel’s unwritten paradigm of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, and then he projected the philosophy onto Paul’s ancient context (13-15). According to Wright, by the late nineteenth century, German scholarship focused on three primary initiatives: religion as a category rather than an integrative reality, the differences between Judaism and Hellenism, and the topic of justification in Hegelian terms (15-16). The key to understanding Pauline scholarship during the late modern period is to recognize the bifurcation of Pauline thought between Judaism and Hellenism. On the one hand, the history-of-religions school emphasized Hellenistic sources to support Paul’s religion. If Paul opposed a works-based perspective of Judaism, then, according to the history-of-religions school, the Apostle must have obtained his perspective of religion from Hellenistic sources unrelated to Judaism (17-18). On the other hand, W. D. Davies’s book, *Paul and Rabbinic Judaism*, describes Paul primarily as a Jew who ministered to the Gentiles, which led to a scholarly emphasis on Second Temple Judaism and the Dead Sea Scrolls (19-22). The remainder of Wright’s analysis of scholarship, during the late modern period, centers on whether Paul’s perspective is Jewish or Hellenistic for the purpose of [understanding Paul’s theology](https://www.livestransforming.com/christ-is-the-end-of-the-law-pauls-view/). Wright continues his discussion by providing a brief Reformational backdrop to scholarship. Luther’s opposition to Judaism, which reflected his own agenda against Roman Catholicism, initiated a polemic against the law (27-29). Alternatively, Calvin countered that God would not capriciously decide that the law was initially good and then change His mind (27-29). In sum, for Luther, Israel was “part of the problem,” and, for Calvin, Israel was the “start of the solution” (29). The two perspectives continue to evolve under the influence of Albert Schweitzer and Rudolph Bultmann. More aligned with Calvin, Schweitzer opposed those who viewed Paul as a Hellenizer and, instead, asserted that Paul remained Jewish (34). Schweitzer’s influential monograph, *The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle*, laid out his initiative by asserting an apocalyptic eschatology labeled “Christ-mysticism” (35). Schweitzer’s mysticism focused on Christians being in Christ, which did not make Paul a Hellenizer but did provide a framework to engage a Hellenistic society (35). Accordingly, the forensic nature of justification by faith took a backseat to Schweitzer’s apocalyptic or participatory perspective, which ultimately shapes future scholars such as E. P. Sanders, J. L. Martyn, and, more recently, Douglas Campbell (36-38). The conversation now turns to the famous scholar Rudolph Bultmann. Bultmann was a classicist scholar who focused on the Graeco-Roman world utilizing a gnostic or Stoic framework (39-40). Unlike Schweitzer, Bultmann had little interest in Judaism or the Old Testament, and he accused the law of being part of humanity’s plight rather than the start of a solution (39-40). Bultmann’s perspective of justification included both a forensic and an eschatological understanding that reflects Israel’s Scriptures (41). Bultmann’s most influential work, *New Testament Theology*, brings together faith and obedience, but it assumes that obedience is “a *renunciation* of one’s own will” (43). Thus, per Wright, the scholar’s emphasis on gnostic categories places Paul as an “ancient version of a Lutheran existentialist” (43). After Wright spends considerable time engaging Schweitzer and Bultmann, he now engages seven important scholars of the post-Bultmannian period. The first scholar, Gunther Bornkamm, is represented by works such as *Early Christian Experience* and *Paul*. In line with Bultmann, Bornkamm locates a Lutheran perspective within the history-of-religions school while focusing on Hellenistic sources (45). Against Schweitzer, Bornkamm asserted that Paul was “totally opposed to apocalyptic” without denying the reality of incorporation, and, simultaneously, he moves beyond Bultmann’s perspective by asserting that justification is not forensic but, instead, existential (46). Second, Wright acknowledges the puzzling nature of Oscar Cullmann, who wrote both *Christ and Time* and *Salvation in History*. Cullmann contends that God is in control of nature and the whole of history, which seems to point to a form of hyper-sovereignty that would cause significant angst to Barth’s dialectical theology (46-47). Arising out of the relatively recent events of WWII, Cullmann’s salvation history points to an “immanent development” not only philosophically, as echoed by Bauer’s Hegelian schema, but also politically, which appears to support the rise of Marxism and Nazism (47-48). Although theoretically attempting to assert a salvation-historical perspective within a Jewish context, Wright points out that Cullmann lacks engagement with the relevant primary sources (48).\] Third, reacting against Cullmann, Ernst Käsemann rejects an evolutionary salvation-historical approach aligning with political ideology, and instead, he seems to promote a triumphalism that places man above God (50). Two relevant works by Käsemann are *Perspectives on Paul* and his *Commentary on Romans*. In line with Schweitzer, Käsemann promoted an apocalyptic version of Paul that significantly influenced later scholars such as Martyn (51). Käsemann defined apocalyptic as “imminent expectation” and linked Paul to Qumran by focusing on the cosmic impact of Christ rather than Israel’s covenantal relationship (51-52). The result of Käsemann’s initiative was an immediate break in history via the incarnation, not an evolutionary development as espoused by Cullman (52-53). In sum, Käsemann allowed for Pauline opposition to Jewish-Christian communities focused on the law as well as Christian communities with an over-realized eschatology (52-53). The irony, as Wright cynically notes, is that Käsemann lands right in line with his Lutheran tradition between Jewish legalism and Hellenistic enthusiasm (53). Fourth, Ulrich Wilckens is another important German scholar, but unfortunately many of his works have not been translated into English. Wilckens rejects the Bultmannian notion that the law, not sin, is the problem (56-57). Instead, he asserts that Christ is the goal and termination of the law (56-57). With a more centrist Lutheran position, Wilckens believes the Spirit enables believers to fulfill the law (57). Fifth, Hans Hübner’s monograph, *Law in Paul’s Thought*, attempts to address a longstanding perceived contradiction in Paul. Hübner resolves Paul’s negative view of the law in Galatians with his positive view of the law in Romans by contending that the Apostle’s views developed over time (57). Although Hübner’s answer is not popular, his question remains relevant (57). Sixth, Charles Cranfield’s major Pauline works include his commentary on Romans and his article, “Paul and the Law” published in the *Scottish Journal of Theology*. Following Calvin, Cranfield provides a positive view of the Jewish law. Cranfield bristles at the popular Marcionistic view of the law and asserts that the “gift of the spirit is the establishment of the law;” however, he is unable to adequately explain Paul’s view of the law in Galatians (59-60). Finally, Herman Ridderbos follows a more Calvinistic perspective of the law and somewhat echoes Cullmann’s salvation-historical view (61). Ridderbos’s seminal work, *Paul: An Outline of His Theology,* is framed around the fundamental structure of inaugurated eschatology, which points to an apocalyptic perspective (61). The scholar argues that being in Christ is foundational to justification; thus, a forensic and participatory understanding of Paul’s soteriology are not mutually exclusive (62). Ridderbos anticipates the New Perspective on Paul (NPP) with his positive view of the law and his salvation-historical approach (62). ## The New Perspective on Paul** Although no single entity or school called the ‘New Perspective on Paul’ exists, few would disagree that the movement commenced with E. P. Sanders’s book published in 1977 entitled *Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion* (64). Sanders’s work descends upon a long history of scholarly debate between a Hellenistic and Jewish Paul. Sanders’s greatest success revolves around his argument that the ancient Jews were not legalists who preceded and informed later medieval Catholicism as purported by Luther (70-71). Instead, by utilizing the phrase ‘covenantal nomism,’ Sanders asserts that Jewish obedience was not for ‘getting in’ a right relationship with Yahweh but for the purpose of ‘staying in;’ thus, Sanders famously states, “The intention and effort to be obedient constitute the condition for *remaining* in the covenant, but they do not *earn* it.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Controversially, Sanders brings Paul in line with Judaism by contending that both Jews and Paul believe that the final judgment is somehow based on works (72-73). However, Paul believed the verdict had already been rendered “in the Messiah,” which naturally points to Sanders’s emphasis on participation (72-73). As one might expect, Wright critiques Sanders for reading a de-storied Judaism, devoid of the Old Testament’s meta-narrative, back into first-century Judaism (74-75). Although Sanders’s main focus is covenantal nomism, a secondary initiative is that Paul did not proceed from plight to solution but from solution to plight (77). In other words, in line with apocalyptic views, Paul’s perspective did not begin with Luther’s troubled conscious as Paul was not troubled by the law (77). Instead, Sanders contends that Paul recognized that salvation in Christ changes the entire system; thus, Sanders succinctly states, “This is what Paul finds wrong in Judaism: it is not Christianity.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) In sum, the tectonic shift radicalizes the plight that Paul had already known, but, to Wright’s dismay, the covenant fades into the background. Regarding the latter half of Sanders’s book, Wright accuses Sanders of moving away from the study of religion and lapsing into theology, particularly regarding Pauline soteriology (80). For Sanders, participation is first, and ‘transfer terminology’ is second (81). In other words, it appears that Sanders subsumes certain salvific concepts such as freedom, reconciliation, and especially justification within the larger participatory category (81). Accordingly, the law is not contrary to God’s purposes, but “has the function of consigning everyone to sin *so that* everyone could be saved by God’s grace in Christ.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Wright accuses Sanders of not properly reconciling justification and participation by subsuming the former under the latter instead of recognizing that the reconciliation of the two must occur via the covenant (83-85). Wright acknowledges that the post-Sanders debate is complex and then focuses his analysis on two important scholars: James Dunn and Richard Hays. Although Dunn wrote prolifically, one of his most relevant works was *The New Perspective on Paul* published in 2008. Wright recognizes Dunn’s post-Sanders exegetical prowess and then identifies three topics where Dunn made significant contributions: (1) discontinuity, (2) works of the law, and (3) *pistis* *Christou* (90-102). First, Dunn embraces certain portions of Sanders’s perspectives, but he vigorously takes exception to Sanders’s apparent discontinuity. Dunn argues that Sanders jumps arbitrarily from Judaism to Christianity by utilizing a participationist leap that leaves a discontinuity between the Old and New Testaments (90-91). Second, Dunn recognizes that Sanders contends that the law is good, but if that is the case, then why does Paul criticize the law? In opposition to the idea that works of the law are somehow followed to impress God, Dunn asserts that works of the law are followed by Jews to demonstrate their membership in God’s community (91-96). In short, works of the law, the Torah, are boundary markers and not universal principles. Accordingly, it is not so much that the works of the law are bad, but, rather, they are deemed irrelevant in light of the believer’s new reality in Christ. Dunn has had a longstanding debate with Richard Hays, the author of *The Faith of Jesus Christ: The Narrative Substructure of Galatians 3:1-4:11*, which is Hays’s republished dissertation from 1983. The issue surrounds whether *pistis* *Christou* is interpreted as an objective genitive, ‘faith in Christ’ as espoused by Dunn, or the subjective genitive, the ‘faithfulness of Christ’ as espoused by Hays (96-97). The debate points to a larger issue: Hays leans into the subjective genitive as it provides the basis for the overarching covenantal narrative that Paul engages, and that, according to Wright, Dunn misses (97-98). Hays’s *Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul* fleshes out the idea that Paul was not attacking Jewish legalism but discovering that Christ was what Israel’s scriptural narrative was pointing to from the beginning, which was covenant fulfillment (98-99). Wright agrees. Finally, Wright mentions one final author, Francis Watson, who wrote *Paul, Judaism, and the Gentiles*. After Sanders, Watson initially moved toward a sociological perspective suggesting that Paul’s focus was in developing communities of ‘Messiah people’ (102-3). Watson’s direction is further explored in the final section of Wright’s book. Accordingly, the following investigates the prolonged attacks on the New Perspective on Paul. The attacks against Sanders and the NPP arise from numerous disparate sources such as Robert Gundry’s synergistic approach to Judaism, Frank Thieleman’s protest against plight and solution, and D. A. Carson’s massive two-volume response that opposes a monolithic view of Judaism (106-8). Wright summarizes the key areas of the critique utilizing four categories. First, the NPP oversimplifies first-century Judaism by suggesting a monolithic perspective (109-10). Second, due to the diversity of Judaism, NPP misses that certain sects have differing views of the relationship between grace and works (109-10). Third, the NPP fails to recognize that some Jews did have a legalistic perspective (110). Finally, Wright contends that both covenantal nomism and the critics of NPP overlook the narrative, the historical story, where salvation exists within history (111). Prior to engaging two scholars from the old perspective, Wright takes a few moments to rant about the opposition to the NPP. Specifically, he rejects the opposition’s dismissal of the participationist perspective and repudiates the accusation that salvation and conversion is not important to the NPP (115-21). Wright then identifies two ‘old perspective’ scholars: Peter Stuhlmacher who wrote *Revisiting Paul’s Doctrine of Justification: A Challenge to the New Perspective* and Stephen Westerholm who wrote *Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics*. In support of Luther’s soteriology, Stuhlmacher contends that Dunn and Stendahl miss explaining justification in the final judgment, but, per Wright, he does not show how present justification links to the final judgement and inappropriately downplays the category of Israel (122-23). Regarding Westerholm, Wright accuses the author of misrepresenting the NPP by suggesting that it denies that all humans are sinners and that the Jewish covenant replaces salvation in Christ (123-25). Wright then attacks Westerholm for not engaging the following topics: (1) the issue of integration of juristic and participationist theology, (2) the true children of Abraham, (3) the meaning of the righteousness of God, (4) the question of imputed righteousness, and (5) the potential integration of covenant theology (125-27). Wright concludes the segment by highlighting the importance of utilizing critical realism to submit questions to evidence rather than preconceived prejudices (128-31). ## Apocalyptic Readings of Paul** The apocalyptic nature of Pauline theology, according to Wright, was re-introduced by J. Christian Beker in his book *Paul the Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought* (135). Although scholars have historically avoided the apocalyptic concepts, Beker promotes the idea that God’s cosmic victory over the powers of evil occurred on the cross, which resulted in a believer’s new creation (135-36). The definition of apocalyptic is somewhat elusive; however, the idea represents the worldview of Jewish apocalyptic literature such as Daniel, 1 Enoch, and Revelation, while most often referring to both a current and a future age (138-40). Wright also clarifies that the term did not normally anticipate a collapse of the world or a dualistic heaven and earth reality (138-39). In sum, the apocalyptic perspective attempts to view Pauline theology from an overarching, cosmic dimension rather than focusing on the individual. Although Beker appears to have re-introduced the apocalyptic perspective, Ernst Käsemann laid the foundation for Beker and others including the highly influential J. L. Martyn. Käsemann’s theology countered Bultmann’s by utilizing a Jewish, apocalyptic framework rather than a Hellenistic, gnostic framework (146-47). Similar to prominent Reformation theology, the ultimate result of Käsemann’s work still pointed toward a discontinuity that maintained Judaism was wrong and Christianity was right (147). The break with the Reformation occurs as Käsemann’s apocalyptic matrix asserts the subjective rather than the objective genitive perspective of δικαιοσύνη, which emphasizes God’s power to overturn the cosmic forces of evil (147-148). Wright also supports the subjective genitive view but contends that Käsemann completely misses “the Christologically redefined covenant with Israel” (148). Furthermore, Käsemann assumes that early Christians expected an imminent collapse of the world, an idea opposed by Beker and Martyn (149-50). Instead, Beker espoused an inaugurated eschatology, an “already” and “not yet” reality, whereby the newly created order had come but was yet to be consummated (150-51). Beker clarifies inaugurated eschatology as follows: “According to Paul, the cosmic dimensions of the death and resurrection is the beginning of the ontological renewal of creation that will come to completion in God’s new age.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Martyn, who is likely the most popular recent apocalyptic scholar, also embraces an emphasis on the new creation. Martyn’s work at Union Theological Seminary has ultimately led to the phrase “The Union School,” which represents apocalyptic interpretations of Paul that emphasize Jesus’s radical break into the world that brought about a believer’s new creation in Christ (155-56). An influential 1988 dissertation by Martinus de Boer laid the foundation for Martyn and future apocalyptic scholars (156). Per Wright, de Boer appropriately researched the relevant Jewish apocalyptic literature further shifting the emphasis away from Bultmann’s Hellenistic initiatives and towards a Jewish context highlighting a two-age schema (156-57). However, Wright contends that no connection appears to exist between the two-age schema and the term apocalyptic (158). Furthermore, Wright asserts that de Boer overplays his hand when bifurcating apocalypticism into two hypothetical strands: a forensic apocalyptic eschatology (FAE) and a cosmological apocalyptic eschatology (CAE) (161). Wright also contends that de Boer misses the covenantal framework, leaves certain terms undefined, lacks alignment with Jewish apocalyptic scholars, and imposes a scheme where God’s immanence trumps His transcendence (162-65). Martyn’s landmark work is his commentary on Galatians. Martyn’s apocalyptic perspective emphasizes the inbreaking of God, which is the apocalyptic event that initiated a new cosmic reality (168). Martyn appears to root his work in de Boer’s two hypothetical strands of Jewish apocalyptic theology, where CAE represents Paul and FAE represents Paul’s opponents (168). As opposed to Käsemann’s focus on the future, Martyn’s apocalyptic perspective focuses on inaugurated eschatology as espoused by de Boer (171). However, similar to Käsemann, Martyn seems to support a discontinuity between Judaism and Christianity, which aligns with what Wright calls the old perspective or a sophisticated version of the Lutheran Paul (172-73). Accordingly, little overlap or engagement between Martyn and the NPP appears to exist. Wright documents several concerns with Martyn’s apocalyptic approach. Wright rejects Martyn’s opposition to a covenantal framework, integration of the two hypothetical strands, and the discontinuation between the flow of history between Judaism and Christianity (170-75). Further, Martyn appears, at times, to translate the abstract noun δικαιοσύνη, which represents a status, into an active noun to represent an event that de-emphasizes forensic righteousness (179-80). In sum, Paul was an apocalyptic theologian, but, for Wright, building Paul’s theology on the matrix of apocalyptic rather than covenantal theology misses the point (186). The final book that Wright analyzes within the category of apocalyptic is Douglas Campbell’s *The Deliverance of God: An Apocalyptic Rereading of Justification in Paul*. Campbell attempts to prove that a significant chasm exists between Romans 1-4 and 5-8 (187). The chasm is so wide that in the first four chapters of Romans Paul utilizes an ancient literary device called *prosōpopoeia* to convey the message of his opponent, the Teacher, which is based on what Campbell calls the “Justification Theory” (193). Campbell then asserts that Paul’s response to the Teacher is chronicled in Romans 5-8 (193). Campbell’s concepts are not completely novel. Like Schweitzer, Romans 1-4 and 5-8 appear to emphasize different thematic initiatives; like Sanders, Romans 1-4 does seem to, at times, misdescribe Judaism during Jesus’s time; but unlike either, Campbell’s Teacher is unique (194-95). It appears that Campbell’s purpose is to undermine a modern, Western message that promotes an individualistic and rationalistic “turn or burn” form of preaching (195-96). The preaching Campbell abhors follows certain prescribed steps for salvation and, in turn, undermines God’s revelation of sovereign grace found by participating in Christ (195-96). Accordingly, Campbell has redefined the term apocalyptic into the sphere of methodology that seems to have little to do with de Boer’s two tracks or Martyn’s emphasis on cosmic powers while, simultaneously, emphasizing participation and placing justification “on another planet altogether” (188-89). Wright commends Campbell for identifying a misinterpretation of Romans 1-4 in modern preaching. However, a wrong interpretation by preachers does not equate to a wrong message by Paul in Romans 1-4 (201-3). Wright rejects the idea that Paul was using *prosōpopoeia* because in ancient literature the text always introduces the voices (197). Along with Campbell, Wright rejects Romans 1-4 as a foundationalist argument, but he also contends that the solution is not a reconstruction of Paul’s dialogue (206). Instead, justification is forensic in nature and universal sin, as opposed to a foundationalist assertion, exists in light of the Messiah (205-6). Wright’s solution is a covenantal approach that holds Romans 1-8 in tension that resolves in the most apocalyptic passage of the pericope: Romans 8:19-21 (211-14). In short, Wright asserts that the terms apocalyptic and justification go hand in hand where the former is the mode and the latter is the result, which is accomplished by participating in the Messiah through the Spirit (209). ## **Social-Cultural Studies of Paul and His World** The final section of Wright’s book addresses the topic of social-cultural studies and its relationship to Pauline thought. The goal of social history is to inform readers of Paul’s wider community context in an attempt to avoid both anachronism and ethnocentrism (224). Scholars such as Clifford Geertz, Peter Berger, and Thomas Luckman initiated the first advance in social theories by popularizing the symbols and ethos of society, while scholars such as Martin Hengel, Emil Shurer, and E. P. Sanders initiated a second advance in social theories by focusing on the Jewish world (226-28). Several social historians have led the way. Edwin Judge in his book *The Social Pattern of Christian Groups in the First Century* highlights the importance of Christians seeing themselves as a distinct group from the Roman world of late antiquity (229-32). Gerd Theissen posed key sociological questions to New Testament studies and promoted a concept called love-patriarchalism that imposed certain obligations on the socially strong (233-34). Other scholars such as Bruce Malina, Robert Jewett, and a coalition of scholars called the Context Group addressed the relevance of social studies and cultural presuppositions in relationship to the New Testament (235). Wright identifies four important tasks that come under the heading of social approaches, which include description, explanation, prediction, and application (236). The mapping and modeling of such concepts arise from scholars such as Howard Clark Lee who engaged the idea of worldview and Jonathan Z. Smith who emphasized empathetic reconstruction that places scholars in the mindset of the ancient world (243-44). Wright then summarizes various sociological initiatives under the heading of worldview models. Sect analysis versus reform movements, deviance theory, patron-client relationships, honor-shame dynamics, and conflict models all provide examples of the sociological discourse over the last generation (243-53). Wright now digs deep into two important books reflective of the recent social-cultural studies of Paul. The first book is *The First Urban Christians: The Social World of the Apostle Paul* by Wayne A. Meeks published in 1983 (258-59). Reacting against both conservative rationalism and Bultmann’s existentialist self-understanding, Meeks not only attempts to excavate a social understanding of Paul’s communities, but also uniquely correlates sociology with beliefs (259-61). The first three chapters provide a sketch of the societal nature of Paul’s urban Christianity by addressing topics such as mobility, women, the Diaspora, exclusivity and inclusivity, and Christian differentiation (262-67). According to Wright, chapter four is the least convincing as Meeks deals with Paul’s organizational structure but seems to miss rooting Paul and his ideas within an overarching covenantal narrative (269-70). Chapter five engages the impact of meaningful societal rituals such as prayer, singing, baptism, and the Lord’s Supper (270-71). However, the essence of Meeks’s genius resides in chapter six. The focus of chapter six revolves around the correlations between the social world of Pauline communities and their patterns of belief (272). Monotheism exemplifies the essence of what Meeks is trying to accomplish. For example, the belief in one God correlates to a non-ethnic, social boundary that exists between Christians and pagans (273-74). Meeks also uses an example of the apocalyptic, which, per Wright, is less convincing (275-76). Finally, Meeks provides an example of Paul’s perspective of evil where beliefs in estrangement and reconciliation correlate to the social reconciliation of Jews and Gentiles (275-77). Wright then summarizes Meeks’s contributions and also notes a few items that Meeks does not contribute to the conversation. First, Meeks appropriately shifts the focus from the history-of-religions school to social history and places the study of beliefs within the social construct of an ancient worldview (281). However, Meeks neither provides a development of theological insights nor does he explore the interface between Paul and the Roman Empire or ancient philosophers (282). For Wright, the benefit of Meeks’s work surpasses Sanders and Martyn because of its immersion into ancient culture (283-84). The second book reflective of recent social-cultural studies is David Horrell’s *Solidarity and Difference: A Contemporary Reading of Paul’s Ethics* published in 2005. Horrell addresses the tension between two views of societal discourse: ‘solidarity’ or the Liberal Ideal where the goal is the agreement of uniform standards and ‘difference’ or the Communitarian Ideal where the goal is to agree to disagree (285-88). Jürgen Habermas represents the former, and Stanley Hauerwas represents the latter (285-88). Horrell’s first three chapters provide a brief literature review and summary of the contemporary debate around ethics while mapping the social-historical landscape of Pauline communities (288-89). Horrell develops his argument in chapter four where he outlines his thesis. Horrell’s thesis is that Paul’s primary moral value is corporate solidarity and that by researching the relevant social symbols the interpreter can recognize how Paul generates solidarity (290-91). Specifically, Horrell explains that Paul is not prescribing sameness, but “the kind of unanimity and shared outlook which provide the basis for solidarity, within which a circumscribed diversity may be sustained.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Simply stated, for Paul, some issues demand tolerance and some do not. The final chapters tease out the concepts within the Pauline corpus and lead Horrell to make the following assertions: (1) Paul’s metanorms are corporate solidarity and ‘other-regard,’ (2) Paul’s limits of tolerance are shaped by the believer’s participation in Christ, and (3) Paul’s ethics are grounded in the story of Christ (298-300). Finally, Horrell suggests three models to appropriate Paul’s ethical perspective, which include thinking *with* Paul in line with the moral consensus, thinking *beyond* Paul by moving past contemporary standards, and thinking *against* Paul by extrapolating Pauline ethics into the modern world (301-2). Wright’s primary critique is that Horrell does not forcefully integrate new creation theology as the reason for Pauline ethics but concludes by complimenting Horrell’s creativity. ## **Personal Assessment** The following offers a brief critique of the strengths and weaknesses of the four movements addressed by Wright. However, regarding Pauline Scholarship during the Late Modern Period, the focus of the critique centers on one perspective, Albert Schweitzer’s. Positively, Schweitzer provided a corrective against the history-of-religions school’s emphasis on the Gentile origin of Pauline theology. Schweitzer asserted that Paul remained an “eschatologically-grounded and essentially Jewish thinker” (35). Further, the emphases on participation in Christ, which echoed some of Calvin’s thoughts, pointed to a present eschatological reality that seems to have been living in the shadows of the forensic nature of justification since at least the time of the Reformation. Finally, it is difficult to underestimate the timeless influence of Schweitzer’s work as the foundation for the apocalyptic school of thought brought to life by scholars such as J. L. Martyn and Douglas Campbell. Unfortunately, Schweitzer may have unnecessarily pitted participation and justification against each other. Schweitzer goes so far as to contend that the doctrine of righteousness by faith is a “subsidiary crater” (36). As Wright appropriately points out, a dichotomy between the two is not natural (36-37). Schweitzer’s emphasis on participation and recognition that Paul’s soteriology was not limited to a forensic understanding of justification is admirable, but his ability to provide a synergistic correlation between justification and participation appears to be lacking. The strengths of the second movement, the NPP, are numerous. Keeping in mind that the NPP is quite diverse, an obvious contribution is the recognition that first-century Judaism was not strictly a legalistic religion of works. A second strength of the NPP is the emphasis placed on participatory soteriology, which ironically channels Calvin in light of an almost exclusive focus on forensic justification in certain Protestant circles. A third strength is Dunn’s assignation of meaning to the phrase ‘works of the law’ as Jewish boundary markers in order to explain the perceived discrepancy between Paul’s view of the law in Galatians and Sander’s positive perspective of the law. A fourth strength is that the NPP moved the scholarly conversation forward regarding how a juristic and a participatory perspective of Pauline theology may work together. Finally, Wright’s own contribution to the NPP appropriately highlights the critical importance of Judaism’s continuity through the biblical meta-narrative where Christ fulfills the promised covenants of God. The most significant weakness of the NPP is that the scholars, at times, overplay their hands. For example, Judaism appears to have embraced covenant nomism, but did *all* Jews embrace it and were these the Jews Paul opposed in his letter to the Galatians? Next, it is true that the old perspective seems to subsume all of Paul’s soteriology under a juristic category, but, at times, the NPP may go to the other extreme and either subsume all of Paul’s soteriology under a participatory category or lack the integration of the two. Similarly, Wright’s continued contribution of continuity conveyed through an overarching meta-narrative and covenant fulfillment is critical, but can one subsume all other soteriological categories under Wright’s initiative in light of the discontinuous, radical inbreaking of an eschatological reality inaugurated by Christ? It appears Wright’s reductionistic accusations of other scholars could potentially be leveled at himself. These observations and questions still remain inadequately addressed by the NPP. The third movement, often labeled the apocalyptic perspective, appears to provide a valuable corrective to what might be considered either an overemphasis on forensic justification that echoes the Reformation or simply a proper emphasis that excludes the importance of participation. The highlighting of a new cosmic reality inaugurated by Christ Jesus whereby believers participate in an already, but not yet fully consummated new creation can hardly be overestimated. Furthermore, the result of God’s triumphant inbreaking into the world certainly points to a victory over the powers of darkness. Finally, de Boer needs commended for investigating the relevant Jewish apocalyptic literature to assist in shifting the narrative from a Hellenistic to a Jewish perspective. Weaknesses also exist within the apocalyptic perspective. First, Käsemann unnecessarily embraces a discontinuity between Judaism and Christianity. Second, the absence of language addressing the righteousness of God in Beker’s work seems unusual considering it points to valuable apocalyptic language regarding both the covenant and creation. Next, de Boer’s two strands of apocalypticism appear forced and without strong evidence from ancient primary sources. Unfortunately, the hypothetical strands then penetrated Martyn’s work as a forgone conclusion that ultimately seemed to pit the cosmic and forensic concepts against one another. Martyn’s distinction between CAE and FAE then seems to be the fodder needed for Campbell to obliterate the notion of justification in an attempt to correct a modern misinterpretation of Romans 1-4. In sum, the apocalyptic perspective would do well to bring justification and participation into compatible and possibly egalitarian conversation partners. The fourth movement represented by social history studies also contributes positively to the scholarly conversation. The main strength of the sociological perspective may be summed up in one word: empathy. Through cognitive immersion into the ancient world, the proponents of a social-cultural initiative not only avoid the potential anachronism and ethnocentrism of other perspectives, but also provide an opportunity for correlation through the mapping of worldview models. The strength of correlation shines in Meeks’s work where he connects the dots between the ancient beliefs of Paul’s Christian communities and the social world within which they live. Furthermore, the social historian’s shift away from the weaknesses surrounding the history-of-religions school and toward social history is refreshing. Additionally, David Horrell’s innovative work uniquely contributes to the exploration of Pauline communities by addressing the difficult issue of unity without uniformity within the context of the ancient social world. The weaknesses of the social history perspective primarily involve the current lack of integration with various forms of theology and other aspects of ancient life such as government and philosophy. Furthermore, Horrell’s lack of focus on the new creation also detracts. Finally, certain areas of Pauline scholarship remain underexplored. From a broad perspective, the areas that need further attention surround the topic of integration and correlation. For example, how exactly do justification and participation correlate historically, theologically, and exegetically? How does the theology of the Holy Spirit integrate with justification and participation? How does the Spirit alongside justification and participation work together to inform ethics? How exactly does eschatology inform Christology and then correlate with the working of the Spirit? Finally, how would the proposals surrounding integration of these Pauline constructs existentially impact a believer’s life in areas of work, ministry, and family? How does integration impact a believer cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally? How does correlation occur between proposals of integration to other disciplines such as psychology, counseling, and modern philosophy? Pauline studies are vast, but it appears that the field is wide open as it relates to correlative, integrative, and interdisciplinary studies of Paul. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) N. T. Wright, *Paul and His Recent Interpreters: Some Contemporary Debates* (London: Fortress, 2015). Parenthetical numerals will be used to reference the book under investigation for the remainder of the analysis. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) E. P. Sanders, *Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion* (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977), 180 (italics original). [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 552. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 457 (italics original). [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) J. Christiaan Beker, *Paul The Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought* (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980), 211. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) David G. Horrell and N. T. Wright, *Solidarity and Difference: A Contemporary Reading of Paul’s Ethics*, 2nd ed. (London: T&T Clark, 2015), 130. # # Bibliography - Beker, J. Christiaan. *Paul The Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought*. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980. - Horrell, David G., and N. T. Wright. *Solidarity and Difference: A Contemporary Reading of Paul’s Ethics*. 2nd ed. London: T&T Clark, 2015. - Sanders, E. P. *Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion*. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977. - Wright, N. T. *Paul and His Recent Interpreters: Some Contemporary Debates*. London: Fortress, 2015. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Solution Based Pastoral Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/solution-based-pastoral-counseling/) **Published:** February 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Solution Based Pastoral Counseling ## **PART 1: THE COUNSELING SETTING** ## **Overview** Solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) is a short-term therapy that focuses on potential solutions rather than problems. SFBT is a brief therapy that limits the number of counseling sessions to approximately four or five sessions, and the counselor attempts to facilitate the movement of the counselee toward client-focused solutions. The following provides a brief overview of the process of SFBT. Ron Hawkins’ “Pastoral Counseling Scenario” identifies four stages or parts of a SFBT that integrates a Christian pastoral context. First, the counselor properly prepares the counseling setting (Hawkins 2012a, slides 1-4). An important ingredient of the preparation includes the pre-session package that includes an intake form, informed consent, and ethical guidelines, which establish boundaries and locations that provide a safe environment for all parties (See Appendix A). Second, the counselor assesses his or her relational style (Hawkins 2012b, slides 1-6). Third, over a number of sessions, the counselor uses a four-phase counseling strategy that consists of listening to counselee’s story, discovering a preferred future, collaborating toward a solution, and identifying supportive resources (Hawkins 2012c, slide 4). Specifically, SFBT deploys a counseling strategy that utilizes miracle, exception, coping, and scaling questions, which represent the first four letters of MECStat, which is an acronym for the key ingredients of SFBT (Greenberg, Ganshorn, and Danilkewich 2001, 2291-2292). Furthermore, each session concludes with purposeful feedback and a pragmatic plan of action for the counselee as well as a strategically developed debriefing plan for the counselor (Hawkins 2012d, slides 1-4). The conclusion of each session specifically includes time-out for reflection, affirmation or accolades for reinforcement, and tasks to encourage involvement, which represent the last three letters in the acronym MECStat (Greenberg, Ganshorn, and Danilkewich 2001, 2293). A number of annotated resources support potential feedback and tasking techniques for potential use in the final stage of SFBT (See appendix B). ## **Rationale** A sound rationale exists to support solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT). The following analysis provides a summary of the strengths and a brief peek into the weaknesses. A list of basic assumptions foundational to SFBT follows the analysis. SFBT exhibits a number of strengths that support a rationale for utilization. First, it is positive therapy built on hope. Bannink (2007) supports the hopeful assertion by stating, “Happiness is not the result…of right genes or mere chance” (87). Second, SFBT has a broad application. De Shazer and Yvonne Dolan (2007) state that SFBT is “applicable to all problems, and indeed has been applied to a wide range of problems” (13). Third, SFBT is easy to learn and versatile. Terry S. Trepper et al. suggest that SFBT is “deceptively easy to learn” and “many techniques can be integrated into SFBT (Trepper et al. 2006, 134). Fourth, Jacqueline Corcoran and Vijayan Pillai (2009) explain that due to the brief nature of SFBT, it is “a cost-effective method” (240). Finally, although limited, certain empirical evidence supports SFBT. Specifically, Corcoran and Pillai’s (2009) review of numerous SFBT experiments from 1985 to 2006 concludes, “about 50 percent of the studies can be viewed as showing improvement over alternative conditions or no-treatment method” (240). Furthermore, Bannink (2007) explains that numerous pre-post studies have also shown success, but the “studies are not controlled…and hence cannot be considered satisfactory evidence” (90). Some have expressed potential theological weaknesses of SFBT. For example, regarding SFBT’s focus on solutions, James R. Beck asks, “Does not the Bible contain an equally powerful theme regarding suffering?” (Beck 1998). Although certain theological weaknesses may exist, the overall evidence appears to support a sound rationale for SFBT. A number of basic assumptions support SFBT. Although not comprehensive, the list below summarizes the primary assumptions of SFBT: 1. **If it is not broken, do not fix it (De Shazer 2007, 1-2; Kollar 2011, 82).** 2. **Small steps can lead to big changes (De Shazer 2007, 2).** 3. **The solution does not necessarily directly relate to the problem (De Shazer 2007, 2).** 4. **The language for solution development differs from problem analysis (De Shazer 2007, 3).** 5. **No problems happen all the time (De Shazer 2007, 3).** 6. **The future is both created and negotiable (De Shazer 2007, 3).** 7. **God is already active in the counselee (Kollar 2011, 62-67).** 8. **The counselee is the expert and defines goals (Kollar 2011, 72-75).** 9. **The counseling relationship is positional (Kollar 2011, 80-82).** See Appendix C for an annotated list of the basic assumptions identified. ## **PART 2: THE COUNSELOR’S RELATIONAL STYLE** The overarching goal or purpose for my personal life is to love God and love others (Matthew 22:36-40), where the definition of loving God is placing His will above mine, and the definition of loving others is extending myself for the purpose of facilitating their spiritual growth. According to my “Combining Spiritual Gifts with the 4 DISC Personality Types Profile,” my expected personality profile is D and the personality profile that more accurately reflects the genuine me is C. The D profile means I tend to believe others expect me to be task-oriented and results-focused rather than nurturing and sharing. One of the 360-degree interviews refers to my natural tendency of being project focused, which supports the D profile. Although my “Interpersonal Communication Skills Test” notes that my assertiveness is a strength, it can also be a weakness. Accordingly, patience and kindness are both skills I need to continue developing. The C profile more adequately aligns with my genuine self than the D profile. I naturally exhibit confidence in my abilities but also struggle at times with unhealthy thinking. Furthermore, I care about people on an individual basis and prefer to perform work through small groups rather than large groups. Finally, the “Jung Typology Report” identifies my typology as an INTJ, which also aligns with a C profile that exhibits an introverted, yet logically intuitive, natural tendency. My most prominent personality type is D and my primary spiritual gift tendency is administration/ruling. However, more specifically, I am a C/S/D blend with the combination of administration/ruling, teaching, and prophecy. A natural tendency to be in charge while cautiously moving forward may best summarize my behavioral blend. To communicate and relate with others more effectively, I should be more friendly and less critical and openly show that I care for others so a misinterpretation of my personality as insensitive does not occur. One of the 360-degree interviews supports this observation by suggesting that I come across unemotional or even sarcastic, which is not uncommon for the C/D personality. Accordingly, I need to be more positive and enthusiastic. Finally, I need to guard my strengths. Specifically, the “StrengthsFinder 2.0 Report” suggests that my top five themes include achiever, learner, arranger, belief, and strategic. Accordingly, I need to guard my strong work ethic, desire to learn, flexible organizational skills, purposeful core values, and ability to recognize alternative solutions. Based on my behavioral blend, I need to improve my tendency to be too focused, serious, and insensitive. In addition, I need to worry less and be more outwardly optimistic and encouraging. The following analysis provides an overview of what I will do to check my relational style with each of the four personality types. Determined doers at times attempt to win at all costs. It will be crucial for my doer personality to disarm and not fight with another doer. Additionally, since challenges and tasks motivate determined doers, I will encourage the doer to look at the presenting problem as a challenge that can be overcome. Furthermore, because of the proclivity for lack of discipline within a D type, I will ask thoughtful questions that may assist the doer in thinking more accurately about what they decide to do by utilizing my spiritual gift tendency of teaching. Inspirational Influencers are active and excited individuals. They need to think more logically, and I can use my C personality traits to extend empathy and inquiry based on logic in order to assist the influencer. However, since the motivating force behind an influencer is encouragement, it is necessary to extend inquiries in an encouraging and friendly environment. Unfortunately, encouragement is not natural for me, so I will have to focus on being sensitive, recognize the importance of positive words, and check my spiritual gift of prophecy in order to build a solid foundation of trust. Although, according to the “Interpersonal Communication Skills Test,” my listening skills are fairly high, active listening is an area that needs continued development. The cautious competent types are logical and analytical. It will be paramount for me to be authentic and transparent, as competent types tend to reject any hint of phoniness. According to the “Interpersonal Communication Skills Test,” my emotional management is strong. In other words, I am comfortable feeling vulnerable, thus capitalizing on this strength is crucial. Additionally, I will need to check my D tendency of needing to be right, be aware of any inappropriate pride, and disarm potential critical comments extended by the C type personality. Finally, I may be able to utilize my C style in combination with my gift of teaching to supply logic and stimulation of thought to other C types. Steady specialists are stable and do not like change. Accordingly, I need to control my D style and carefully create a safe non-threatening environment. Furthermore, it will be crucial for my strong personality to avoid any form of coercion in light of the specialist’s tendency to allow others to take advantage of them. Additionally, utilizing my administration/ruler gift tendency may allow me to cast an enticing vision that will encourage the specialist. Finally, I will need to extend an enormous amount of patience with the specialist who may naturally resist change. In light of the strengths and weaknesses within my personality profile and spiritual gift tendencies, it is critical to continue my prayer life, immerse myself in God’s Word, and renew my mind on God’s Truth, while allowing the Holy Spirit to transform my life. Specifically, I need to disarm, think before reacting, seek peace, and relax. Furthermore, I need to extend more patience, love, friendliness, and sensitivity to others in order to check my behavioral blend and align my behavior with the overarching goal of loving God and loving others (See Appendix D for my complete relational style action plan). ## **PART 3: THE COUNSELING STRUCTURE/STRATEGY** ## **Phase 1: Describe the Present Story** The following process recording documents a hypothetical counseling session. Ron Hawkins (2012c) suggests in phase one of [solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT)](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-solution-focused-brief-therapy/) that the aim is to listen well, and the goal is to describe the problem. Additionally, the role of the counselee is to talk, and the role of the counselor is to listen and demonstrate “fit” (slide 5). The assumptions guiding the process in phase one include the ideas that the relationship is positional and that God is already active in the counselee (see Appendix C). I was working in my office when the phone rang. It was my secretary letting me know that Melissa and Brody were ready to see me. Melissa had called me the day before informing me of her concern for Brody. She did not know what to do and asked if I would talk with him. It had been almost two months since the trial, and Brody was not doing well. Melissa was hoping I could help. I emailed Melissa the pre-session package and asked her have it completed when we met. She explained that would not be a problem. Melissa handed me the completed pre-session package and introduced me to Brody who took a seat in my conference room. “So, Brody, do you know why we are meeting today?” I asked. “No,” Brody replied. Brody’s shoulders sank, and he was staring down at the table in front of him. “Was it your idea to meet me today?” I continued. “No,” replied Brody shaking his head. Obviously, Brody was in the attending position. Asking questions that acknowledge that it may not have been the counselee’s desire to participate can decrease tension with an individual in the attending position (Kollar 2011, 119). “Brody, since it was not your idea to meet today we don’t have to meet. In fact, we could meet some other time when you decide you would like to meet, just hang out today and talk about whatever, or we don’t have to meet at all. What would you like to do?” I asked gently. “I don’t know,” Brody replied. I could tell Brody appreciated the freedom, but he was not ready to talk. Progressive listening via client-focused questions is crucial to trust building and positive positional movement (Petersen 2007, 101). I gently started again, “Life must be hard right now?” “Yes,” Brody said. “What is most difficult?” I asked with the one-word empathic content Brody offered. “I miss my mom,” Brody replied. “That must be very hard, what do you miss most about her?” Tears came into Brody’s eyes, “Everything…she liked my music.” “So you liked playing your music for your mom?” I empathized. “Yes, it was one of my favorite things to do.” “So music is very important to you?” I continued. “Yes, I love music,” Brody replied. “Do you play an instrument?” “Yes, I play the piano,” explained Brody. “I remember playing the piano when I was younger; my dad wanted me to play.” Brody’s voice rose, “My dad hates my music.” Assuming God was already active in this obviously challenging area of Brody’s life, I decided to engage the topic of Brody’s dad through additional empathy and inquiry. “So it bothers you that your dad doesn’t like your music?” I asked. “Yes, it’s like he doesn’t care about it at all,” he replied. I continued, “Do you feel that your dad doesn’t care about your music or do you feel that your dad doesn’t care about you?” “Both,” Brody sighed. “That must be very difficult.” “It is,” Brody explained, and then continued, “My dad likes my brother and the kid who killed my mom and sister, but I don’t think he likes me much.” “Have you talked with your dad about how you feel?” I asked. “Not really,” Brody admitted. At this point, my D personality style wanted to tell Brody to face the issues, confront his dad, and start resolving the problem…do something. However, Brody’s S personality style makes confrontation much more challenging and I needed to be patient, gentle, and empathic. “Brody, do you think it will help if you would talk with you dad about the way you feel?” I asked. “Maybe, but I don’t know,” Brody replied. Although Brody was still not talking much, his one-word answers subsided, and I felt I demonstrated as much “fit” as possible for the first session; thus, I decided to move into supportive feedback (Kollar 2011, 95). I asked Brody if it would be ok if we took a short break to reflect for a few minutes about our discussion. Brody said that would be ok. When I re-entered the conference room, I told Brody how impressed I was with the courage he had shown in sharing the pain of losing his mom and sister as well as the hurt he felt from his dad. “Brody, I also want to congratulate you on recognizing that it might be a good idea to talk with your dad,” I explained. “I realize it may be difficult for you to talk with your dad about your feelings, but I am wondering if this week you might jot down some thoughts that you would like to share with your dad about how you feel. I am not suggesting you share them with your dad but simply make a list, and then maybe you and I can meet next week and discuss it. What do you think…is this something you could do?” “Yes, I could do that,” Brody replied. “Great, I know you can do it. So is next week ok with you?” “Yes, that is fine,” Brody nodded. ## **Phase 2: Develop the Preferred Solution** Phase two of Ron Hawkins’ (2012c) perspective on solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) suggests the chief aim is collaborating well, and the goal is goal formation. The role of the counselor is to use inquiry to elicit the counselee’s preferred solution and furnish alternatives if necessary, and the role of the counselee is the development of the goal (slide 6). The assumptions guiding the process in phase two include the ideas that the counselee is the expert who defines the goals, and no problems happen all the time (see Appendix C). The following week Melissa brought Brody back to my office. I spent some time talking with Brody about his week and he seemed less tense than the previous week. I asked Brody if he had been able to write down some thoughts that he would like to share with his dad. “No,” Brody replied, “I just could not get myself to do it.” “I understand that the assignment was challenging,” I replied. “Yes, it was challenging, but music is not as challenging, so instead, I wrote a song,” Brody smiled softly. “You wrote a song about your dad?” I asked, showing excitement. “Yes, I like writing songs so I thought I would write down what I wanted to say to my dad in a poem. It’s not finished though,” Brody explained. “Wow, Brody that is incredible. I would love to hear some of the thoughts you wrote in your poem,” I replied with excitement. Brody spent a few minutes explaining that he wanted to tell his dad that he felt invisible. Specifically, he felt he could not live up to his dad’s expectations because he liked music instead of the things his dad liked, and he felt that his dad thought Justin was more like the real son. Although it is not easy for my personality blend to encourage, I knew this was a moment that it was crucial to overcome my weakness. Accordingly, I praised Brody for having the courage to share those difficult areas of his life and then smiled while congratulating him on completing the assignment with such thoughtful insight. At this point, I felt I had built rapport and Brody had effectively moved from the attending to the willing position. Based on the level of rapport built with Brody, I decided it was time to move toward goal formation by utilizing solution-focused questions that allow Brody, as the expert, to define the goals. “Brody I would like to play the a little game with you,” I started. “What’s the game?” Brody replied. “It is where you use your imagination to see a miracle…would you like to try it?” I asked. “Sure, I like using my imagination. It’s how I write songs,” Brody explained. I asked Brody to imagine a miracle happening after he goes to sleep and while he is asleep the challenges with his dad totally disappear. “Brody if this miracle occurred, how will you know it happened?” I asked (Kollar 2011, 184-185). “That is easy. My dad would notice I was alive; because right now I feel invisible,” Brody responded with a conversational tone that proved he felt more comfortable with the discussion. “Brody, you are very good at this game!” I smiled and continued, “Brody, on a scale from one to ten where one is when you feel invisible, and ten is the day after the miracle, what was your score last week when we met for the first time?” (Kollar 2011, 185-186) “That is easy, a zero!” Brody exclaimed. “What about now, what is the score?” Brody thought for a few minutes and then began, “I am not sure. My dad has not noticed me this week, but I don’t feel quite as invisible I guess – so maybe a two.” “A two, that is amazing! How did you do that?” I excitedly asked. “I don’t know. I guess just writing the lyrics of the song and thinking about what I wanted to say to my dad helped a little,” Brody decided. Once Brody determined that his preferred solution was visibility, it was time to facilitate movement through additional inquiry by focusing on exceptions and the SFBT assumption that no problems happen all the time. “Brody, now that you have defined your miracle I would like to ask another question. Is that ok?” I inquired. “Sure, that is fine with me,” Brody replied. I noticed my encouraging words and relaxed and friendly demeanor continued to put Brody’s S personality type at ease. “Have you ever experienced a time with your dad where you felt like you weren’t invisible?” I asked (Kollar 2011, 188). “I don’t know. It has been a while, but last year before the accident, my dad took me to a major league baseball game. It was just the two of us. I am not a gigantic baseball fan, but I didn’t feel invisible” Brody smiled. “I bet you had a great time,” I replied. “Yes, I did.” I reminded Brody of the break that we took last week, and Brody agreed that he did not have a problem with a break. When I returned from the break, I reminded Brody of how impressed I was that he wrote a song expressing his thoughts about his dad, and I informed him that he did a terrific job with the miracle game and authentically sharing a time when he felt close to his dad. Now it was time to move into tasking. “Brody, this week your assignment is going to take some courage, but I know you can do it,” I started. Brody looked skeptical as his eyes looked away from me down to the table. In an effort to prompt Brody to do something, I explained, “The assignment pertains to talking with your…” (Cloud 2004, 97). Brody interrupted, “I can’t talk to my dad; I don’t like conflict.” “I understand Brody, and that is perfectly normal, but have you ever told your dad how much you enjoyed the baseball game that you attended?” I inquired. “No,” Brody replied. “This week do you think you could tell your dad how much you enjoyed attending the baseball game with him?” I asked. “Oh, ok, I think I could do that,” Brody sighed in relief. “Wonderful. I enjoyed talking with you today Brody. Are we on for next week?” I asked. “Yes, I will be here,” Brody nodded. ## **Phase 3: Define the Path for Successful Change** Phase three of Ron Hawkins’ perspective on solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) suggests the chief aim is executing well; the goal is vision clarification, the role of the counselor and counselee is to participate with each other in describing and developing a strategy to pursue a preferred future (Hawkins 2012c, slide 7). The assumptions guiding the process in phase three include the ideas that small steps can lead to big changes, and the solution does not necessarily directly relate to the problem (see Appendix C). Brody was already at the conference room table when I received word that Melissa dropped him off. I spent some time asking Brody about his week and his music. He seemed more relaxed and comfortable with the now familiar setting. “Brody,” I started, “last week we discussed the possibility of talking with your dad. Were you able to discuss the baseball game with him?” “Yes.” I could tell by the look on Brody’s face that good news was coming. “I told my dad that I enjoyed spending time with him at the baseball game, and he told me that maybe we could do it again this summer,” Brody smiled broadly. “Wow! That is incredible Brody. How did you do that?” I asked inquisitively (Kollar 2011, 117-119). “I don’t know. Dad and I were just sitting at the counter eating a snack, and I brought it up, and then he said maybe we could go again,” Brody explained sounding surprised. “That is great Brody. Do you remember the one to ten scale we discussed last week?” I asked. “Yes.” “If one is invisibility and ten is your goal of complete visibility, where would you say you are today?” I inquired. “I don’t know, maybe a five,” Brody replied. “That is awesome Brody; you are making great progress. I am so proud of you” (Kollar 2011, 142-146). The vision was now in clear focus. It was time to continue with Brody strategically. Kollar suggests additional goal clarification occurs via “small, specific, action-oriented, reasonable, positive, contextual, interpersonal, interactional, and pragmatic terms” (Kollar 2011, 123). “Brody, so far you have done a great job creating a list of things that you want to share with your dad by writing a song, and then you also told your dad this week how much you enjoyed spending time with him at the baseball game. You are like an ant!” I chuckled. What do you mean an ant?” Brody asked with confusion. “Ants simply move one piece of sand at a time and keep at it until they have lots of little mounds and trails built for their community – small steps can lead to big changes,” I explained (Cloud 2004, 121). “I never thought of it like that,” replied Brody. “So, what is the next piece of sand for you to move?” I asked. “I would like to talk with my dad about the other things on my list, but…my dad will probably get mad at me or just ignore me,” Brody replied honestly. “Are you saying that if you tell your dad how much you enjoy him and want to be with him that he will get mad?” I asked. “No, I’m saying that if I tell my dad that he should like my music then he will just ignore me or may get mad or something,” Brody explained. “Ok, I understand, but you may be missing some very good news. Although your dad may be the problem, I’m not sure he directly relates to the solution?” I replied. “I don’t understand,” Brody said inquisitively. “I think you can take responsibility for telling your dad how much you enjoy him and want to be with him without accusing your dad of being a problem,” I said (Cloud 2004, 175-181). “Wow,” Brody replied, “I’ve never thought of it like that. I simply tell my dad how much I enjoy being with him as I did last week, and then tell him my feelings without blaming him for being the problem?” “That is exactly right. You don’t enjoy confrontation, and I don’t blame you for that,” I smiled. “However, you are an extremely friendly and likable person, so simply tell your dad how much you care for him, and then explain how you feel. There is no reason to accuse your dad of anything or create a conflict.” “Ok. I think I can do that – is it time for our break now?” Brody smiled knowing he beat me to the punch. After I had returned from the break, I explained to Brody that his maturity was beyond his years. In addition, I once again complimented him on discussing the baseball game with his dad and reinforced his natural, friendly demeanor. “Brody you probably already know what your assignment is for the week?” I smiled. “Yes, I am going to continue letting my dad know how important he is to me, and also tell him at least one thing on my list regarding how I am feeling, without blaming or accusing him,” Brody explained. “That is perfect. It is great that God has given you an intuitive sense that blaming or accusing creates conflict and does not work. This is quite a strength you’ve been given,” I replied. “Don’t worry – the less conflict the better!” Brody laughed. ## **Phase 4: Determine the Partners for Success** Ron Hawkins’ (2012c) perspective on solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) suggests the chief aim of phase four is connecting community well, and the goal is promoting and supporting change. The role of the counselee is to commit to a community of accountability, and the role of the counselor is to reinforce commitment through supportive feedback and resource alignment (slide 8). The assumption guiding the process in phase four includes the idea that the future is both created and negotiable (see Appendix C). Brody was now comfortable enough to come into my office unattended by Melissa. He made himself at home in the conference room at our appointed time. We discussed his week and his excitement about spending time with his brother the following weekend. I then asked Brody if he had a chance to talk with his father about one of the things on his list. “Yes,” replied Brody, “and you are not going to believe what happened!” “Brody, I would love to know!” I replied on the edge of my seat. “I told my dad how important he was to me and how I enjoyed spending time with him, and then I told him that sometimes when he spends time with Justin I feel like maybe he doesn’t value me as much as Justin. I explained I wasn’t trying to blame him for my feelings, but sometimes when he is with Justin I feel invisible.” “Then what happened?” I asked. “First he told me that he was sorry and didn’t want me to feel invisible, and then the next day he told me that he was going to plan a fishing trip this summer for just the two of us! I couldn’t believe it,” Brody exclaimed. “That’s amazing Brody. I am so proud of you for taking responsibility and talking with your dad in such a mature way,” I replied enthusiastically while giving Brody a high-five. “So now, Brody, on a scale of one to ten where one is invisible and, ten is completely visible…” “I think I’m at an eight or nine,” Brody interrupted. “That’s awesome Brody. You have proven that you can create an amazing impact on your future.” Brody had made incredible progress over our four sessions, and now it was time to support his ongoing change. “Brody, I noticed that you haven’t been too active in the church’s highschool youth ministry. I am wondering if this might be a good time for you to get involved.” I said. “I’m not very comfortable with big groups of people,” Brody replied, “I feel a little out of place.” “That makes perfect sense. I was thinking about a friend of mine, Michael, who is in college and has been a very helpful mentor for some of the highschool students at church. I think you would like him. I would like to introduce you to him if that is ok with you?” I asked. “That sounds good, I think I would like that better than a big group,” Brody explained. “That is great; I will have Michael contact you this week. Now, in the meantime, what is your plan to continue the incredible progress you have made?” I asked. “I think I know what to do. This is how I remember what to do: I ‘care’ then I ‘share’ then I don’t ‘dare’ – impugn.” Brody beamed. “Impugn – where did you come up with that word?” I asked. “It was a vocabulary word in my English class at school,” Brody laughed. I laughed too, and then I prayed for Brody, his family, and his future. ## **PART 4: THE COUNSELING SUMMATION** Supportive feedback is an integral part of solution-focused brief therapy in Hawkins’ counseling scenario. Specifically, the Supportive Feedback Technique includes a time-out, accolades, and tasks at the end of the counseling sessions (Greenberg, Ganshorn, and Danilkewich 2001, 2293). It reminds the counselor to encourage the counselee, especially when counselors like me are not natural encouragers. Furthermore, in phase one, the tasking portion of the Supportive Feedback Technique helped Brody organize and document his thoughts, which gave Brody the psychological space to consider his options. In phase two, Brody’s task taught him to affirm his relationship with his father through loving confrontation by doing something different. The task in phase three allowed Brody to communicate a more direct concern with his father, while simultaneously taking personal responsibility and maintaining a loving posture. Finally, in phase four, supportive feedback promoted and supported Brody’s change. The supportive feedback technique is critical in maintaining client movement regardless of the counselee’s progress between sessions. By utilizing the GRACE acronym, the development of a reflective praxis of my performance is possible. GRACE stands for Goal Formulation, Resource Assessment, Actualizing the Pastoral Counseling Scenario, Cultivating Commitment to Action, and the Experience of Demonstrating Fit (Hawkins 2012d, slide 3). The most difficult areas for me were Resource Assessment and the Experience of Demonstrating Fit. My C/D personality type continually wanted to encourage Brody to do something. However, at times, what he needed was encouragement and support to demonstrate fit. Furthermore, it was challenging to determine the way to support Brody with the proper resources for his personality type since Brody is quite different from me. Alternatively, the Goal Formulation and Cultivating Commitment to Action felt more natural to my relational style. Finally, it is critical for me to respond in obedience to the Holy Spirit’s promptings to encourage and support individuals. [![h 182x300 - Solution Based Pastoral Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/h-182x300.jpg "Solution Based Pastoral Counseling - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/42hnDL4)Strategic Pastoral Counseling: A Short-Term Structured Model David Soper, Ph.D., is a close friend who has been a Christian psychologist for more than twenty years. I contacted David and reviewed the discussion with Brody. David was able to shed light on a few areas of inquiry that may be helpful with adolescents who have experienced traumatic loss. However, more importantly, we determined to collaborate on a more systematic approach to debriefing, which includes a checklist for counselors. Specifically, the checklist provides guidance to the mentor regarding topics to discuss with the counselor including motivation, effectiveness, role clarification, temptations, ethical issues, spiritual disciplines, personal relationships, and energy levels. As the mentor discusses each area, he makes notes on the checklist and identifies a risk factor for each area. The mentor uses a scale of one to ten to assess risk, where one is the lowest risk and ten is the highest risk. If the risk in any area is above five, the mentor and counselor agree to take appropriate steps to mitigate the identified risk in the life of the counselor. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [The Biblical Counseling Movement Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-biblical-counseling-movement-book-review/) **Published:** February 17, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Biblical Counseling Movement Book Review ### **Primary Goal** David Powlison (2010) explains that, for Jay Adams, the primary goal of counseling is righteousness (p. 102). Distinct from a forensic righteousness, Adams’s focus on righteousness centers around behavioral change into the likeness of Christ where counselees are to “repent, trust, and obey” (Powlison, 2010, p. 127). Similarly, the goal of counseling for non-Christians is also to lead them to “know, trust, love, and obey Jesus Christ” (Powlison, 2010, p. 129). ### **Development of Problems and Personal Need** For Adams, humanity’s problem is sin (Powlison, 2010, p. 102). Adams identifies six problem areas of life that result from sin, which include problematic relationships, unhealthy emotions, wrong behaviors, faulty beliefs, inappropriate responses to suffering, and bizarre actions (Powlison, 2010, pp. 101-108). Since the problem of humanity is sin, the primary need of humanity is the forgiveness of sin through a relationship with Jesus Christ. Adams believes that forgiveness provides the motivation for change, and through Christ’s presence the counselee is “progressively changed” (Powlison, pp. 123-125). ### **Biblical Integration** Regarding Scripture, Adams fits Larry Crabb’s label of “Nothing Buttery” (Crabb, 2013, pp. 42-43). In other words, Adams’s view of Scripture as inerrant, infallible, and God-breathed means that it is sufficient as a comprehensive textbook for counseling, thus counseling needs “nothing but” the Bible (Powlison, 2010, p. 100). More specifically, Adams asserts that the Bible not only defines truth, but also provides a methodology for counseling as well as the organizational system to deploy counseling, the local church (Powlison, 2010, pp. 96-98). ### **Formula for Change** Adams has neither documented a systematic methodology of counseling nor distilled change into a formulaic process. However, a four-step process is apparent in Adam’s work. According to Johnny Baker, the first step is for the counselee to be didactically introduced to biblical doctrine since Adams is convinced that people do not inherently have answers to problems (Liberty University, *Nouthetic*). The second step is reproof where the [power of the Holy Spirit](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-spirit-in-biblical-interpretation/) convicts the individual of their need to repent (Liberty University, *Nouthetic*). The third step is correction, where the Holy Spirit helps the individual bear fruit (Liberty University, *Nouthetic*). The final step is a lifestyle of righteousness exemplified by spiritual disciplines or exercises where a lifestyle of sanctification occurs (Liberty University, *Nouthetic*). ### **Balance of Theology and Spirituality** Adams leans more toward theology than spirituality. Adams relies on Calvinistic theology where Christ’s crucifixion and resurrection provide forgiveness to guilty people who are “justified by faith” (Powlison, 2010, p. 125). After regeneration, the presence of the Holy Spirit then empowers sanctification, which occurs progressively (Powlison, 2010, p. 125). Finally, Adams asserts that sin is ultimately destroyed upon the return of Christ (Powlison, 2010, p. 126). It is upon Adams’s Calvinistic perspective of theology and requisite obedience that the personal experience of spirituality resides. ### **Human Personality** According to Kevin Corsini, the structure of human personality for most approaches to Christian counseling is built upon the concept that humanity was created in God’s image, but sin entered in the Garden and community was lost; Adams’s perspective is no different (Liberty University, *Back*). From a developmental perspective, Adams’s “recurrent concern was to exclude any possibility of social determinism for sin” (Powlison, 2010, p. 111). In sum, mankind has no excuse for sinning. Accordingly, Adams strongly rejected personality theories such as Freudian psychoanalysis that make people irresponsible victims, Rogerian humanism that assumes the goodness of man, and Skinnerian behaviorism that reduces humanity to animals (Powlison, 2010, pp. 155-158). ### **Counselor’s Function and Role** Adams asserts that counseling is primarily pastoral work performed in conjunction with the local church, although laypersons may counsel brothers and sisters in Christ (Powlison, 2010, p .130-131). Kevin identifies a perspective of counseling that aligns with Adams, the optometrist, which deals with sin directly by placing truth in front of the client (Liberty University, *Back*). Since Adams presupposes that people do not inherently have the answers to their problems, counseling must speak “frankly and authoritatively when communicating the promises and commands of God” (Powlison, 2010, p. 138). Thus, similar to other forms of counseling, the role of the counselor for Adams is to assist the client in becoming more like Christ (Liberty University, *Back*). ### **Major Contribution to Counseling** During a time when the influence of secular psychology and liberal theology was on the rise, Adams provides three important contributions to the counseling community. First, Adams asserts that the Bible is the inerrant, infallible revelation of God. Second, Adams highlights the importance of personal responsibility and humanity’s ability to choose. Third, Adams emphasizes the importance of righteous conduct that aligns with God’s will. ### **Limitations of This Counseling Theory** Adams’s counseling theory has several limitations. First, Adams’s attacks on secular psychology are often “polemical and propagandistic, hence he was reductionistic,” which risks ignoring certain positive aspects of psychology (Powlison, 2010, p. 156). Second, Adams suggests that the more directive the counseling, the better the results (Powlison, 2010, p. 147). However, an overly directive approach to counseling risks creating a co-dependent relationship with the counselor where the counselee depends on the counselor rather than the Spirit. Third, a confrontational and authoritarian approach to counseling risks putting the individual on the defensive (Powlison, 2010, p. 252). Alternatively, healthy inquiry may allow the client to reach the same conclusion on their own without the risk of defensive posturing. ### **Classification** Adams’s methodology is classified as nouthetic. If aligned with Scripture, Adams does not reject all forms of psychology, but he does assert that the Bible is completely sufficient to address all counseling issues without the assistance of psychology (Powlison, 2010, p. 100). Due to the sufficiency of the Bible, Adams does not fit the category of an integrationist. Furthermore, due to the directive and authoritarian nature of Adams’s approach, nouthetic counseling best describes the classification of his methodology. ## **Practical Application** ### **Counseling Utility and Specific Potential Influence** Adams’s methodology provides two important utilitarian benefits to the overall discipline of counseling. Although Adams limits the realm of counseling primarily to pastors, currently most Christian counselors are not full-time pastors. Unfortunately, many Christian counselors are simply secularly trained therapists who pray at the end of the counseling session. Adams’s emphasis on Scripture and theological training are critically important practical necessities for counselors identified as Christian counselors (Powlison, 2010, pp. 133-135). Next, Adams appropriately observes that both Christian and secular counselors who “attempt to change beliefs, values, attitudes, relationships, and behavior” all end up “wading neck deep into theological waters” (Powlison, 2010, p. 156). Accordingly, Adams provides an important contribution by asserting that all therapists should disclose their theological presuppositions to clients. Adams’s methodology is a reminder that Scripture is sufficient for my life. I have personally struggled with anxiety for decades, and it is easy to become sidetracked into various psychological theories to find relief. Although psychology may offer nuggets of support, I must remain cognizant of the risk of syncretism and mindful of the sufficiency of Scripture. As a director of a Christian counseling ministry, Adams’s work is also a good reminder of the importance of theological training within the counseling ministry. The state of Indiana requires continuing education for licensed counselors, but those who identify themselves as Christian must also have continuing theological and biblical training. ### **Counseling Moment Example** [![03 7 182x300 - The Biblical Counseling Movement Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-7-182x300.png "The Biblical Counseling Movement Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4heygCV)The Biblical Counseling Movement: History and Context A friend recommended that David talk with me. David was married, but often cheated on his wife. He had been involved in dozens of illicit affairs. Although the morally reprehensible behavior was taking a toll on various aspects of his life, he claimed that he enjoyed the affairs. He saw nothing “really” wrong with the affairs, and he had no intention of quitting. I decided to read Proverbs 6:27-29 (English Standard Version) to David, “Can a man carry fire next to his chest and his clothes not be burned? Or can one walk on hot coals and his feet not be scorched? So is he who goes in to his neighbor’s wife; none who touches her will go unpunished.” I asked David whether he understood that his actions would have consequences that would be painful. He acknowledged the possibility, but he said nothing too bad had happened yet. I explained that God’s Word was true. David shrugged. I mentioned that there may be a time the time that he may need help. I gave David my card and explained that I would be available. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Crabb, L. (2013). *Effective biblical counseling: A model for helping caring Christians become capable counselors*. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. - Liberty University (Producer). (2010). *Presentation: Nouthetic counseling* \[Video\]. Available from http://www.apple.com/itunes/download. - Liberty University (Producer). (2010). *Presentation: Back to the blueprint* \[Video\]. Available from http://www.apple.com/itunes/download. - Powlison, D. (2010). *The biblical counseling movement: History and context*. Greensboro, NC: New Growth. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Surrender to Love Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/surrender-to-love-book-review/) **Published:** February 17, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Surrender to Love Book Review ### **Primary Goal** Benner’s goal of counseling is wrapped up in his definition of repentance and conversion. For Benner (2015), repentance is turning away from the world and simultaneously turning to Jesus; while conversion is “the lifelong transformational process of being remade into the image of God” (pp. 71-73). It is the ongoing process of conversion that sums up Benner’s goal of counseling, which is spiritual transformation that results in being more like Christ. Benner (2015) explains that spiritual transformation goes far beyond sin avoidance via willpower, and instead, it is a life completely transformed by the extravagant love of God (p. 73). ### **Development of Problems and Personal Need** [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 68 182x300 - Surrender to Love Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-68-182x300.jpg "Surrender to Love Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3PwySrz)Surrender to Love: Discovering the Heart of Christian Spirituality (The Spiritual Journey) According to Benner (2015), mankind’s problem rests on the fact that “humans spurned God’s love in favor of what was perceived to be freedom” (p. 27). The result of humanity’s quest for freedom was bondage, alienation, self-love, and “egocentricity and estrangement from our deepest self, God and others” (Benner, 2015, p. 27). Due to the relational breach with God, humanity lives in an environment of tainted love where love from others is finite, and love is given to selfishly receive it (Benner, 2015, p. 27). Accordingly, mankind’s greatest personal need is an unfulfilled longing for relational connections and belongingness (Benner, 2015, p. 15). ### **Biblical Integration** Benner focuses more on the power of God’s transforming love, rather than God’s Word. Benner certainly believes in the Word of God, and Scripture reveals God’s love. However, for Benner, belief alone does not solve humanity’s problem. The relationship between God and man must go beyond belief. Benner (2015) quotes A. W. Tozer to support his assertion, Christians have “substituted theological ideas for an arresting encounter; we are full of religious notions, but our great weakness is that for our hearts there is no one there” (p. 30). Benner (2015) asserts that mankind must move beyond belief and objectively knowing about God and move toward [personally knowing God through experience](https://www.livestransforming.com/personal-counseling-theory-example/) (pp. 30-31). ### **Formula for Change** According to Johnny Baker (Liberty University, *Spirituality*), Benner builds his formula for change upon the three classic stages of spiritual formation: purgation, illumination, and union. The first stage, purgation, means repenting and surrendering to God’s love (Liberty University, *Spirituality*). The second stage, illumination, often involves sadness where the recognition of sin leads to a deep appreciation of grace and passionate love for Jesus (Liberty University, *Spirituality*). The final stage, union, involves the recognition that believers are eternally united with Christ and walk with God (Liberty University, *Spirituality*). Importantly, Benner (2015) explains that the three-stage transformation process is neither linear nor achievable, but instead, transformation is gift of love received from God (p. 95). ### **Balance of Theology and Spirituality** Theologically, Benner (2015) recognizes that God, as the creator of the universe, loves His created beings just as a parent loves a newborn child (p. 26). However, the rebellion in the Garden separated man from God’s love, thus God sent Jesus Christ to reveal God’s character by personifying His love and bringing humanity “back to the Father – back to love” (Benner, 2015, p. 28). However, Benner’s theology is not the driving force behind his methodology. It is not understanding the theology of love that transforms lives, it is experiencing God’s love that transforms lives (Benner, 2015, p. 29). Without question, Benner leans more on spirituality than theology in his methodology of counseling. ### **Human Personality** Benner (2015) suggests that the absence of God’s love results in fear (pp. 37-38). Individuals attempt to eliminate fear by avoiding failure and criticism, while engaging in self-protection by controlling other people (Benner, 2015, p. 39). The process of avoidance and control is all part of the shadow self that hides behind a mask and attempts to maintain the appearance of security to eliminate underlying guilt (Benner, 2015, pp. 42-43). In other words, the structure and development of human personality run deeper than the observable self and exist within the heart of an individual that must be filled with God’s love to overcome the shadow self. ### **Counselor’s Function and Role** According to Benner (2015), when individuals lack God’s love, they attempt to fill the void of connection and belonging by focusing on self, which suffocates both the individual and others (p. 89). Alternatively, God’s love moves individuals beyond self and into community with others (Benner, 2015, p. 89). Thus, Baker (Liberty University, *Spirituality*) explains that for Benner the role of the counselor is to reflect the divine presence of God’s love to the counselee, which creates a safe environment for vulnerability. Furthermore, as the counselor extends unconditional, positive regard to the client within an environment of love, the counselor makes it possible for the client to believe in God’s unconditional love (Liberty University, *Spirituality*). ### **Major Contribution to Counseling** Baker (Liberty University, *Christian*) notes that research supports the idea that spirituality can produce positive effects on counseling. Benner’s major contribution to Christian counseling is the assertion that the appropriation of God’s love, which is the heart of Christian spirituality, provides emotional health. In direct opposition to a theology of self-improvement that manipulates God to love believers, Benner (2015) asserts that accepting God’s unconditional love not only transforms the believer, but also allows the believer to love others by removing the need to selfishly manipulate others to fill the void of love (p. 75). By accepting God’s love as the agent of transformation, rather than resorting to self-improvement to gain God’s acceptance, the focus remains on God rather than self. ### **Limitations of This Counseling Theory** Two specific limitations exist within Benner’s counseling theory. First, syncretism is a potential risk when an emphasis on spirituality trumps theology, especially if followers of the methodology decide to rely on experiences that do not align with orthodoxy. The second limitation is the reductionistic tendencies of Benner’s methodology. Without question, God’s love is crucial for spiritual transformation, but to suggest that spiritual transformation hinges solely on God’s love goes too far. God’s gift of righteousness and mind renewal are examples of other aspects of spiritual transformation that need integrated. ### **Classification** Benner’s methodology is classified as a form of Christian counseling. Benner does lean somewhat on Jungian psychological constructs. However, most of Benner’s (2015) work is built on the experience of God’s love rather than classical or modern forms of psychology, such as cognitive behavioral therapy (p. 29). The emphasis on Christian spiritual experience is the basis for Benner’s methodology, thus the most appropriate classification may simply be Christian. ## **Practical Application** ### **Counseling Utility and Specific Potential Influence** Although Benner’s methodology appears simple, the utilitarian benefit to the overall discipline of Christian counseling must not be underestimated. The paradoxical reality that an individual cannot extend love without first receiving love must be acknowledged and integrated into all counseling labeled as Christian. Since the very nature of God is love, and the Greatest Commandment hinges on loving, it is difficult to imagine any form of legitimate Christian counseling that would intentionally ignore the focus of God’s love. As a recovering performance addict who finds his worth in his work, Benner’s methodology has the potential of influencing my life in two ways. First, as I experience the reality of God’s unconditional love, the need to meet certain standards to feel loved diminishes. Second, as I appropriate God’s unconditional love, I no longer need to control others to fill a love void in my life, which allows me to take my eyes off myself and extend love to others. Similar lessons can also be integrated into the counseling ministry I am involved with in Indiana. ### **Counseling Moment Example** An acquaintance recommended that Heather talk with me about a very difficult marital situation she faced. Heather’s husband was a pastor at one of the largest churches in the Midwest. After twenty-five years of marriage, he announced that he was a homosexual, and he left her and two adolescent daughters for another man. Heather felt worthless. She explained that she thought she did everything right in her marriage and now her husband was gone. Heather asked how it was possible that God could love her. I asked if she could remember the day her daughters were born. She remembered that day she held them in her arms. I asked her if she loved her infant daughters that day. She looked at me like that was a stupid question. I then asked Heather what her daughters did to make her love them. She said nothing. I then asked if it was possible for God to love her even if she had nothing to offer God, not even a marriage. Heather agreed that it was possible. I asked Heather whether she would love her daughters less if one of their boyfriends left them for another man. She explained that would be ridiculous. I agreed. At that moment she realized that it was possible for God to love her, and if she had God’s love in her life then maybe she did not need the love of a man who chose to live a homosexual lifestyle. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Benner, D. G. (2015). *Surrender to love: Discovering the heart of Christian spirituality*. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. - Liberty University (Producer). *Presentation: Christian spirituality* \[Video\]. Available from http://www.apple.com/itunes/download. - Liberty University (Producer). *Presentation: Spirituality in counseling* \[Video\]. Available from http://www.apple.com/itunes/download. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Hurt People Hurt People Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/hurt-people-hurt-people-book-review/) **Published:** February 17, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Hurt People Hurt People Book Review ### **Primary Goal** Wilson’s (2001) Law of Relationships states, “Hurt people hurt people” often to feel better about themselves which results in causing shame, a sense that the individual is not good enough or worthless (pp. 15-16). Accordingly, Wilson’s primary goal of counseling is to help others find healing and hope from the power of God to overcomes hurt and shame. Furthermore, Wilson (2001) encourages counselees to have a perspective of process rather than a destination in reaching the goal of counseling as lives are continually transformed by the great Healer (p. 104). ### **Development of Problems and Personal Need** Wilson (2001) explains that humans have personal needs of safety, identity, and acceptance (pp.73-79). However, in unsafe families these needs are absent, and problems develop from the hurt and shame experienced in childhood. Wilson (2001) asserts that “most of our adult life problems are a result of childhood solutions” (p. 85). In a hurtful environment, children attempt to cope with problems by believing certain fantasies such as the ability to control events and people, change circumstances by performing well enough, eliminate their own needs, deaden feelings, or even take on new identities to maintain sanity (Wilson, 2001, pp. 61-86). Unfortunately, when adults continue to believe these childhood fantasies, problems occur. ### **Biblical Integration** [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 67 182x300 - Hurt People Hurt People Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-67-182x300.jpg "Hurt People Hurt People Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3WeDA0W)Wilson utilizes a topical approach to integrating Scripture into her counseling methodology. The author provides Scripture verses at the end of each chapter to support her assertions as she combines psychological concepts with biblical principles. Wilson also utilizes Scripture more directly to support certain claims. For instance, Wilson (2001) supports overcoming childish coping mechanisms by quoting the Apostle Paul’s words in 1 Corinthians 13:11, which states, “Put away childish things” (2001, p. 88). Although suggesting the original context of Paul’s words directly align with childhood coping mechanisms goes too far, Wilson certainly appears to place a high priority on biblical integration. ### **Formula for Change** According to Johnny Baker (Liberty University, n.d.) Wilson’s theory of change is succinct; new choices plus consistent practices equals change. A three-step formula exists to support Wilson’s theory. Baker (Liberty University, n.d.) explains that the first step is to remove the weeds or recognize the lies of deception. Wilson (2001) explains that adults must identify the lies of perpetrators who took advantage of their needs, excused abuses, and exploited authority when they were children (pp. 54-58). Once the lies are identified, Baker (Liberty University, n.d.) continues the gardening metaphor by suggesting the soil must be loosened because in a safe environment the counselee can be completely honest with herself and others. Finally, the counselee must sow seeds by renewing the mind on God’s truth (Liberty University, n.d.). ### **Balance of Theology and Spirituality** Theologically, Wilson (2001) asserts that humanity is “utterly ruined by sin and completely guilty before God,” and nobody “can be more ruined than ‘utterly’ nor more guilty than ‘completely.'” (p. 17). Upon this theological foundation, Wilson (2001) concludes that no one can be “worth less” than any other person, and no one can be perfect (p. 16-17). Accordingly, the shame that binds and blinds mankind can only be resolved through discovering Jesus Christ (Wilson, 2001, pp. 18-22). For Wilson’s counseling methodology, theology must be hermeneutically sound, but sound theology does not eliminate the reality of spiritual experience. Wilson (2001) explains that God is “not only a rational and emotional being; God is also relational” (p. 29). In sum, God can be and should be experienced. ### **Human Personality** Like Larry Crabb and Jay Adams, Baker (Liberty University, n.d.) explains that for Wilson the structure of human personality is created in God’s image, but it fell into a state of depravity, and individuals cannot change sin nature, genetics, and other people’s attitudes. From a developmental perspective, Wilson is distinct. Wilson asserts that personality development hinges on the family of origin. When a child’s needs for safety, identity, and acceptance are suppressed or crushed, the development of the child is stifled (Wilson, 2001, pp. 74-78). However, humanity continues to have the ability to make right choices (Liberty University, n.d.). ### **Counselor’s Function and Role** Wilson does not document a specific role or function of the counselor. However, several conclusions may be reached based on Wilson’s content. Using Wilson’s methodology, the counselor would provide a stabilizing and supportive role to the counselee. The functions of the counselor would include extending empathy, providing safety, and assisting the client in unraveling the deceptive lies procured during childhood. Furthermore, the counselor would validate the feelings of the client because for Wilson (2001), “Feeling are a fact, and feelings have a history” (p. 111). Finally, the counselor would help the counselee transfer their safety, identity, and acceptance to God through the power of the Holy Spirit. ### **Major Contribution to Counseling** Wilson’s major contribution is the integration of a family of origin approach into the Christian counseling domain. In other words, Wilson helps the Christian counseling community recognize that it is not possible to understand individuals apart from their interconnected relationships. Additionally, Wilson contributes to counseling by highlighting the value of acknowledging feelings and showing vulnerability, as well as removing the mask that some deem necessary to support the misbelief that “Christians are wound proof” (Wilson, 2001, p. 15). ### **Limitations of This Counseling Theory** A few limitations exist within Wilson’s counseling theory. First, syncretism is always a potential risk when integrating secular psychology with theology. Second, although Wilson (2001) strongly asserts that dysfunctional family influences do not excuse unhealthy choices (p. 30), holding parents responsible for an individual’s current emotional state risks the counselee resenting and blaming their parents. Third, one wonders if the time and effort to explore and explain years of parental influence or abuse is necessary for the client to overcome the current belief system. Other forms of therapy, such as cognitive therapy, also address false belief systems without the need of deeply exploring the past, which may be more expedient. ### **Classification** Wilson’s methodology is classified as in integrative form of counseling. However, Wilson appears to lean more heavily on psychology than integrationists such as Larry Crabb. Wilson’s (2001) theory of counseling rests primarily on a family of origin approach to counseling and uses Scripture to support her assertions as opposed to beginning with Scripture and allowing the counseling methodology to evolve (see p. 88). Accordingly, Wilson’s theory likely borders on a form of [Christian psychology](https://www.livestransforming.com/psychology-theology-and-spirituality-in-christian-counseling-book-review/), rather than a pure integrationist form of therapy. ## **Practical Application** ### **Counseling Utility and Specific Potential Influence** Wilson’s counseling methodology provides an important utilitarian benefit to the overall discipline of Christian counseling. By acknowledging the importance of the family of origin in the development of the individual, the counselor may gain a deeper understanding of the client. This understanding may assist the counselor and the client in uncovering the false beliefs that continue to haunt the client from childhood. Furthermore, the new understanding may allow the counselor to more appropriately extend empathy and inquiry to facilitate the client’s healing. The use of Wilson’s approach may also help the Lives Transforming counselors understand the clients who are involved in my counseling ministry. Personally, Wilson’s methodology is a reminder that my past can influence my present. For example, periodically I find myself experiencing inappropriate anxiety around the topic of death. My father was a policeman. When I was a child I experienced death in various scary situations when my father was called out on emergencies. Remembering that my fear may be originating from my past helps me recognize that an alternative adult view of death is possible. ### **Counseling Moment Example** Jason came to talk with me about feeling anxious and burned out. He explained that his wife had been complaining about how much he worked. She had threatened to divorce him the previous week. After spending a few more minutes discussing Jason’s situation, I asked him about his childhood home. Jason explained that his father was world-class athlete, and his brother was an all-American track star. Performance had been a way of life. Knowing that anxiety often stems from fear, I asked Jason if he could explain his fear. Jason said he was afraid to fail. I asked Jason why he was afraid to fail. Jason explained that failing would mean he was worthless and unlovable. I asked Jason where he thought that idea came from. Jason realized that he did not think his father would love him if he failed. I asked Jason if he felt that his heavenly Father would deem him unacceptable if he failed. Jason recognized that he was viewing God through the same lens as his dad. By recognizing that his acceptance was solidified in Christ’s love, Jason was confident that Christ’s love would assist in overcoming his fear of failure. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Liberty University (Producer). *Presentation: Healing relationships* \[Video\]. Available from http://www.apple.com/itunes/download. - Wilson, S. D. (2001). *Hurt people hurt people: Hope and healing for yourself and your relationships*. Grand Rapids: Discovery House. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Effective Biblical Counseling Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/effective-biblical-counseling-book-review/) **Published:** February 17, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Effective Biblical Counseling Book Review ## **Primary Goal** Larry Crabb’s goal of counseling revolves around one word – maturity. Crabb (2013) states that the goal of counseling is “to free people to better worship and serve God by helping them become more like the Lord” (p. 24). According to Crabb (2013), maturity consists of both spiritual and psychological maturity that results in obedience and character growth (p. 25). ### **Development of Problems and Personal Need** Crabb (2013) suggests that the overarching need of humanity is a sense of value or worth (p. 62-63). A sense of worth is determined by two inputs, which consist of significance and security (Crabb, 2013, p. 63). Significance is defined as a sense of purpose or adequacy, while security is defined as a sense of unflappable acceptance (Crabb, 2013, 63). Crabb’s identification of personal need provides the foundation for the author’s view of problem development. Crabb (2013) asserts that problems develop when significance and security are threatened, and the individual attempts to overcome a sense of worthlessness by believing the lie that worth can be obtained outside of Christ (pp. 70-71). ### **Biblical Integration** [![03 8 182x300 - Effective Biblical Counseling Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-8-182x300.png "Effective Biblical Counseling Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BUCRLz)Effective Biblical Counseling: A Model for Helping Caring Christians Become Capable Counselors Crabb (2013) uses the phrase, “spoiling the Egyptians,” to explain his view of the relationship between psychology and Scripture (p. 49). Just as the Israelites used the spoils from the Egyptians when led by Moses to the Promised Land, Crabb (2013) supports the potential utilization of relevant secular psychological constructs (pp. 49-50). However, several caveats exist. According to Crabb (2013), Scripture trumps psychological principles even if empirically supported, Scripture is God’s inerrant Word, Scripture supersedes psychological opinions, and counselors must commit to a deep understanding the Scripture (pp. 50-51). In sum, the Bible forms the basis for counseling without excluding the possibility of psychological integration. ### **Formula for Change** Crabb provides a seven-step formula for change. First, Crabb (2013) suggests the client needs to identify the problem feeling and then the goal-oriented problem behavior (Crabb, 2013, pp. 146-150). Third, the counselee must identify the underlying false belief causing the unhealthy feelings and behaviors (Crabb, 2013, pp. 150-152). The fourth step is for the client to recognize that his or her belief is false, and then replace the false belief with a new belief that aligns with Scripture (Crabb, 2013, p. 152-153) Fifth, the client commits to behave in accordance with the new belief and follows a plan of action to actualize the commitment (Crabb, 2013, pp. 154-156) Finally, the counselee looks for evidence of spiritual feelings (Crabb, 2013, p. 157). ### **Balance of Theology and Spirituality** For Crabb, theology precursors spirituality, thus without a correct understanding of theology, spirituality is rendered impotent. Justification is the core theological principle that forms the impetus for spiritual and psychological maturity (Crabb, 2013, p.25). Justification, according to Crabb (2013), is the declared righteousness given by [God as a gift through faith in Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/spiritual-disciplines-for-the-christian-life-book-review/) (p. 25). The gift of righteousness provides the necessary means for significance and security, which undermines the necessity for problem behaviors that attempt to meet these needs (Crabb, 2013, pp. 25-27). In sum, justification empowers spiritual and psychological maturity. ### **Human Personality** Crabb (2013) views humanity through a dichotomist lens, the physical and non-physical, while maintaining an integrative holistic perspective (p. 90). The functioning parts include the conscious and unconscious mind, the heart, the will, and emotions (Crabb, 2013, pp. 90-105). Eschewing behavioral determinism, Crabb (2013) asserts that the mental evaluation of stimulus, not the stimulus itself, controls emotions (p. 91). The unconscious mind carries the basic underlying beliefs, but the will provides the capacity for individuals to choose correctly, and the heart represents the individual’s intentions to serve God or self (Crabb, 2013, pp. 92-102). ### **Counselor’s Function and Role** Crabb (2013) suggests that the primary function of a counselor is to assist the client in growing closer to God (p. 136). Depending on the level of sophistication and training, the role of the counselor may be simple encouragement, thoughtful exhortation, or more advanced enlightenment initiatives (Crabb, 2013, p. 163). Encouragement focuses on compassion, caring, and listening, while exhortation centers around guiding, advising, and thinking biblically (Crabb, 2013, pp. 163-178). Enlightenment addresses underlying issues of false beliefs by applying the Gospel to the personal needs of significance and security (Crabb, 2013, p.179-187). ### **Major Contribution to Counseling** Crabb was one of the important early contributors to Christian counseling. Recognizing the risks associated with nouthetic counseling’s external behavioral focus, Crabb (2013) provided an innovative approach that applied the Gospel to the internal needs of the individual (p.148). Furthermore, Crabb (2013) provided a unique model for counseling within a local church accomplished by church members at various levels of aptitude (pp. 161-162). ### **Limitations of This Counseling Theory** Crabb’s counseling theory has certain limitations. First, Crabb’s spoiling the Egyptians concept, by definition, risks syncretism, since judgement is necessary to determine which psychological constructs are appropriate for integration. Second, Crabb’s solution to humanity’s basic problem is the Gospel. However, a cognitive and applied understanding of the Gospel is necessary to adequately assist counselees through the maze of false beliefs. Sadly, an integrated understanding of the Gospel is lacking in many Christian counselors. Third, Crabb’s approach to caregiving requires organizational adoption from the local church and the individual church members, which, from a practical perspective, may be quite difficult. ### **Classification** Crabb (2013) is classified as an integrationist. Crabb is not opposed to integrating psychological theory into his counseling methodology to the extent it does not undermine the inerrant Word of God (pp. 50-51). For example, glimpses of Freudian thought can be found in Crabb’s view of human personality. Furthermore, overtones of cognitive psychology can be found in Crabb’s (2013) formula for change, especially with regards to thought replacement and addressing false beliefs (pp. 152-153). However, regardless of Crabb’s integrationist perspsective, he consistently maintains that Scripture governs psychology. ## **Practical Application** ### **Counseling Utility and Specific Potential Influence** Crabb’s work provides a missing link to the overall discipline of counseling. Secular psychologists and secular trained Christian counselors often acknowledge that a healthy sense of self-worth contributes to the health of the individual. However, psychology has no credible answer to the source of value and worth, and often resorts to encouraging the client to find value in external circumstances such as a new wife, job, or car. However, finding worth in circumstances only exacerbates the problem as they are certain to disappoint. Alternatively, Crabb’s approach, where the client is encouraged to acknowledge the gift of righteousness as the basis for value and worth not only solves the inherent issue of self-worth, but it also provides a foundation for spiritual and psychological maturity. Crabb’s understanding of justification and God’s gift of righteousness has already had significant influence upon my life and ministry. Twenty years ago, I had a nervous breakdown attempting to find my worth in business success. During this time, I came to recognize that my worth and value comes from God’s gift of righteousness, not my business. As a result, I began coaching individuals, which led to starting a non-profit organization, Lives Transforming. Lives Transforming now has five licensed counselors on staff who share the Gospel of justification by faith through Jesus Christ with hundreds of hurting individuals every year. ### **Counseling Moment Example** Although hundreds of examples come to mind, I will never forget a counseling moment with my son, Connor, when he was fifteen years old. I caught Connor in a bold-faced lie about whether he had practiced his piano. I asked Connor why he lied. Connor explained that he lied because he did not want to disappoint me. In other words, Connor had based his worth on whether his biological father accepted him or not. Although Connor had been baptized a few years earlier, he had not yet appropriated an understanding of the Gospel. I took a few minutes and explained to Connor that his worth comes from God’s gift of righteousness, not from his dad. If Christ in him made him valuable, not my opinion, would he need to lie to me? Connor answered that he would be able to tell the truth. Connor would not have to be afraid of my rejection because he was already completely accepted by God. As Connor and I finished the conversation, I remember praying that Connor would not only remember the lesson regarding not needing to lie to me, but also remember that his worth comes from no other human being. If adolescents understood the basic Gospel message, peer pressure would become a thing of the past, and my son could live for Christ and not the approval of other people. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Crabb, L. (2013). *Effective biblical counseling: A model for helping caring Christians become capable counselors*. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [The Samaritan Woman in John 4](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-samaritan-woman-in-john-4/) **Published:** January 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Samaritan Woman in John 4 John’s narrative regarding the encounter between Jesus and the Samaritan woman has provided the content for numerous scholarly debates. Several questions still remain with regard to the interpretation of John’s narrative, especially in light of the ancient historical and cultural context of the passage. Without a proper understanding of the passage’s historical backdrop and cultural setting, the interpreter risks missing the author’s intended meaning. The following research is not an exegetical analysis but, instead, an examination of how historical and cultural context may assist the interpretive process. More specifically, a proper understanding of ancient Samaritan and Jewish history alongside an appreciation of the social dynamics of ancient hospitality provide a backdrop that enhances the understanding of John 4:1-26. The analysis first provides a synopsis of Samaritan geography followed by a brief history of Samaritan and Jewish relations. The research then compares the potential of a betrothal type-scene versus a culture of ancient hospitality and concludes by exploring how the latter clarifies meaning. ## History ### Samaritan Geography The geographical location of the story of Jesus and the woman at the well sets the stage for understanding the entire narrative. The Apostle John explains that Jesus passes through the territory of Samaria and then comes to a town called Sychar (John 4:4-5). It was not uncommon for strict Jews to avoid traveling through the region of Samaria, and instead they would travel east from Jerusalem, cross the Jordan river, head north toward the Sea of Galilee, and then cross back over the Jordan river to enter Galilee. Alternatively, Josephus explains that “it was the custom of the Galileans, when they came to the holy city at the festivals, to take their journeys through the country of the Samaritans” (Ant. 20.6.1). Jesus did not follow the path of the strict Jews but followed the path that most travelers took through Samaria. Consensus does not exist regarding the location of the town or village of Sychar within the region of Samaria. However, according to Rainer Reisner, the location of the town was likely at the site of Askar, which is at the foot of Mount Ebal and probably a major settlement in the region of Samaria just north of Mount Gerizim, the holy mountain of the Samaritans.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The importance of Mount Gerizim to the Samaritans is difficult to overstate. The Jews identified Jerusalem as the proper place of worship with good reason. In 2 Chronicles 6, the writer explains that Jerusalem was chosen for “my (Yahweh’s) name to be there” (cf. 2 Chron 7:12, English Standard Version). Furthermore, Psalm 78:68 explains that it was the tribe of Judah and Mount Zion that Yahweh loves. However, Clinton Arnold points out that the Samaritans decided to establish their sanctuary on Mount Gerizim because the Pentateuch does not specifically identify Jerusalem as the place of worship, and the first five books of the Old Testament were the only ones accepted by the Samaritan people as sacred.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) To emphasize Mount Gerizim over Jerusalem, G. M. M. Pelser notes that sacrifices on Mount Gerizim are prescribed in every version of the Decalogue and, unlike the Jewish version of the Pentateuch, Deuteronomy 27:4 in the Samaritan Pentateuch blesses Mount Gerizim.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Accordingly, the Samaritan woman at the well states that her ancestors worshipped on this mountain as opposed to Jerusalem where the Jewish people worshipped God (John 4:20). The specificity used by John with regard to the identification of the geographical backdrop of the story lays a strong foundation for meaning clarification. ### Samaritan History The rift between the Jews and the Samaritans runs deeper than a simple disagreement regarding the proper site of worshipping Yahweh. The dissension between the Samaritans and Jews originated centuries before the time of Jesus and lays the groundwork for the geography. Mount Gerizim is just west of the ancient city of Shechem, and Shechem just south of Askar. Its history points as far back as Abraham who built an altar in this area and received the following promise from Yahweh: “To your offspring I will give this land” (Gen 12:6-7). Jacob also safely entered the city of Shechem , set up camp, and pitched a tent (Gen 33:18-19). Further, he likely dug the well that John refers to in his narrative when Jesus decides to rest beside Jacob’s well (John 4:6). The history of Joshua also engages the land of the Samaritans. The leader gathered the tribes of Israel within the town of Shechem, and he presented the people before God (Josh 24:1). Joshua then exhorted the people to put away the foreign gods of their fathers and serve Yahweh alone, and he concludes with his famous words, “But as for me and my house, we will serve the Lord” (Josh 24:14-15). It is within this backdrop of patriarchal connections that, according to Bernadeta Jojko, the Samaritans viewed themselves as children of Jacob, whom God named Israel (2 Kgs 17:34).[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Accordingly, the ancestors or “fathers” the Samaritan woman refers to in John 4:20 are the ancient patriarchs. The patriarchal connections explain why the woman refers to “Father Jacob” when asking whether [Jesus is greater](https://www.livestransforming.com/share-jesus-without-fear/) than Jacob (John 4:12). In other words, the Samaritans and the Jews had common ties through the patriarchs. However, the ties begin to unravel soon after Solomon’s reign. Subsequent to Solomon’s death, the united kingdom split into the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. Jeroboam, the first king of Israel, built Shechem as the capital of Israel (1 Kgs 12:16-25). The Assyrians captured Samaria in 721 BC and followed the common ancient practice of exiling or deporting many Israelites from the land of Samaria (2 Kgs 17:23). The Assyrians simultaneously placed many foreigners from other lands, such as Babylon, into the cities of Samaria (2 Kgs 17:24). Unfortunately, the imported people groups brought foreign gods into the land (2 Kgs 17:29). The result was a disastrous form of religious syncretism (2 Kgs 17:33). The book of Ezra explains that certain enemies of Judah heard that the Jewish exiles were returning from Babylon to build a temple to the Lord and asked if they could assist (Ezra 4:1-2). Mervin Breneman explains that the enemies of Judah referred to descendants of the foreigners imported by the Assyrians, and thus the Jews would not allow them to assist in order to keep the “purity of the covenant community.”[\[6\]](#_ftn1) As a result of the rejection, Jojko points out that the Samaritans decided to erect their own rival temple at Mount Gerizim in 388 BC.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Josephus documents that after the death of Antiochus, John Hyrcanus overtook Shechem, and the temple “resembled that temple which was at Jerusalem” (Ant. 13.9.1). The destruction of the Mount Gerizim temple occurred around 128 BC, thus the remains were likely still visible when the Samaritan woman refers to the mountain in John 4:20.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) It is within the memories of such destruction that John tells the story of the encounter between Jesus and the Samaritan woman. As Jojko explains, the historical background assists the interpreter in understanding that the “Samaritan woman represents her people, with all their infidelity, syncretism, and marginalization.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) ### Samaritan Inclusion Without question, Jesus would have known the history, traditions, and animosity between the Samaritans and the Jews just as the Samaritan woman was fully aware of the situation when asking Jesus, “How is it that you, a Jew, ask for a drink from me, a woman of Samaria” (John 4:9). Jesus was about to send a clear message that the geographical and cultural boundaries were to be destroyed under His eschatological reign of inclusion that transcended God’s chosen nation. Joy Jones-Carmack succinctly notes that Jesus simply refused to enter an ethnic debate with the Samaritan woman, and instead, He focused on the “gift of God” (John 4:10).[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Jesus refers to a gift available to all people that transcends race, culture, and gender. Craig Keener suggests that a cross-gender conversation would have been troubling because Jewish men were not to engage in unnecessary conversations with women.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) However, Jesus ignores standard protocols and focuses on a message that eclipses cultural norms. More specifically, Jojko recognizes that Jesus uses the term ἡμεῖς in John 4:22 to identify himself with God’s whole nation when stating, “We (ἡμεῖς) worship what we know, for salvation is from the Jews.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) In other words, Jesus is not usurping the spiritual heritage of the Jewish people, but instead bringing it to fruition by offering the gift to the entire world (John 4:42). Similarly, the woman at the well represents the marginalization of her Samaritan nation, while Jesus represents God’s chosen nation and ultimately fulfills God’s covenant promises of blessing all nations through Him (Gen 12:1-3). ## Hospitality ### Hospitality and Betrothal By exploring the cultural milieu surrounding encounters at ancient wells, an understanding of John 4 may be enhanced. A popular scholarly observation in recent years is the possibility that John’s narrative refers to a betrothal type-scene. Robert Alter detects the pattern in three Old Testament examples: Rebekah and Abraham’s servant in Genesis 24, Jacob and Rachel in Genesis 29, and Moses and Zipporah in Exodus 2.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The pattern or type-scene begins with a potential bridegroom who enters a foreign land, encounters a woman at a well, and eventually marries the woman after she announces the news and invites the bridegroom to a meal.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) In modern vernacular, the idea is similar to a fictional romance that starts something like: A man meets a woman at a bar and offers to buy her a drink. [![The Gospel according to John 182x300 - The Samaritan Woman in John 4](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/The-Gospel-according-to-John-182x300.jpg "The Samaritan Woman in John 4 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gM7TUu)The Gospel according to John: The Pillar New Testament Commentary (PNTC) The modern reader is set up and knows where the story leads. Likewise, Mark Stibbe suggests the reader will assume the cultural context of John 4 is courtship supported by “marital imagery.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) If Alter and his proponents are correct, then Jesus’s references to the woman’s husbands in John 4:16-18 may provide heightened relational tension between Jesus and the woman while simultaneously supporting the popular notion espoused by D. A. Carson that the woman is despised and lacks sophistication.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Although Alter’s hypothesis is possible, an alternative proposal may have more weight. Andrew Arterbury suggests that Jesus’s encounter with the Samaritan woman more closely relates to the ancient custom of hospitality.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Arterbury defines ancient hospitality as “the Mediterranean social convention that was employed when a person chose to assist a traveler…by supplying him or her with provisions and protection.”[\[18\]](#_ftn18) An Old Testament example may be found in Genesis 18:1-5 when Abraham runs to meet three strangers, and he offers them water and bread.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Both Philo and Josephus during the Second Temple period recognize that Genesis 18 has overtones of hospitality. With reference to Abraham meeting the strangers, Philo states, “no one in the house of a wise man is ever slow to perform the duties of hospitality” (Abraham XXII 109). Similarly, Josephus refers to the episode by suggesting that Abraham saw the strangers and offered them hospitality in the form of a meal (Ant. 11.2.196-197). Another episode pointing to hospitality occurs in 1 Samuel 9:10-27 when Saul and his servant met young women drawing water and point them to Samuel who feeds the strangers. Importantly, Arterbury notes that in both Greco-Roman and Jewish texts it was acceptable for the stranger to greet the host and vice versa and “good manners prohibited Mediterranean hosts from inquiring about the stranger’s identity and origins until after the stranger’s immediate needs were met.”[\[20\]](#_ftn20) In summary, Arterbury is not suggesting that Alter’s observations add no value to the scholarly conversation, but that the evidence supporting Alter’s hypothesis more appropriately points to the ancient culture of hospitality rather than a betrothal type-scene. ### Hospitality and Jesus Six aspects of the narrative in John 4 describe the social dynamics of hospitality during the first century. First, Jesus passes through the territory of Samaria as a stranger (John 4:4). Historically, according to Josephus, the Samaritans were not necessarily hospitable to strangers, and he tells the story of Samaritans killing certain Galileans passing through their country (Ant. 20.6.1). Jesus’s experience provides a significant contrast. Second, the wearied Jesus sits down to rest beside the well and asks for water from the person that comes to draw water from the well (John 4:6-7; cf. 24:17; 1 Kgs 17:10). Arterbury notes that, as expected when extending hospitality to a stranger in ancient contexts, the stranger attempts to investigate the identity of Jesus by asking indirect questions.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Third, Jesus asks the woman to call her husband, which follows the natural progression of a stranger initiating a request to be directed to a hospitable home (John 4:16). Fourth, Jesus’s inexplicable knowledge of the woman’s past prompts the woman to again return to the topic of Jesus’s identity and suggests that He is a prophet (John 4:17-19). Arterbury points out that “traveling prophets were some of the most common guests in Jewish and early Christian hospitality contexts” (e.g., 1 Kgs 17:8-24; Matt 10:5-42; Luke 9:1-6).[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Fifth, although possibly forced, Arterbury interestingly asserts that Mount Gerizim (John 4:20) points to the topic of hospitability as Antiochus IV decreed the temple be renamed the “Zeus-the-Friend-of Strangers,” which literally means “the God of Hospitality” (2 Macc 6:1-2).[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Finally, after the woman returns to the city, certain Samaritans from her town extend hospitality to Jesus, and He remains with them for two days (John 4:43). By placing the narrative within the first-century social dynamics of hospitality, the cultural context not only eliminates any motivation by either party of a potential betrothal, but also potentially enhances the interpreter’s understanding of the Samaritan woman. ### Hospitality and the Woman If hospitality rather than betrothal provides the cultural backdrop to the narrative, then the focus may shift from sexual and marital imagery espoused by some scholars to a more culturally refined understanding of the woman. With reference to the woman’s five husbands, Kenneth Gangel concludes the woman “lived outside the boundaries of any religious or cultural standards of her day.”[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Similarly, D. A. Carson describes the Samaritan woman as “unschooled, without influence, despised, capable only of folk religion.”[\[25\]](#_ftn25) However, the text does not support such derogatory conclusions. First, although Jesus chastises the woman for living with a man outside of marriage, no reason is given for the previous husbands. In the ancient culture it was often the man’s prerogative to initiate divorce (Deut 24:1-14). Furthermore, some or all the men could have died. According to Jo Ann Davidson, to suggest that the language of John 4:16-18 definitively points to a despised town harlot goes beyond the evidence.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Second, the woman was certainly aware of the political situation, as evidenced by her questions regarding the relationship between Samaritans and Jews in John 4:9 and the location of worship in John 4:20. The Samaritan woman also shows a deep curiosity through her questions surrounding Jesus’s identity and His potential as a prophet (John 4:19). Davidson concludes that the woman has a “profound understanding of both Samaritan and Jewish theology.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Finally, the idea that the woman had no influence is undermined by the fact that the people of Samaria followed her to meet Jesus (John 4:39-40). In summary, within a cultural backdrop of hospitality, the encounter may be interpreted as a transformative political and theological discourse where Jesus sees the potential in a Samaritan woman that is unseen by the disciples and many modern commentators. ## Conclusion It is difficult to imagine how a modern reader might appropriately understand Jesus’s encounter with the Samaritan woman without first understanding the history of animosity between the Samaritans and Jews. More specifically, the setting of the narrative, the ethnicity of the woman, and the history of the nations, allow the interpreter to recognize Jesus’s mission of inclusion to the Samaritans, and by extension, to all nations. Furthermore, the ancient cultural dynamics surrounding encounters at water wells also clarifites the meaning of the passage. By understanding the backdrop of ancient hospitality, the interpreter recognizes not only the potential in the Samaritan woman to influence others with Christ’s message of hope, but to engage the implications of her political savvy and theological awareness. Without question, a proper understanding of ancient Samaritan and Jewish history alongside an appreciation of the social dynamics of ancient hospitality provide a backdrop that enhances the understanding of John 4:1-26. From a practical perspective, the research not only encourages the interpreter to be cognizant of the historical, cultural, and social context of a passage, but also, in this case, points to the critical importance of inclusion on the level of people groups as well as individuals regardless of race, culture, or gender. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Rainer Riesner, “Archeology and Geography,” ed. Joel B. Green, Jeannine K. Brown, and Nicholas Perrin, Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2013), 52. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Clinton E. Arnold, Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: John, Acts., vol. 2 (Zondervan, 2002), 47–48. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) G. M. M. Pelser, “The Samaritans,” in The New Testament Milieu, ed. A. B. du Toit, vol. 2, Guide to the New Testament (London: Orion, 1998), 17.5.4. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Bernadeta Jojko, “At the Well: An Encounter Beyond the Boundaries (Jn 4:1-42),” Gregorianum 99, no. 1 (2018): 15. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Mervin Breneman, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture, vol. 10, New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1993), 96–97. [\[61\]](#_ftnref6) Jojko, “At the Well,” 16. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid. Note that in fn 32 Jojko highlights the archaeological evidence from excavations in the 1960s that uncovered the evidence of a large temple structure built on Mount Gerizim beneath a temple to Zeus built by Hadrian subsequent to the destruction of the Samaritan temple. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Jojko, “At the Well,” 17. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Joy Jones-Carmack, “Relational Demography in John 4: Jesus Crossing Cultural Boundaries as Praxis for Christian Leadership,” Feminist Theology 25, no. 1 (September 2016): 46. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1993), 197. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Jojko, “At the Well,” 18. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Robert Alter, Art of Biblical Narrative (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 52–60. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 52. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Mark W. G. Stibbe, John (JSOT Press, 1993), 68. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) D. A. Carson, The Gospel According to John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991), 216. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Andrew E Arterbury, “Breaking the Betrothal Bonds: Hospitality in John 4,” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 72, no. 1 (January 2010): 65. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Andrew Arterbury, Entertaining Angels: Early Christian Hospitality in Its Mediterranean Setting (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2005), 132. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) See two other examples of Old Testament hospitality in Genesis 19:1-24 and 1 Kings 17:8-24. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Arterbury, “Breaking the Betrothal Bonds,” 67. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Arterbury, “Breaking the Betrothal Bonds,” 77. [\[21\]](#_ftnref1) Ibid., 78. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Ibid., 78–80. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Kenneth Gangel, Holman New Testament Commentary: John, ed. Max Anders (Nashville: Holman Reference, 2000), 76. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Carson, The Gospel According to John, 216. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Jo Ann Davidson, “John 4: Another Look at the Samaritan Woman,” Andrews University 43, no. 1 (2005): 166–167. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Davidson, “John 4: Another Look,” 166. ## ## Bibliography - Alter, Robert. Art of Biblical Narrative. New York: Basic Books, 1981. - Arnold, Clinton E. Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: John, Acts. Vol. 2. Zondervan, 2002. - Arterbury, Andrew. Entertaining Angels: Early Christian Hospitality in Its Mediterranean Setting. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2005. - Arterbury, Andrew E. “Breaking the Betrothal Bonds: Hospitality in John 4.” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 72, no. 1 (January 2010): 63–83. - Breneman, Mervin. Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture. Vol. 10. New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1993. - Carson, D. A. The Gospel According to John. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991. - Davidson, Jo Ann. “John 4: Another Look at the Samaritan Woman.” Andrews University 43, no. 1 (2005): 159–168. - Gangel, Kenneth. Holman New Testament Commentary: John. Edited by Max Anders. Nashville: Holman Reference, 2000. - Jojko, Bernadeta. “At the Well: An Encounter Beyond the Boundaries (Jn 4:1-42).” Gregorianum 99, no. 1 (2018): 5–27. - Jones-Carmack, Joy. “Relational Demography in John 4: Jesus Crossing Cultural Boundaries as Praxis for Christian Leadership.” Feminist Theology 25, no. 1 (September 2016): 41–52. - Keener, Craig S. The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1993. - Pelser, G. M. M. “The Samaritans.” In The New Testament Milieu, edited by A. B. du Toit. Vol. 2. Guide to the New Testament. London: Orion, 1998. - Riesner, Rainer. “Archeology and Geography.” Edited by Joel B. Green, Jeannine K. Brown, and Nicholas Perrin. Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2013. - Stibbe, Mark W. G. John. JSOT Press, 1993. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Cows of Bashan and the Study of Amos 4:1-3](https://www.livestransforming.com/cows-of-bashan-amos-4-1-3/) **Published:** December 25, 2024 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Cows of Bashan and the Study of Amos 4:1-3 ## **Introduction** Perhaps the greatest indicator of success when writing a research paper is proper planning. An effective and efficient method of planning allows the researcher to increase the chance for success. Accordingly, the following analysis develops a research foundation for a twenty-five-page research paper involving a point of interpretive or [biblical theological](https://www.livestransforming.com/acts-as-theological-history/) interest from the book of Amos and specifically, the topic of the cows of Bashan. The planning process involves choosing a topic, developing a bibliography, documenting issues and positions, and formulating a thesis. ## **Finding Direction** The first step in finding direction is to begin narrowing the topic. Michael Kibbe explains that during the finding direction stage, the argument should not yet be established, secondary sources should be avoided, tertiary sources should be used for introductory purposes, and primary sources should remain the focus.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) In light of Kibbe’s advice, I began by reading the primary source, the book of Amos. Due to the broad topic and my limited knowledge, I then read three tertiary sources. First, the introduction to the book of Amos in the ESV Study Bible provided the author, date, theme, historical background, literary analysis, and key theological themes, which prompted a few observations.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Historically, Amos sounds a message of judgment against the northern kingdom possibly around 760 BCE during a time of economic prosperity. The people thought their wealth was a blessing from God, but they were wrong. The literary genre is prophecy, and the literary structure consists of three parts: oracles (1-2), judgment (3-6), and visions (7-9). The theological themes include topics such as ethical norms, religious rituals, Israel’s covenant relationship with God, the day of the Lord, and remnant theology. Second, Tremper Longman and Raymond Dillard’s Old Testament introduction provided a substantial list of commentaries, monographs, and journal articles for potential secondary sources. Perusing the titles revealed several possible topics: social reform, foreign nations, literary composition, rhetorical analysis, eschatology, covenant lawsuits, God as a Warrior, hymnic elements, and the plumb-line metaphor.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Third, since the focus of the research is biblical exposition, rather than systematic theology or literary theory, I reviewed the New Dictionary of Biblical Theology to limit the potential topics. A few possible topics included: (1) the day of the Lord (5:18-20), (2) divine names (9:1-5), (3) Warrior King (1:2, 3:8), and (4) the plumb-line metaphor (7:7-9). However, the topics with the most potential included: (1) Israel’s injustice and oppression (3:9-4:5), (2) religious ritualism (5:21-24), (3) eschatological vision of restoration (9:11-15), and (4) God’s sovereignty and the oracles against the nations (1:3-2:3).[\[4\]](#_ftn4) ## **Gathering Sources** [![Understanding the Book of Amos 1 182x300 - Cows of Bashan and the Study of Amos 4:1-3](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Understanding-the-Book-of-Amos-1-182x300.jpg "Cows of Bashan and the Study of Amos 4:1-3 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/41K7FZT)Understanding the Book of Amos: Basic Issues in Current Interpretations At this point, I have a basic understanding of the primary source, a limited understanding of the issues, several potential topics, and a start on a potential bibliography. Kibbe explains that the keys to gathering secondary sources are skimming, narrowing the topic, and allocating time.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Regarding narrowing the topic, I discovered a book by Gerhard Hasel entitled Understanding the Book of Amos: Basic Issues in Current Interpretations, which was written in 1991.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Although the book is dated, I confirmed that scholars had debated three of my potential topics for many decades: injustice and oppression (3:9-4:5), eschatology (9:11-15), and the oracles against the nations (1:3-2:3). The first topic I explored was the oracles against the nations. Using the ATLA religion database, I briefly perused a few scholarly articles, but nothing sparked my interest. The second topic I explored was injustice and oppression. Various keyword searches revealed a scholarly interest in the fourth chapter of Amos. I began reading an article entitled, A Fresh Look at Amos 4:1-3 and Its Imagery.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) A significant amount of scholarly debate revolved around the meaning of these three verses. Accordingly, I began searching for journal articles using keyword phrases such as Amos and cows, Amos and Bashan, Amos and fishhooks, and Amos and Harmon. As I gathered scholarly sources, I remembered reading about a mountain called Hermon. Amos 4:3 stated, “You shall be cast out into Harmon.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) I wondered if there might be a connection between the two. Elmer Dyck explains that many scholars “repoint the word (Harmon) to read Hermon.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Some scholars associate the language of sons of God in Genesis 6:1-4 and 1 Enoch 6:1-7 with the supernatural divine beings who cohabited with women to produce the Nephilim.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) According to 1 Enoch 6:5, Mount Hermon was the location where the sons of God descended to earth. If the backdrop of Mount Hermon was part of the supernatural worldview of the Israelites, then it may illuminate the meaning of Amos 4:1-3. The question that began to form was whether the presuppositions associated with modern exegesis may have diminished the importance of the ancient Israelite’s supernatural worldview. Accordingly, I compiled a bibliography consisting of resources from a broad range of perspectives related to the interpretation of Amos 4:1-3. ## **Understanding Issues** During this phase, I began reading the selected sources and making notes on the source documents to decrease time when returning to them.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) While reading the sources, the goal was to understand the major positions of the relevant scholars, recognize shifts in scholarship, identify the strengths and weaknesses of the arguments, and begin formulating a preliminary thesis. The issues surfaced from considering the historical-cultural, literary, and theological context. The historical-cultural context is not highly disputed. The date of Amos’ writing was likely around the middle of the eighth century BCE; Israel was governed by King Jeroboam II and Judah by King Uzziah. Both Israel and Judah were experiencing a stable government and significant wealth and prosperity. Amos’ primary purpose was to communicate God’s condemnation of Israel on several counts: (1) abuse of the poor, (2) sexual indiscretion, and (3) worshiping foreign gods (Amos 2:6-8). The literary context provides the impetus for much scholarly debate. First, the prophetic utterances create a challenge for interpreting the meaning of the metaphors. Specifically, what does the phrase, “cows of Bashan” mean (v 1)? Amos states that the cows will be taken away “with hooks” and the last of them with “fishhooks” (v 2). What do the fishing metaphors represent? Finally, Amos suggests the cows will be “cast out into Harmon” (v 3). Is Harmon a metaphor or a place name? Several textual issues also exist. Emmanuel Nwaoru identifies three text critical issues, and each one relates to the differences between the LXX and MT: (1) in verse 2 the LXX omits the MT’s אֲדֹנָי, (2) in verse 3 the LXX changes the word “breaches” in the MT (פְרָצִים) to the adjective “naked” (γυμναί), and in verse 3 the destination of the cows in the LXX is “mount Remman” (ὄρος τὸ Ρεμμαν) as opposed to Harmon (הַהַרְמוֹנָה).[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Other semantic issues are also evident. No consensus exists for the condemnation associated with the phrase, “bring, that we may drink” (v 1), or how the cows are taken into exile (v 2). Furthermore, the meaning of the word “to your husbands”’ (לַאֲדֹנֵיהֶם) is also disputed (v 1). Finally, the possible place names are problematic. Are Bashan, Samaria, and Harmon all considered geographical locations, extensions of metaphors, or both? The theological messaging emerges from the literary challenges. Scholars such as Terence Kleven, Shalom Paul, Brian Irwin, and Emmanuel Nwaoru align with a historical-critical perspective that emerged from the Enlightenment. For example, these scholars assert that the cows of Bashan relate to overturning social order, the elite citizens, or high-class licentious ladies. Alternatively, a recent shift in scholarship is represented by Michael Heiser, Hans Barstad, and Archie Wright who suggest that Amos 4:1-3 includes supernatural overtones. For example, Michael Heiser explains that the cows of Bashan may represent “the deities themselves in the form of the idols.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Further, by translating לַאֲדֹנֵיהֶם as “to their lords,” rather than “to their husbands,” Hans Barstad suggests that the cows of Bashan may refer to both the inhabitants and their deities.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Regardless of the interpretive perspective, the criticism leveled against oppression is applicable to all generations. ## **Entering Discussion** It is time to enter the discussion. The sources appear to be conversing with each other. For example, most of the relevant contemporary articles seem to engage with two specific commentaries, one written by Francis Andersen and David Freedman and the other written by Hans Walter Wolff.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Furthermore, the sources obtained often cite each other. Although numerous issues exist regarding the interpretation of Amos 4:1-3, a significant concern relates to whether a supernatural understanding permeates the exegesis. My argument involves a point of interpretive interest that does not deny that the situation of oppression literally occurred, but that the exegesis is illuminated by the context of the supernatural worldview of the ancient Israelites. Specifically, the cows of Bashan refer to real human oppressors, but the original authorial intent and the meaning understood by the original audience included supernatural messaging. The evidence to support the preliminary argument is fivefold. First, the oracles against the foreign nations in Amos 1:1–2:3 hearken back to the Babel event in Genesis 10-11, where, according to Heiser, “the nations were placed under the authority of members of Yahweh’s divine council” (See Deut 32:8).[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Upon disinheriting the nations, Yahweh then called Abraham to create a new nation, Israel, who would bring all nations back to God (Gen 12). Second, Amos 2:9 describes the Amorites as having “the height of the cedars,” which appears to be an allusion to divine beings. Admiel Kosman explains that Og, king of Bashan, was an Amorite in the lineage of the Rephaim, who were ancient giants (See Deut 3:11; Joshua 12:4-5).[\[17\]](#_ftn17) In Ugaritic literature, the Rephaim were considered “quasi-divine dead warrior kings who inhabit the underworld.”[\[18\]](#_ftn18) The Rephaim’s divine nature stems back to the Nephilim produced by divine beings mating with humans in Gen 6:1-4 (See Deut 2:11; Num 13:23-33). Third, G. del Olmo Lete explains that Bashan was known as the land of the Rephaim (Deut 3:13), and, for the Ugaritic Canaanites, Bashan “clearly represented ‘Hell’, the celestial and infernal abode of their deified dead kings.”[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Fourth, as mentioned above, the potential reference to Mount Hermon in Amos 4:3 may be linked to a supernatural worldview as the location of the fallen divine council gods who descended to earth (1 Enoch 6:5).[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Finally, Heiser explains that Bashan has a connection with demonic powers: Matthew references Jesus’ use of Psalm 22:1 on the cross, but the Messianic Psalm likely refers to evil powers when stating, “Many bulls encompass me; strong bulls of Bashan surround me” (Ps 22:12).[\[21\]](#_ftn21) The spiritual connotations between bulls and cows, Bashan and Hermon, and between Yahweh and other gods would not go unnoticed by the ancient Israelites. ## **Establishing Position** Reasonable arguments support various interpretive perspectives of Amos 4:1-3. However, it is now time to write the paper. It appears that enough preliminary work exists to formulate a thesis that will mold the research. Furthermore, I believe I can participate in the conversation, while continuing to be open to modifications as the research unfolds. Accordingly, the preliminary thesis is as follows: Although the situation of oppression literally occurred, the exegesis of Amos 4:1-3 is illuminated by the context of the supernatural worldview of the ancient Israelites. ## **Conclusion** The research foundation established provides a strong methodology for writing a twenty-five-page paper involving a point of interpretive interest from the [book of Amos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Amos). By first reviewing the tertiary sources and discovering the scholarly issues, I was able to effectively narrow the topic to Amos 4:1-3. By developing a bibliography around the three verses, I was able to determine a manageable size for the project. By documenting the issues and positions, a thesis began to emerge. Finally, by synthesizing the content, a position was established in the form of a preliminary thesis statement. Without question, an effective and efficient method of planning enhances the possibility for research success. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) LMichael Kibbe, From Topic to Thesis: A Guide to Theological Research (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2016), 45–47. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) John Oswalt, “Introduction to Amos,” in The ESV Study Bible (Wheaton: Crossway, 2016), 1655–58. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Tremper Longman III and Raymond B. Dillard, An Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006), 420–21. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) R. B. Chisholm Jr., “Amos,” in New Dictionary of Biblical Theology, ed. T. Desmond Alexander and Brian S. Rosner (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000), 242–45. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Kibbe, From Topic to Thesis, 56–57. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Gerhard F. Hasel, Understanding the Book of Amos (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1991), 57–71, 101-120. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Emmanuel O. Nwaoru, “A Fresh Look at Amos 4:1-3 and Its Imagery,” Vetus Testamentum 59, no. 3 (2009). [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the English Standard Version (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Elmer H. Dyck, “Harmon (Place),” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. David Noel Freedman (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 61. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) George W. E. Nickelsburg and James C. VanderKam, I Enoch: The Hermeneia Translation (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2012), 23nd. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Kibbe, From Topic to Thesis, 65–72. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Nwaoru, “A Fresh Look,” 462–64. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Michael S. Heiser, The Unseen Realm (Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015), 290. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Hans Barstad, The Religious Polemics of Amos: Studies in the Preaching of Am 2, 7B-8 ; 4, 1-13 ; 5, 1-27 ; 6, 4-7 ; 8, 14 (Leiden: Brill, 1984), 37–47. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) See Francis I. Andersen and David Noel Freedman, Amos: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, vol. 24A, Anchor Yale Bible (New Haven: Yale, 2008). Hans W. Wolff, Joel and Amos: A Commentary on the Books of the Prophets Joel and Amos, ed. S. Dean McBride, Hermeneia – A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977). [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Heiser, The Unseen Realm, 114. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Admiel Kosman, “The Story of a Giant Story: The Winding Way of Og King of Bashan in the Jewish Haggadic Tradition,” Hebrew Union College Annual 73 (2002): 162. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Heiser, The Unseen Realm, 200. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) G. del Olmo Lete, “Bashan,” in Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, 2nd ed. (Leiden; Boston; Cologne; Grand Rapids; Cambridge: Brill and Eerdmans, 1999), 161-62. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Nickelsburg and VanderKam, I Enoch, 24. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Heiser, The Unseen Realm, 290-91. ## **Bibliography** - Andersen, Francis I., and David Noel Freedman. Amos: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Vol. 24A. Anchor Yale Bible. New Haven: Yale, 2008. - Barstad, Hans. The Religious Polemics of Amos: Studies in the Preaching of Am 2, 7B-8 ; 4, 1-13 ; 5, 1-27 ; 6, 4-7 ; 8, 14. Leiden: Brill, 1984. - Chisholm, R. B. Jr. “Amos.” In New Dictionary of Biblical Theology, edited by T. Desmond Alexander and Brian S. Rosner. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000. - Dyck, Elmer H. “Harmon (Place).” In The Anchor Bible Dictionary, edited by David Noel Freedman, 60–61. New York: Doubleday, 1992. - Hasel, Gerhard F. Understanding the Book of Amos. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1991. - Heiser, Michael S. The Unseen Realm. Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015. - Kibbe, Michael. From Topic to Thesis: A Guide to Theological Research. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2016. - Kosman, Admiel. “The Story of a Giant Story: The Winding Way of Og King of Bashan in the Jewish Haggadic Tradition.” Hebrew Union College Annual 73 (2002): 157–90. - Longman, Tremper III, and Raymond B. Dillard. An Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. - Nickelsburg, George W. E., and James C. VanderKam. I Enoch: The Hermeneia Translation. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2012. - Nwaoru, Emmanuel O. “A Fresh Look at Amos 4:1-3 and Its Imagery.” Vetus Testamentum 59, no. 3 (2009): 460–74. - Olmo Lete, G. del. “Bashan.” In Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. 2nd ed., 161–63. Leiden; Boston; Cologne; Grand Rapids; Cambridge: Brill and Eerdmans, 1999. - Oswalt, John. “Introduction to Amos.” In The ESV Study Bible. Wheaton: Crossway, 2016. - Wolff, Hans W. Joel and Amos: A Commentary on the Books of the Prophets Joel and Amos. Edited by S. Dean McBride. Hermeneia-A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977. ## **Additional Research Bibliography** - Doak, Brian. The Last of the Rephaim: Conquest and Cataclysm in the Heroic Ages of Ancient Israel. Cambridge: Harvard, 2013. - Freedman, David Noel., and Francis I. Andersen. “Harmon in Amos 4:3.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 198 (April 1970): 41. - ’Heureux, C. E. L. “The Ugaritic and the Biblical Rephaim.” Harvard Theological Review 67, no. 3 (1974): 265–74. - Irwin, Brian P. “Amos 4:1 and the Cows of Bashan on Mount Samaria: A Reappraisal.” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 74, no. 2 (April 2012): 231–46. - Jacobs, Paul F. “‘Cows of Bashan’: A Note on the Interpretation of Amos 4:1.” Journal of Biblical Literature 104 (March 1985): 109–10. - Kleven, Terence. “The Cows of Bashan: A Single Metaphor at Amos 4:1-3.” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 58, no. 2 (April 1996): 215–27. - Paul, Shalom M. “Fishing Imagery in Amos 4:2.” Journal of Biblical Literature 97, no. 2 (June 1978): 183–90. - Walton, John H. “The Mesopotamian Background of the Tower of Babel Account and Its Implications.” Bulletin for Biblical Research 5 (1995): 155–75. - Williamson, Hugh G. M. “A Christian View of Wealth and Possessions: An Old Testament Perspective.” Ex Auditu 27 (2011): 1–19. - Wright, Archie T. The Origin of Evil Spirits: The Reception of Genesis 6:1-4 in Early Jewish Literature. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2015. **Categories:** Research --- ### [Exegesis of Romans 8:1-11: Understanding the New Cosmic Reality in Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/exegesis-of-romans-8-1-11/) **Published:** December 29, 2024 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Exegesis of Romans 8:1-11: Understanding the New Cosmic Reality in Christ ## Introduction of Romans 8:1-11 Since the time of the Apostles, obedience has been a focus of the Christian faith. However, from the Pelagian heresy to secular behaviorism, and from the early antinomian controversies to the relativism of modern liberal theology, the debate regarding the origin and nature of obedience continues to rage. More recently, with the influence of positive thinking, prosperity theology, and cognitive therapies upon the Christian faith, the question remains as to how cognition relates to behavior. Until a biblical understanding of the relationship between thinking and doing pervades the Christian faith, the risk of faulty theology remains a possibility, which can lead to irreparable spiritual and emotional damage to believers. In his letter to the Romans, [Paul addresses](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-meaning-of-in-christ/) the relationship between the believer’s mind and the believer’s behavior. Romans 8:1-11 asserts that the Spirit-empowered mind appropriates the believer’s new cosmic reality into a cognitive and behavioral righteousness that culminates in a future eschatological resurrection. The research begins by providing a historical and literary context to Paul’s letter. Next, an exegetical analysis of Romans 8:1-11 ensues, which focuses on a believer’s new cosmic reality in Christ followed by an exploration of the connection between the believer’s mind and the new reality. Finally, a brief analysis of the eschatological destination of the believer within the new cosmic realm concludes the research. ## Historical and Cultural Context The historical-cultural background provides the foundation for any interpretive pursuit of the letter to the Romans. A significant consensus exists around the basic features of authorship, date, and provenance. Romans begins with the claim that Paul wrote the letter, likely with the assistance of his amanuensis, Tertius (Rom 16:22). James Dunn suggests a date from AD 55-60 while Paul was in Corinth preparing for a journey back to Jerusalem (Rom 15:25).[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Paul is a seasoned missionary and apostle having ministered from Jerusalem to as far west as Illyricum, and now he has decided to forge new territory (Rom 15:19-20). After Paul’s journey to Jerusalem, he plans to visit Rome before traveling to his ultimate destination, Spain (Rom 15:23-24). More importantly, for exegetical purposes of Romans 8:1-11, is the identification of Paul’s audience. The Christians in Rome likely originated from the converted Jews who visited Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10). The Jewish converts then began preaching the message they heard from Peter upon returning to their hometown, and according to Douglas Moo, probably added a significant number of Gentile converts.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) However, the mix of Gentile and Jewish Christians in Rome took a significant turn under Emperor Claudius. The Roman historian, Suetonius, reports that “since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he \[Claudius\] expelled them from Rome.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Dunn explains that most scholars agree that “Chrestus” refers to Christ and that the expulsion of the Jews likely occurred around AD 49, which left only Gentile Christians in Rome.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) According to Moo, upon Claudius’s death in AD 54, Jews started returning to Rome, but found themselves in the minority.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) [![The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul 182x300 - Exegesis of Romans 8:1-11: Understanding the New Cosmic Reality in Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/The-Holy-Spirit-in-the-Letters-of-Paul-182x300.jpg "Exegesis of Romans 8:1-11: Understanding the New Cosmic Reality in Christ - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3PcZgqo)God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul [](#_ftn5)The events in Rome led to a significant increase in social tensions between Gentiles and Jews, which provide the backdrop of much of Paul’s letter. Specifically, the Gentile and Jewish relationship grounds the analysis and highlights the primary issues of Romans 8:1-11. Gordon Fee explains that in these few verses, Paul emphasizes that both the Jew and Gentile “form one people of God” in a new cosmic reality or eschatological epoch where the Torah has terminated with Christ, but righteousness has continued.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) It is within the overarching concerns of the historical-cultural context that the literary context takes shape. ## Literary Context Although a detailed analysis of grammar, semantics, syntax, and immediate context ensues in the body of the paper, a brief investigation of structure, the broader context, genre, and canonical context provides a framework for the exegetical activity. First, regarding the structure of Romans, Moo suggests six major divisions: (1) the opening (1:1-17), (2) justification by faith (1:18–4:25), (3) the hope of salvation (5:1–8:39), (4) the problem of Israel (9:1–11:36), (5) Christian conduct (12:1-15:13), and (6) the closing (15:14–16:27).[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Accordingly, the passage under investigation fits within the third division, the hope of salvation, that assures eternal life. Second, regarding the surrounding context, Romans 8:1-8 provides a hopeful response to the bondage of law in Romans 7:7-25 since Christ accomplishes what the Law could not. Romans 8:9-11 responds to the bondage of death and sin in Romans 6:1-23, as the Spirit of life liberates the believer from sin and resurrects the believer from the dead. Although Moo acknowledges that most commentators structurally break the verse after verse 11, his preference is to break the passage after verse 13 due to the application and exhortation in the final two verses.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Alternatively, Fee provides the break after verse 17, asserting that verses 14-17 is an elaboration of verses 11-12.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The current research focuses on the mind’s relationship to the new cosmic reality in verses 1-4 that culminates in an eschatological future in verses 9-11 and thus breaks the passage after verse 11 with the majority. Third, regarding genre, Romans is a letter with the requisite opening (Rom 1:1-15) and closing (Rom 15:14–16:27). Although Romans was written for a specific community for a specific purpose, it does not fit the typical occasional letter. In fact, Dunn states, “the distinctiveness of the letter far outweighs the significance of its conformity with current literary or rhetorical custom.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Although written in the form of a letter, Richard Longenecker is likely correct in suggesting that the body of Paul’s letter aligns with a treatise or tractate that expounds on a series of general theological arguments from a mature apostle.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Fourth, regarding canonical context, an inaugurated eschatological reality of new life links Romans 5–8 with the rest of the canon. Specifically, the flesh and Spirit dichotomy in Romans 8:1-11 reflects the thematic element of two realms, the old and the new. Moo explains that in Paul’s letter, he is asserting that believers are “transferred” from one realm to another realm.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) A transfer from a realm of being in Adam to a realm of being in Christ. A transfer from the power of death, law, and sin to the power of life, grace, and righteousness. A transfer that is already present, but not yet complete. ## New Cosmic Reality: Romans 8:1-4 ### Romans 8:1: Condemnation From the start, Paul emphatically transfers believers into a new cosmic reality by harmonizing the forensic and participatory nature of salvation when stating, “There is therefore now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus” (Rom 8:1).[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The “now” provides the impetus for two important observations regarding the transfer. First, Paul’s language highlights the before and after nature of the arguments from the two previous chapters. Specifically, Paul explains that his readers were slaves to sin, but now have been set free (Rom 6:20-22), and that they were living in the flesh, but now they have been released from the law (Rom 7:5-6). Accordingly, the immediate context supports the temporal function of the adverb “now” in the first verse. Second, the temporal nature of “now” represents a transference of the individual in Christ to a new realm where no condemnation exists. Furthermore, Constantine Campbell places the language “in Christ Jesus” into a locative subcategory that describes the new creation status that believers are found, which depicts “realm transference” (see also Rom 6:11; 1 Cor 15:18; 2 Cor 5:17; Gal 3:28; Eph 3:6; 1 Thess 4:16).[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Paul also harmonizes the forensic and participatory nature of salvation in his dense summary statement of the gospel. First, Moo explains that the language of condemnation has a forensic or judicial flavor that designates an estrangement or separation from God.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) An estrangement reflective of the angst of the wretched man who asks, “Who will deliver me from this body of death?” (Rom 7:24). An estrangement resolved only through the condemnation invoked on the body of Christ on the cross, which encourages the emphatic response: “Thanks be to God through Jesus Christ” (Rom 7:25). Second, the realm transference in Christ Jesus accentuates the participatory nature of Paul’s statement. Not only does Christ participate in humanity through the incarnation, but believers are delivered from condemnation by being incorporated into the body of Christ on the cross. Accordingly, Susan Eastman asserts that “even the ‘forensic’ or ‘juridical’ language relies on the participatory notions of human existence in relationship to the realm dominated by sin and death.”[\[16\]](#_ftn16) In other words, the eradication of condemnation relies on the harmonized relationship of the forensic and participatory nature of salvation because, as M. L. Loane states, Christ “was for us in the place of condemnation \[forensically\]; we are in him where all condemnation has spent its force \[participatorily\]” (cf. 2 Cor 5:21).[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Within a few words, Paul has not only affirmed the believer’s new cosmic reality and harmonized the forensic and participatory nature of salvation, but he has also provided the framework for an expanded forthcoming discussion of the old realm of the flesh and the new realm of the Spirit. ### Romans 8:2: Law Paul swiftly moves toward explaining the reason why there is no condemnation in Christ by utilizing the causal conjunction γὰρ. The reason is because (γὰρ) “the law of the Spirit has set you free in Christ Jesus from the law of sin and death” (Rom 8:2). The difficulty begins when attempting to define the meaning of “law” (νόμος) in the phrase “the law of the Spirit” due to its broad semantic range. Furthermore, the risk of the one-meaning fallacy is inherent in the various uses of νόμος in the passage.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) The word, νόμος, could mean the Mosaic law. Moo explains that if the Mosaic law is in view, then Paul is asserting that the Torah has a dual role: (1) in the flesh it is a list of demands that become an instrument of sin (Rom 7:5), but (2) in the Spirit it points to a promise that calls for faith and becomes an instrument of righteousness (Rom 7:10).[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Alternatively, William Arndt, Frederick Danker, and Walter Bauer (BDAG) suggest that νόμος can also mean a governing power, principle, or norm, a statutory legal system, or a collection of holy writings.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) The context of the sentence provides the impetus for the meaning. The law of sin and death in the final phrase coherently aligns with the idea of a principle or power, and it appears Paul is juxtaposing the power of the Spirit and the power of sin and death. Accordingly, Fee concludes that Paul’s dual use of the law is a rhetorical device, a wordplay, to highlight that the law or power of the Spirit is the “divine antidote” to the law or power of sin and death.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Paul’s usage of the law continues the theme of realm transference from the previous verse as the law of sin and death reflect the powers of the old age, while the law of the Spirit reflect the new age, a new cosmic reality in Christ. Two additional interpretive issues need addressed before moving on. First, an introduction to the concept of Spirit is necessary, as it will pervade the remainder of the research. The phrase the Spirit of life first and foremost pertains to the Holy Spirit, the Third Person of the Trinity, a God who is a living God as opposed to all other inanimate gods so often worshipped by humans (1 Thess 1:9-10). God is not only living, but also the source of life, a life that overcomes the power of sin and death. Paul’s language reflects Ezekiel’s reference to breath on the dry bones, “And I will put my Spirit within you, and you shall live” (Ezek 37:15; emphasis added). Importantly, Fee connects the life-giving Spirit with the believer’s position in Christ by explaining that although “Christ’s death provides life for believers,” it is the Spirit that is the “source of that life through the believer’s experience of freedom in Christ – for both Jew and Gentile.”[\[22\]](#_ftn22) A further exploration of the connection between a believer’s status in Christ and the Spirit of life is forthcoming, but, for now, it is noteworthy that the believer’s position in Christ requires the Spirit of life to empower believer’s experience of the new cosmic reality. The remaining interpretive issue pertains to the sense of liberation within the phrase, “the Spirit of life has set you free in Christ Jesus” (Rom 8:2; emphasis added). Some believe that Paul’s freedom refers to justification, a freedom from the penalty of sin, and others believe that sanctification is in view, a freedom from the power of sin. However, the freedom is not restricted to sin, but also encompasses a freedom from death, thus cannot be limited to the penalty or the power of sin. Accordingly, Moo concludes that the liberation that Paul refers to is a cosmic realm transfer, a freedom from the old age to the new.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) The specific methodology of the realm transfer into the new cosmic reality is also in sight. In Romans 7, Paul twice refers to the real problem, it is the “sin that dwells within me” (Rom 7:17, 20). Leander Keck explains that the problem is now solved because “the Spirit now resides where sin had resided.”[\[24\]](#_ftn24) In other words, the realm transfer occurs through the replacement of indwelling sin with the indwelling Spirit, which frees the believer from both the power of sin and death. Keck elaborates on the realm transfer inaugurated by Christ by stating, Paul “assumes that divine Spirit is a more powerful field of force than flesh, sin, or law because he regards the gift of the Spirit as an eschatological event.” An eschatological event that creates an ontological shift, a new creation, that is both now and not yet (2 Cor 5:17). According to Fee, the ontological shift “does not mean sinlessness,” but it “does mean deliverance from its tyrannical hold.”[\[25\]](#_ftn25) The power of sin is broken by the twofold response taken up in the following verses: (1) the work of Christ that is the impetus for the ontological shift and (2) the Spirit of life that fosters the appropriation of the ontological shift in believers. It is the work of Christ that Paul turns to next. ### Romans 8:3-4: Fulfilled Paul’s next two verses may be the most exegetically challenging within the passage under investigation. A syntactical debate revolves around the initial phrase in Romans 8:3, τὸ γὰρ ἀδύνατον τοῦ νόμου ἐν ᾧ ἠσθένει διὰ τῆς σαρκός. Some scholars suggest the phrase is a nominative absolute in apposition to the remainder of the sentence, which assumes the main verb is absent, others suggest the phrase is an anacolouthon, which requires supplying a missing verb regarding what God has done.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) However, Dirk Venter more appropriately asserts that ἀδύνατον is an accusative of respect as follows: “For, with reference to the incapability of the law in which it was weak through the flesh, God – by sending his own son in likeness to sinful flesh, and concerning sin – condemned sin in the flesh.”[\[27\]](#_ftn27) The accusative of respect followed by the two dependent clauses clearly delineates the main clause, “God condemned sin,” and simultaneously, highlights the two problems related to sin: the incapability of the law and the weakness of the flesh, both of which need addressed. First, regarding the law, the context of Romans 7:7-25 and the immediate context serves to suggest that νόμος in Romans 8:3 refers to the Torah, the law that is unable to produce the freedom found only in Christ. Furthermore, sin had another ally, the flesh, which was unable to resist sinful passions because nothing good dwells in the flesh (Rom 7:5, 18). A. T. Robinson succinctly summarizes the partnership by stating, “The law was impotent because it could only be as strong as the flesh … and the flesh was hopelessly under the power of sin.”[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Importantly, Venter notes that the flesh, σάρξ, not only denotes existence in a particular epoch, but also a particular sphere of existence, and, as Paul is about to demonstrate, Christ’s work “makes it possible for those freed by him to also enter into a new sphere of existence.”[\[29\]](#_ftn29) In other words, Christ’s work not only transfers the believer into a new cosmic reality or epoch, but also into a newly created sphere of existence or being, a new ontological reality. The remainder of the verse focuses completely on Christ’s work: “God – by sending his own son in likeness to sinful flesh, and concerning sin – condemned sin in the flesh” (Rom 8:3b). Three significant exegetical issues are at stake: participation, substitution, and incarnation. First, the concern regarding the phrase “in likeness to sinful flesh” pertains to Christ’s sinlessness. Ernst Käsemann points out that Paul’s use of ὁμοίωμα is planned ambivalence.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) In other words, Paul communicates that Christ takes on humanity’s condemnation with full participation, but not in the sense that Christ sinned. Second, the phrase, “concerning sin,” could mean a sin offering or a more general form of atonement. Since the LXX renders “sin offering” from the Hebrew as περὶ ἁμαρτίας, Dunn supports the sacrificial language with its requirement of death because the only remedy for the weakness of the flesh is the death of flesh in the form of a substitute.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) Third, the Adamic Christology is now evident. According to Venter, what Adam began in the old epoch has paved the way for a new epoch, as humanity participated in the sin of the old Adam, believers now participate in the righteousness of the new Adam through Christ’s incarnational participation “in the flesh” (Rom 8:3b).[\[32\]](#_ftn32) In sum, Paul’s description of Christ’s work of sin’s condemnation is, as believer’s realize it, participatory, substitutionary, and incarnational, which effectuates the believer’s transfer into a new cosmic reality and a new ontological existence. Paul now turns to the purpose that God condemned sin through Christ’s work, “In order that the righteous requirement of the law might be fulfilled in us” (Rom 8:4a). The key difficulties pertain to the meaning of “the righteous requirement of the law” and the phrase, “fulfilled in us.” First, Moo provides three options for the meaning of righteous requirement: (1) an ordinance that decrees punishment (Rom 1:32), (2) the free gift of righteousness (Rom 5:16), or (3) the behavior the law requires.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) The vast majority of time, the Greek verb πληρόω, to fulfill, is translated in the LXX with a form of the Hebrew lemma מָלֵא, which is often used to mean completely or “filled to the top” (cf. Josh 3:15).[\[34\]](#_ftn34) The exhaustive nature of the Jewish perspective alongside the immediate behavioral context of the verse that refers to those “who walk … according to the Spirit” (Rom 8:4b) suggests that the third option is most viable. However, the nature of the law and the behavior required by the law need examined. Like the previous verse, the law referred to in Romans 8:4 is the Torah. Paul states later in Romans 13:8, “Owe no one anything, except love each other, for the one who loves another has fulfilled the law” (emphasis added). In sum, the behavior required by the law is love. Venter explains that although believers in Christ are no longer under the demands of the Torah, believers will fulfill the intention of the law of love, as if they were still under it, due to the realm transfer from in Adam to in Christ.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) Three observations are necessary to confirm the assertion. First, regarding righteousness, in reference to Romans 8:3-4 John Calvin states, “The only fulfillment he \[Paul\] alludes to is that which we obtain through imputation. … To declare that by him alone we are accounted righteous, what else is this but to lodge our righteousness in Christ’s obedience, the obedience of Christ is reckoned to us as if it were our own?”[\[36\]](#_ftn36) Certainly, a forensic declaration of righteousness originates via Christ’s work by grace through faith. However, Käsemann notes that Christ’s work extends “anthropologically to the proclamation of a change in existence.”[\[37\]](#_ftn37) In other words, the “as if” language, according to Peter Dubbelman, curtails the reality of the “ontological transformation of the ‘inner being.’”[\[38\]](#_ftn38) In short, the righteous requirement fulfilled in believers moves beyond a forensic declaration and into a new ontological reality that walks according to the new Spirit realm, rather than the old fleshly realm. Second, the aorist passive subjunctive, πληρωθῇ, highlights the divine initiative. God remains the subject who acts by sending His Son and fulfilling the righteous requirement of the law in believers. Moo asserts that the fulfillment occurs through the believer’s union with Christ.[\[39\]](#_ftn39) Furthermore, as Venter explains, although the fulfillment of the law is God’s action and not the believer’s effort, “our own moral involvement is also implied as is clear in the σάρξ-πνεῦμα \[flesh-spirit\] antithesis in Romans 8:4-13.”[\[40\]](#_ftn40) The relationship between God’s fulfillment of the righteous requirement (love) and the believer’s moral involvement (loving) is significantly expanded in verses 5-7. However, for now, the key issue is that God fulfills the requirement of the law through the believer’s new ontological reality in Christ, and simultaneously, believers are intimately involved in walking in the new realm of the Spirit. Third, the nominative singular, δικαίωμα, suggests that the requirement, not the requirements, of the law is fulfilled. The idea of keeping the multiple commandments of the Torah is no longer in view, instead the law is fulfilled through love, the single requirement of the law. In sum, the believer’s participation in the new cosmic reality in Christ sets the stage for God to fulfill the requirement of the law of love. Next, Paul addresses the relationship between God’s initiative and the believer’s responsibility in fulfilling the righteous requirement of the law. ## New Cognitive Reality: Romans 8:5-8 ### Romans 8:5: Mind and Spirit Paul now shifts his emphasis toward cognition, not in attempt to provide new information, but instead, to elaborate on the previous verse that focuses on the believer’s walk in the Spirit: “For those who live according to the flesh set their minds on the things of the flesh, but those who live according to the Spirit set their minds on the things of the Spirit” (Romans 8:5). Three specific exegetical issues need addressed prior to synthesizing Paul’s cognitive focus with his behavioral reference in verse 4. First, Moo provides an important reminder that the contrast between flesh and Spirit is a distinction between two realms, the old and the new.[\[41\]](#_ftn41) In other words, Paul is addressing the incompatibility of the two cosmic realities. Furthermore, Verena Schafroth highlights that existing in the new cosmic reality means that “believers are now given the choice where beforehand it was impossible not to sin.”[\[42\]](#_ftn42) In sum, the Spirit realm makes the righteous requirement of the law, love, possible. Second, the verb “to set one’s mind,” φρονέω, has a broad semantic range. BDAG suggests that φρονέω can mean to think, judge, hold an opinion, give careful consideration, be intent, or develop an attitude based on thoughts.[\[43\]](#_ftn43) The context of the verse, which pulls from the behavioral aspects of verse 4, suggests the meaning of φρονέω expands beyond the narrow focus of cognition. Moo suggests that, whether in the verb or noun form, the meaning of φρονέω encompasses “all the faculties of the soul – reason, understanding, and affection.”[\[44\]](#_ftn44) Accordingly, scholars suggest the idea of “mindset,” which involves the entire belief system of the believer. Third, Paul’s language is descriptive, rather than imperatival, as evidenced by the indicative mood of φρονοῦσιν. Fee recognizes that, although commentators often assert that flesh and Spirit are two rival forces warring against each other, the “assertion lacks any basis in the text.”[\[45\]](#_ftn45) The lack of imperatives highlight the active nature of the Spirit, and reinforce the passive nature of God fulfilling the righteous requirement of the law in verse 4. Paul’s synthesis between cognition and behavior now needs addressed. The link between cognition and behavior is rooted in both Greek and Roman philosophy as well as Jewish sources. Craig Keener notes that the Stoics believed that cognitive distortions resulted in unhealthy emotions, but correct thinking led to virtuous action.[\[46\]](#_ftn46) The philosophy of the Stoics mirrors much of modern psychology’s emphasis on cognitive behavioral therapy, where thoughts and beliefs determine emotions and actions. Furthermore, Keener explains that both Stoics and Jewish sources divided humanity into two “ideal types,” the foolish and the wise, just as Paul divides humanity into two types.[\[47\]](#_ftn47) The question is whether Paul’s perspective is distinct from Greek and Jewish thought. Paul’s synthesis of cognition and behavior is distinct from Greek and Jewish sources in three ways. First, as opposed to dividing humanity into the foolish and wise, Paul divided humanity into being in the flesh, in Adam, or being in the Spirit, in Christ. In other words, Paul rejected an anthropological initiative that focused on whether an individual was foolish or wise, and instead, he asserted an eschatological initiative that focused on whether the individual had been transferred into a new cosmic reality. Second, like Greek and Jewish thought, Fee explains that Paul does not start with behavior, but with the underlying beliefs and thoughts that lead to emotional and behavioral change.[\[48\]](#_ftn48) However, the difference between Greek and Jewish thought pertains to the source behind the mind shift. Keener underscores the distinction by stating that Paul is not just referring to a “frame of mind that accords with God’s but one that is inspired or activated by God.”[\[49\]](#_ftn49) In sum, without God’s divine initiative, it is not possible to embrace the new cosmic reality cognitively. Third, and most importantly, the divine initiative is the key to synthesizing cognition and behavior in the new cosmic realm. Keener again provides clarification, “Although Christ’s death and resurrection have been completed, God’s Spirit applies this reality to believers in the present,” thus “the one who trusts in Christ’s work for being put right forensically should also trust in Christ’s work for being put right behaviorally.”[\[50\]](#_ftn50) God fulfills the righteous requirement of the law, the law of love, as the believer’s mind appropriates the ontological shift within a new cosmic reality empowered by the Spirit. Thus, Dubbleman states, “This new creation life inextricably and inexplicably links a Christian’s being and doing, belief and obedience.”[\[51\]](#_ftn51) Paul now turns to the results of the flesh and Spirit mindset. ### Romans 8:6: Life and Peace Although some suggest that Paul begins again with an explanatory “for,” others suggest a continuative, but the orientation toward results leans towards the former: “For to set the mind on the flesh is death, but to set the mind on the Spirit is life and peace” (Rom 8:6). The “mind” in this verse comes from the same Greek root as φρονέω above, thus is not limited to cognition, but engages a broad spectrum of the soul, a mindset. Furthermore, the flesh and Spirit continue to represent different cosmic realms, the old age and the new age, respectively. Thus, the exegetical analysis will primarily focus on the meaning of “death” and the meaning of “life and peace.” First, regarding death, the result of sin is death (Rom 5:12), which is in the flesh (Rom 8:3). Moo notes that the death referred to by Paul is death in the broadest sense, and includes eschatological condemnation that occurs with individuals who exist in the flesh, and thus set their minds on the flesh.[\[52\]](#_ftn52) As noted above, the Spirit of life is the Spirit of God, who is the source and sustainer of all life. Accordingly, Fee, in agreement with Moo, asserts that life is the eschatological life inaugurated by Christ whose reconciling work precipitated the believer’s peace with God.[\[53\]](#_ftn53) In other words, Paul’s focus here is on the objective work of Christ through whom life and peace with God exist within the new cosmic realm of the Spirit. However, the question remains as to whether peace may have a subjective component. During the Second Temple period, both Greek philosophers and Jewish thinkers spoke of an internal tranquility as peace, which may support a nuanced meaning of Paul’s text. For example, under the influence of Aristotle, orthodox Stoicism believed that virtue is a state of mind that need not be unnecessarily activated.[\[54\]](#_ftn54) Furthermore, the Jewish philosopher, Philo, notes that the wise man is undisturbed by the storms of life, and instead, enjoys peace during the storms.[\[55\]](#_ftn55) Keener also suggests that Paul may be pulling from Old Testament passages where the mind that puts faith and trust in God experiences peace (see Isa 26:2-12; Ps 78:22).[\[56\]](#_ftn56) In addition to the individual subjective experience of peace is the possibility of experiencing communal peace. Considering the context of Paul’s letter, it is not unreasonable that Paul may have had in mind a peace that extends to the entire community, both Jews and Gentiles. Regardless, the subjective nature of peace may include both reconciliation with God and internal tranquility, as the two concepts are not incompatible. The point is that the Spirit-empowered mind that appropriates the new cosmic reality into cognitive and behavioral righteousness experiences both life and peace, a peace that may include both an objective and subjective component. Next, Paul concludes his analysis of cognition by explaining why the fleshly mind leads to death. ### Romans 8:7-8: Flesh and Hostility Paul uses the next two verses to explain why the mind of the flesh leads to death, and to contrast the life of the Spirit in Romans 8:9-11: “For the mind that is set on the flesh is hostile to God, for it does not submit to God’s law; indeed, it cannot. Those who are in the flesh cannot please God” (Rom 8:7-8). Again, the mind set on the flesh pertains to those who exist in the flesh, the old realm in Adam. As noted, the righteous requirement of the law is love, which is impossible for those existing in the realm of the flesh to extend, thus pleasing God is also impossible. Some may resist the notion that unbelievers have no capacity to love. However, as Moo states, “All people, by nature derived from Adam, are incurably ‘bent’ toward their own good rather than the good of others or of God.”[\[57\]](#_ftn57) Although Paul’s logic regarding unbelievers may appear extreme, it is completely coherent. Individuals in the realm of the flesh attempt to define and enhance their ontological reality via anthropological initiatives. The potential initiatives are varied: riches, power, pleasure, and success to name a few. As long as the individual exists in the realm of the flesh, even the most “loving” act pursues the impossible agenda of enhancing the unbeliever’s sinful ontology that exists in the Adamic realm. Alternatively, the ontological reality of those in the realm of the Spirit relies on divine initiatives. Unlike those in the flesh, a believer who exists in the new ontological reality in Christ lacks nothing. Accordingly, the believer who appropriates the new reality extends a divinely initiated love with no need for reciprocation, which pleases God. Paul now optimistically turns from those in the flesh to those in the Spirit. ## New Eschatological Reality: Romans 8:9-11 ### Romans 8:9: Indwelling Paul moves in a new direction by providing a transition between Romans 8:5-8 and 8:10-11 that specifically addresses the Christians in Rome: “You, however, are not in the flesh but in the Spirit, if in fact the Spirit of God dwells in you. Anyone who does not have the Spirit of Christ does not belong to him” (Rom 8:9). Besides the affirmation to the Roman Christians that they exist in the Spirit realm, two other issues are worth noting. First, and the least difficult, is Paul’s conditional language that appears to question whether the Spirit dwells in the Roman Christians, “If in fact the Spirit of God dwells in you” (Rom 8:9a). However, the context seems to suggest that the conditional conjunction εἴπερ means “since” rather than “if” due to the previous emphatic negation of the “in flesh” reality of Paul’s audience.[\[58\]](#_ftn58) The second issue pertains to the language of flesh and Spirit. As mentioned, “in the flesh” represents the old realm and dwelling “in the Spirit” represents the new realm, a realm transfer that initiates a new ontological reality. However, the question remains as to how the believer can ontologically exist in the new realm, yet simultaneously behave as if remaining in the old. Dunn attempts to resolve the issue by claiming that the believer experiences an orientation shift, not an ontological transformation, and thus the flesh is still a factor.[\[59\]](#_ftn59) Alternatively, Anders Nygren attempts to resolve the problem by suggesting that the believer continues under the influence of both the flesh, via the outer man, and the Spirit, via the inner man.[\[60\]](#_ftn60) However, the context of the verse seems to assert that believers are “in the Spirit” and unbelievers are “in the flesh.” Ontological transformation can occur without perfectly consistent behavior. For example, a Caucasian man does not stop being Caucasian even if he behaves as a rabid dog. According to Fee, the reason Christians behave as if they continue to exist in the old realm is not due to the absence of a new ontological reality, but because the believer has not engaged in an “experiential appropriation” of the new reality.[\[61\]](#_ftn61) As the Spirit empowers the believer to appropriate the new reality into a cognitive and behavioral righteousness, he becomes who he is. Paul now turns toward bridging a present eschatological reality with a future eschatological reality. ### Romans 8:10: Righteousness Numerous difficulties face the interpreter in Paul’s tightly packed verse: “But if Christ is in you, although the body is dead because of sin, the Spirit is life because of righteousness” (Romans 8:10). An important exegetical observation will be followed by addressing three lexical difficulties: the meaning of body, spirit, and righteousness. Regarding the observation, Paul’s language has made a Christological shift. Paul seems to reference the Spirit, the Spirit of God, and the Spirit of Christ interchangeably, which, according to Moo, reveals a “practical trinitarianism.”[\[62\]](#_ftn62) Accordingly, the realm of the Spirit, realm of Christ, and realm of God can all be considered part of the new cosmic reality without further ado. The first difficulty is the meaning of “the body is dead because of sin” (Rom 8:10b). The question is whether the body is a physical body. A body being dead to sin could mean that the body is not affected by the power of sin (Rom 6:11). However, the preposition plus the accusative διὰ ἁμαρτίαν appears causal, thus indicating reason. Accordingly, Jan Lambrecht concludes, “The body of the Christian is not yet dead, but because of sin it is going to die” (Rom 5:12).[\[63\]](#_ftn63) Further, the context of the following verse referring to the mortality of the body also supports Lambrecht’s conclusion. The second difficulty is whether the word πνεῦμα in the phrase “Spirit is life” is meant in an anthropological sense or a reference to the Holy Spirit. The direct contrast between the μὲν/δὲ clauses, the body is dead, but the spirit is life, supports an anthropological view whereby Paul juxtaposes the human spirit with the physical body. However, Moo appropriately points out that the word πνεῦμα in Romans 8 consistently refers to the Holy Spirit, and the literary context of the following verse, which explains how the Holy Spirit provides life, solidifies the meaning of πνεῦμα as the Third Person of the Trinity.[\[64\]](#_ftn64) It is difficult to miss the overtones of inaugurated eschatology in the language of body, a body that is now physically dying but not yet resurrected, and in the language of the Spirit, a Spirit that is now actively transforming the believer but not yet completely. The third difficulty pertains to the meaning of the phrase “because of righteousness.” The nature of the causal construction provides the resolution to the dilemma. According to Daniel Wallace, διὰ with the use of the accusative, as in διὰ δικαιοσύνην, can mean “because of,” “on account of,” or “for the sake of.”[\[65\]](#_ftn65) Paul could mean the Spirit is life “because of”’ the gift of righteousness through the work of Christ, or the Spirit is life “for the sake of” righteous behavior. Although both renderings fit the context of the passage, Fee is likely correct in asserting that the Spirit is life because of the gift of righteousness due to the immediate context of the now and not yet eschatological existence.[\[66\]](#_ftn66) In sum, although the believer’s physical bodies are destined to a physical death, the Spirit gives life to individuals dwelling in the new cosmic reality both “now and forever because of the righteousness that Christ has effected for you.”[\[67\]](#_ftn67) Paul now moves decisively toward a final “not yet.” ### Romans 8:11: Resurrection Paul finishes his short exploration of the Spirit by transporting the believer from a new present cosmic reality to a future eschatological resurrection: “If the Spirit of him who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, he who raised Christ Jesus from the dead will also give life to your mortal bodies through his Spirit who dwells in you” (Rom 8:11). Two important topics need addressed. First, the relationship between Christ’s resurrection and the believer’s resurrection needs cultivated. Dunn highlights Paul’s emphatic repetition of raising Jesus from the dead and its intimate relationship with the resurrection of the believer.[\[68\]](#_ftn68) In other words, the same God that raised Christ from the dead also raises believers who are in Christ from the dead. Furthermore, Paul’s words are a reminder of the participatory language of death and resurrection in Romans 6:5, “For if we have been united with him in a death like his, we shall certainly be united with him in a resurrection like his.” The new cosmic reality connects the believer’s ontological existence with Christ’s existence through a double death and resurrection. Further, the references to the body and mortality in verses 10-11 suggest that the type of resurrection pertains to the physical body. Accordingly, Fee concludes, “The body, which is destined for death because of sin, is also destined to be raised to life because of Christ’s resurrection.”[\[69\]](#_ftn69) The second topic is the controversy surrounding the role of the Spirit in resurrection. The question at hand is whether the Spirit is the means of resurrection. On the one hand, Moo asserts that God raised Jesus from the dead, but the Spirit “is the instrument by whom God raises the body.”[\[70\]](#_ftn70) On the other hand, Fee emphatically denies that “God raised Christ by means of the Spirit.”[\[71\]](#_ftn71) Considering the unity of the Godhead, the argument seems somewhat unnecessary.[\[72\]](#_ftn72) In sum, if the indwelling Spirit places the believer into a new cosmic reality in Christ, then if Christ dies, then the believer dies, and if Christ raises, then the believer raises. The ultimate culmination of Christ’s death and resurrection is the believer’s future bodily death and resurrection. ## Application Every human has one basic need: personal worth. Humanity will stop at nothing to obtain it. Larry Crabb asserts that two inputs are necessary for personal worth, “significance (purpose, importance, adequacy for a job, meaningfulness, impact) and security (love – unconditional and consistently expressed; permanent acceptance).”[\[73\]](#_ftn73) The problem is that the world’s currency for the inputs of significance and security is counterfeit. For example, a businessman may attempt to find personal worth in his performance at work, but inevitably the performance will wane, or worse, the man will become a workaholic in a futile attempt to prove his significance. A young woman may try to find security in a husband, but the very attempt in “getting” the man to fulfill her need of security creates the codependence that will likely destroy the relationship. Furthermore, until the basic need of personal worth is met, the individual has no capacity to love because all efforts in potential selflessness ultimately revolve around selfishly fulfilling the unmet need. For example, even the most “loving” gesture, when wrapped up in finding significance in the act or finding security in the approval of others, not only fails at meeting the basic human need but also fails at loving others because the focus remains on the self. The problem of humanity’s unmet need of significance and security cannot be met by changing thoughts, changing behaviors, changing jobs, or changing relationships. The only solution is an ontological change, a new being that no longer needs to find significance and security because it already exists in the new cosmic realm. No amount of performance can cause the believer to be more significant. No amount of money or relational prowess can increase the believer’s security. However, the believer has the opportunity to allow the Spirit to empower the appropriation of the new cosmic reality into a cognitive and behavioral righteousness. The believer’s behavior then meets the righteous requirement of the law that extends love with no required reciprocation to meet the need of personal worth. In the new cosmic realm, obedience is powered by God’s divine initiative, and love is powered by Love. ## Conclusion In less than a dozen verses, the Apostle Paul explains the believer’s new cosmic reality in Christ, the relationship between the believer’s cognition and the new reality, and the ultimate eschatological destination of the believer who exists in the new cosmic realm. Without question, Romans 8:1-11 contends that a Spirit-empowered mind that appropriates the believer’s new cosmic reality leads to a cognitive and behavioral righteousness that ultimately culminates in the believer’s bodily resurrection. A proper understanding of the connection between a believer’s mind and the new cosmic reality in Christ not only frees the believer from the tyranny of the counterfeit currency of the world, but the realm transfer lands the believer in a new ontological reality that provides the significance and security necessary to meet the primary need of personal worth. Finally, since the primary need is satisfied, the believer now has the capacity to extend unconditional and unreciprocated love to God and others through a divine, rather than human, initiative. Further research regarding the relationship between cognition and the new cosmic realm in Second Temple literature, the Old Testament, and other books of the New Testament may be beneficial in illuminating Paul’s concepts in his short, but quite robust, passage in Romans. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) James D. G. Dunn, Romans 1-8, vol. 38A of Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas: Word, 1988), xliii–xliv. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Douglas Moo, Romans, The NIV Application Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 18. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Suetonius, The Life of Claudius 25.4. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Dunn, Romans 1-8, xlviii-xlix. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Douglas Moo, “Romans,” in Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Romans to Philemon, ed. Clinton E. Arnold (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), 3:8. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Gordon D. Fee, God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1994), 515–16. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Douglas J. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996), 33–35. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Moo, The Epistle, 472. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 518. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Dunn, Romans 1-8, lix. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Richard N. Longenecker, The Epistle to the Romans: A Commentary on the Greek Text, ed. I. Howard Marshall and Donald A. Hagner, New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2016), 3–4. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Moo, The Epistle, 352. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the English Standard Version (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Constantine R. Campbell, Paul and Union with Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 115–20. The preposition ἐν, in the phrase ἐν Χριστῷ, has a broad semantic range. The locative subcategory denotes being in a certain place or location. Other senses include a state or condition, telical, associative, instrumental, agency, circumstantial, recognition, purpose, time, kind, and substance. Campbell, Paul and Union, 69. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Moo, The Epistle, 472–73. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Susan G. Eastman, “Oneself in Another: Participation and the Spirit in Romans 8,” in “In Christ” in Paul: Explorations in Paul’s Theology of Union and Participation, ed. Michael J. Thate, Kevin J. Vanhoozer, and Constantine R. Campbell (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2014), 110. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) M. L. Loane, The Hope of Glory: An Exposition of the Eighth Chapter in the Epistle to the Romans (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1968), 15. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) See Grant R. Osborne, The Hermeneutical Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation, 2nd ed. (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2006), 90–91. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Moo, Romans, 473–74. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) William Arndt, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 677–78. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 522–23. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 526. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Moo, The Epistle, 476–77. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Leander E. Keck, “The Law of ‘The Law of Sin and Death’ (Romans 8:1-4): Reflections on the Spirit and Ethics in Paul,” in The Divine Helmsman: Studies on God’s Control of Human Events, Presented to Lou H. Silberman, ed. James L. Crenshaw and Samuel Sandmel (New York: KTAV, 1980), 50. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 526. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) For an analysis asserting the nominative absolute, see Robert Jewett, Romans: A Commentary (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2006), 482. For an analysis asserting an anacolouthon, see Moo, The Epistle, 477–78n37. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Dirk J. Venter, “Romans 8:3-4 and God’s Resolution of the Threefold Problems of Sin, the Incapability of the Law and the Weakness of the Flesh,” In Die Skriflig 48, no. 1 (2014): 3; emphasis added. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) John A. T. Robinson, Wrestling with Romans (London: SCM, 1979), 94. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Venter, “Romans 8:3-4” 4. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Ernst Käsemann, Commentary on Romans, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (London: SCM, 1980), 217. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Dunn, Romans 1-8, 422. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Venter, “Romans 8:3-4,” 6. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Moo, The Epistle, 481. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) L. A. Snijders and Heinz-Josef Fabry, “מָלֵא,” in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, ed. G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, trans. Douglas W. Stott (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1997), 298. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Dirk J. Venter, “The Requirement of the Law Fulfilled in Romans 8:4,” In Die Skriflig 48, no. 1 (2014): 3. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2008), 491; emphasis added. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Käsemann, Commentary on Romans, 29. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Dubbelman, “God’s New Creation in Romans 8:4,” Southeastern Theological Review 9, no. 1 (Spring 2018): 48. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) Moo, The Epistle, 484. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Venter, “The Requirement,” 2. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) Moo, The Epistle, 486. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Verena Schafroth, “Romans 8: The Chapter of the Spirit,” Journal of the European Pentecostal Theological Association 30, no. 1 (2010): 84. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Arndt, Danker, and Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon, 1065–66. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Moo, The Epistle, 487. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 539 note 194. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) Craig S. Keener, The Mind of the Spirit: Paul’s Approach to Transformed Thinking (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016), 120–23. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) Ibid., 122–26. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48) Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 541. [\[49\]](#_ftnref49) Keener, The Mind, 127. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50) Ibid., 133–34. [\[51\]](#_ftnref51) Dubbelman, “God’s New Creation,” 69–70. [\[52\]](#_ftnref52) Moo, The Epistle, 487. [\[53\]](#_ftnref53) Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 541–42. See also Moo, The Epistle, 488. [\[54\]](#_ftnref54) Troels Engberg-Pedersen, Paul and the Stoics (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2000), 51. [\[55\]](#_ftnref55) Philo, The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged in One Volume, trans. C. D. Yonge (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2011), 404. [\[56\]](#_ftnref56) Keener, The Mind, 138–39. [\[57\]](#_ftnref56) Moo, The Epistle, 489. [\[58\]](#_ftnref56) See also Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 369. [\[59\]](#_ftnref59) Dunn, Romans 1-8, 428. [\[60\]](#_ftnref60) Anders Nygen, Commentary on Romans (Philadelphia: Muhlenberg, 1949), 322. [\[61\]](#_ftnref61) Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 854. [\[62\]](#_ftnref62) Moo, The Epistle, 491. [\[63\]](#_ftnref63) Jan Lambrecht, “Style and Content: A Note on Romans 8:10,” Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses 86, no. 1 (January 2010): 173. [\[64\]](#_ftnref64) Moo, The Epistle, 492. [\[65\]](#_ftnref65) Wallace, Greek Grammar, 369. [\[66\]](#_ftnref66) Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 552. [\[67\]](#_ftnref67) Ibid. [\[68\]](#_ftnref68) Dunn, Romans 1-8, 432–33. [\[69\]](#_ftnref69) Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 552. [\[70\]](#_ftnref70) Moo, The Epistle, 493. [\[71\]](#_ftnref71) Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 553. [\[72\]](#_ftnref72) The point is moot due to the trinitarian inseparability axiom, which asserts that the Son and Spirit are other than God, but “regarded as inseparably one with him in his eternal being.” Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013), 302. [\[73\]](#_ftnref73) Larry Crabb, Effective Biblical Counseling: A Model for Helping Caring Christians Become Capable Counselors (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 62–63. ## Bibliography - Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. - Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Translated by Henry Beveridge. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2008. - Campbell, Constantine R. Paul and Union with Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. - Crabb, Larry. Effective Biblical Counseling: A Model for Helping Caring Christians Become Capable Counselors. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013. - Dubbelman, Peter. “God’s New Creation in Romans 8:4.” Southeastern Theological Review 9, no. 1 (Spring 2018): 47–76. - Dunn, James D. G. Romans 1-8. Vol. 38A in Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word, 1988. - Eastman, Susan G. “Oneself in Another: Participation and the Spirit in Romans 8.” In “In Christ” in Paul: Explorations in Paul’s Theology of Union and Participation, edited by Michael J. Thate, Kevin J. Vanhoozer, and Constantine R. Campbell. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2014. - Engberg-Pedersen, Troels. Paul and the Stoics. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2000. - Erickson, Millard J. Christian Theology. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013. - Fee, Gordon D. God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1994. - Jewett, Robert. Romans: A Commentary. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2006. - Käsemann, Ernst. Commentary on Romans. Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. London: SCM, 1980. - Keck, Leander E. “The Law of ‘The Law of Sin and Death’ (Romans 8:1-4): Reflections on the Spirit and Ethics in Paul.” In The Divine Helmsman: Studies on God’s Control of Human Events, Presented to Lou H. Silberman, edited by James L. Crenshaw and Samuel Sandmel, 41–57. New York: KTAV, 1980. - Keener, Craig S. The Mind of the Spirit: Paul’s Approach to Transformed Thinking. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016. - Lambrecht, Jan. “Style and Content: A Note on Romans 8:10.” Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses 86, no. 1 (January 2010): 171–76. - Loane, M. L. The Hope of Glory: An Exposition of the Eighth Chapter in the Epistle to the Romans. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1968. - Longenecker, Richard N. The Epistle to the Romans: A Commentary on the Greek Text. Edited by I. Howard Marshall and Donald A. Hagner. New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2016. - Moo, Douglas. Romans. The NIV Application Commentary ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Romans.” In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Romans to Philemon, edited by Clinton E. Arnold. Vol. 3. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. The Epistle to the Romans. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996. - Nygen, Anders. Commentary on Romans. Philadelphia: Muhlenberg, 1949. - Osborne, Grant R. The Hermeneutical Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation. 2nd ed. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2006. - Philo. The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged in One Volume. Translated by C. D. Yonge. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2011. - Robinson, John A. T. Wrestling with Romans. London: SCM, 1979. - Schafroth, Verena. “Romans 8: The Chapter of the Spirit.” Journal of the European Pentecostal Theological Association 30, no. 1 (2010): 80–90. - Snijders, L. A., and Heinz-Josef Fabry. “מָלֵא.” In Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, edited by G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, translated by Douglas W. Stott. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1997. - Venter, Dirk J. “Romans 8:3-4 and God’s Resolution of the Threefold Problems of Sin, the Incapability of the Law and the Weakness of the Flesh.” In Die Skriflig 48, no. 1 (2014): 1–7. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “The Requirement of the Law Fulfilled in Romans 8:4.” In Die Skriflig 48, no. 1 (2014): 1–7. - Wallace, Daniel B. Greek Grammar beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Knowing Jesus through the Old Testament Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/knowing-jesus-through-the-old-testament-book-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Knowing Jesus through the Old Testament Book Review Christopher Wright’s book, *Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament*, transports readers through the Old Testament on a journey to find the heart and mind of Jesus. Wright is a prolific writer with a Ph.D. from Cambridge and currently the director of international ministries for Lanham Partnership International.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Wright recognizes that for the last two thousand years, an ongoing debate ensued regarding the relationship between the Old Testament and a proper understanding of Jesus. However, no scholarly consensus exists as to the exact nature of the Old Testament’s relevance to Christ. Until an understanding of the connection crystalizes, the message of Christ is in peril. Wright’s book provides a succinct and accessible answer to the relationship between Christ and the Old Testament that is both enlightening and edifying. The following analysis provides a brief summary and critical interaction with Wright’s work. ## **Brief Summary** Wright makes the thesis and purpose of *Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament* very clear. Wright explains that the entire book contends that a proper understanding of Jesus occurs only when students “clearly face up to the distinctive claims of the Hebrew scriptures.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Moreover, Wright compliments his thesis by stating, the whole purpose is “to see how much Jesus was shaped in his identity, mission, and teaching by his Hebrew scriptures.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) With these two foci in mind, the author commences with Matthew’s genealogy. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 66 182x300 - Knowing Jesus through the Old Testament Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-66-182x300.jpg "Knowing Jesus through the Old Testament Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3WhF1vz)Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament (Knowing God Through the Old Testament Set) According to Wright, Matthew wants the reader to view and understand Jesus through hundreds of years of Old Testament salvation history. As the author briefly reflects on the experiences beginning with Abraham and commencing to the reign of the Roman Empire, it becomes clear that Matthew’s genealogy requires an exploration of Christ’s redemption in opposing directions. In other words, reflecting on the Old Testament adds meaning to Christ, and simultaneously, reflecting on Christ adds meaning to the Old Testament. It is here that Wright first introduces his view of Israel, which rejects both the Two-Covenant Theory and strict supersessionism. Instead, Wright asserts Israel’s history was a particular vehicle for God’s universal blessing to all nations, just as through a particular Man, “God opened the way to the universalizing of his redemptive grace to all nations.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The connection point between Israel and Jesus is through God’s covenant promises. Although Wright believes in the fulfillment of the original promises, he contends that God’s covenant promises, as originally understood, evolve and adopt additional levels of meaning and fulfillment, “but still with continuity of meaning and function in line with the original promise.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Ultimately, according to Wright, the fulfillments of God’s promises culminate in Christ as evidenced through the influence of the Old Testament on Jesus’s identity, mission, and values. After a brief excursus into the value and limitations of typology, Wright explores the identity of Jesus as the Son of God stating, “It was the Old Testament which helped *Jesus* to understand Jesus.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Accordingly, as the embodiment of Israel, Jesus’s obedience proved that Israel could finally fulfill God’s universal goal of blessing all nations through His redemptive work. Wright then addresses the mission of Christ’s redemptive work by using the Old Testament references to the Son of Man and Suffering Servant, which again, the author identifies originally with Israel, then extends to all nations, and finally, applies to modern Christians. Wright finishes his work by connecting Jesus’s ethical teaching to the Old Testament by highlighting the relational aspect of the law, presenting a number of motivations for obedience, and summarizing Christ’s values as follows: (1) “God comes first,” (2) “persons matter more than things,” and (3) “needs matter more than rights.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) ## **Critical Interaction** Wright’s thesis is that a proper understanding of Christ exists only in light of Old Testament scriptures, for “the deeper you go into understanding the *Old Testament*, the closer you come to the heart of Jesus.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Wright’s ultimate goal is to prove his thesis, which he accomplishes in three significant ways. First, the author describes the genealogy of Christ and Christ’s relationship to the Old Testament through the lens of Matthew’s Gospel. Matthew’s genealogy provides an important continuity between the Old Testament and Christ by focusing attention on the story of redemption for all nations commencing with Israel and finding its completion in Christ. However, Wright notes that Matthew’s references to five prophetic childhood scenes of Christ actually move beyond a story that Jesus completes and “also declares the promise that Jesus fulfills.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Accordingly, Wright’s second argument features the importance of God’s covenantal promises in the Old Testament and their relationship to Christ. Specifically, Wright explains that God’s covenants had dual levels of fulfillment. Initially, Israel had to understand God’s covenant promises in light of their current reality, but the ultimate fulfillment of the promises occurred in Christ “at a different level of reality”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Finally, the author shows that placing Jesus within Israel’s story and God’s covenantal promises provide a deeper understanding of Christ’s identity, mission, and values. By utilizing the story of Israel that Jesus completes, the covenants of God that Jesus fulfills, and the identity, mission, and values of God that Jesus embodies, Wright effectively proves that a strong knowledge of the Old Testament scriptures is essential to a proper understanding of Christ. Three important theological issues exist that accentuate Wright’s biblical perspectives, which include his views regarding atonement, Christology, and grace. First, Wright rejects the Two Covenant Theory, which claims that the new covenant of Christ applies exclusively to Gentiles, for three reasons: (1) it neglects the fact that Jesus’s identity originated from Israel for Israel; (2) it fails to acknowledge the connection between Jesus’s mission to Israel and the redemption of Gentiles; and (3) it undermines the New Testament concept that God created one new humanity (see Eph. 2:15-16).[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Wright provides a strong argument against the Two Covenant Theory. However, Wright’s weakness is that he does not clearly define his views in light of alternative perspectives. Certainly, reflections of supersessionism exist and a literal eschatological fulfillment in the nation of Israel is absent, but in light of the author’s desire to write a book to non-experts without footnotes, it seems imprudent to ignore a direct response to the specific alternative views in light of his own views. Second, Wright’s view of Christology encompasses an identification with Israel that reflects a lower form of Christology without appearing to usurp the deity of Christ. First, Wright states that “the Messiah ‘was’ Israel.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) However, Wright does not mean a completely integrated identification. Instead, Christ is both “*distinct* from Israel,” and simultaneously a personified representative “*identified* with Israel” to accomplish Israel’s original mission.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Next, Wright highlights Christ’s humanity by stating, “In wrestling with the future direction of his own calling, Jesus accepts that the values, priorities, and convictions of his own life must be shaped by the words of Moses to Israel.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Both the “wrestling” and the “shaping” referred to by Wright may cause readers to interpret Wright as undermining Christ’s divinity. However, to suggest that Christ did not wrestle with issues and that surrounding influences did not shape Jesus’s responses would, just as likely, undermine Christ’s humanity. Again, the risk Wright faces is a potential lack of clarity when he faces theological issues addressed to a lay audience. Finally, Wright’s view of the law negates any possibility that its intent was ever to achieve salvation by stating, “Obedience flows from grace; it does not buy it.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) In other words, God provided the law within a relational environment of grace that benefits Israel. However, Wright runs into challenges when explaining that the motivations for obedience are thanking God for what He has done, imitating God, being different, and making humanity happy.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) John Piper highlights the risk of obedience motivated by gratitude in what he terms a “debtor’s ethic,” which has a tendency to create “subtle forms of religious self-reliance.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Next, Wright correctly asserts that obedience does move toward an imitation of God, sets individuals apart, and benefits them, but if these are the motivations for obedience, grace may risk falling into a morass of human effort and selfish personal fulfillment. In other words, if the motivation for obedience is not solely and directly empowered by grace and grace alone, humanity risks, as Karl Barth states, the illusion of setting “ourselves by the side of God, with the intention of doing something for Him.”[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Accordingly, although Wright’s arguments for grace are strong, he may undermine his own work by not addressing the risks of his related assertions of motivation adequately. A number of published reviews of *Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament* exist*.* First, Stanley Horton quickly summarizes Wright’s content and then acknowledges that the author sympathizes with liberal higher critics, reflects a replacement theology, and supports a figurative rather than literal fulfillment of Israel; the latter Horton believes Wright overestimates. [\[19\]](#_ftn19) Next, V. Philips Long supports Wright’s organization of the text, integration of Jesus into the Old Testament narrative, and circumvention of Messianic proof-texts while, simultaneously, extending a high recommendation. [\[20\]](#_ftn20) William Dyrness supports Wright’s continuity between Israel and Christ, emphasis of promise over prediction, and importance of mission to both Israel and the Gentiles. [\[21\]](#_ftn21) Fourth, William Sailer’s review highlights Matthew’s genealogy, Jesus’s identity in relation to Israel and beyond, as well as the book’s opposition to the Two Covenant Theory and a literal restoration of Israel, while acknowledging that Wright proves his thesis. [\[22\]](#_ftn22) Finally, Frank Thielman briefly summarizes Wright’s work noting that the author avoids a literal fulfillment of prophecy, and instead, recognizes the Old Testament has a “transformable quality” allowing for fulfillments in new ways.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Thielman then analyzes Wright’s work within the context of two other important books written on similar subjects. The two other books are *Jesus and Israel: One Covenant or Two?* by David Holwerda and *The Messiah in the Old Testament* by Walter Kaiser. Similar to Wright, Holwerda contends that Jesus, as Israel, finished the mission Israel failed to complete and that a literal fulfillment of each Old Testament prophecy is not necessary – the fulfillment may occur in ways “different from those in which they were originally understood.”[\[24\]](#_ftn24) However, in opposition to Wright, Holwerda asserts that unbelieving Jews somehow live within God’s salvific sphere.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Furthermore, in complete contrast to Wright, Kaiser’s literal approach identifies and analyzes each potentially Messianic Old Testament passage assuming the original readers could have understood each passage as Messianic.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Wright would likely consider Kaiser’s work an exercise in proof-texting. However, Thielman concludes all three works are an important contribution to Old Testament study.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Wright’s book provides a number of opportunities for Bible study, ministry enhancement, and life-application. First, regarding Bible study, within both Old and New Testaments, the participant may attempt to place the study within the context of the Old Testament narrative by identifying the relevance and continuation of the story. Moreover, each Bible study may also include an analysis of how God’s covenant promises remain intact. Second, regarding ministry enhancement, Wright importantly states, “It is one of the great tragedies of history that the Christian church has so often fallen back into the triumphalistic and domination patterns of the world and then baptized them and called them ‘mission’. We have imagined that the best way to save the world was to run the world.”[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Accordingly, an application of Wright’s work missionary efforts might include a focus on listening rather than dominating conversation, caring rather than controlling behavior, and serving rather than forcing conversion. Third, regarding life-application, Wright highlights the importance of the direction of grace by stating, “Obedience flows from grace.”[\[29\]](#_ftn29) Wright’s observation suggests a chronological connection is necessary between grace and obedience, otherwise obedience risks perpetuating a religion of arrogance and disobedience risks perpetuating a cycle of shame. In other words, Christians must examine whether their thoughts, emotions, and actions inappropriately result from human efforts of sin management (grace from obedience) or appropriately result from the empowerment of grace through the working of the Holy Spirit based on an identity forged in Christ (obedience from grace). ## **Conclusion** By utilizing Matthew’s Gospel and examining God’s covenants, Wright masterfully proves his thesis that an understanding of the Hebrew Scriptures is necessary to comprehend the meaning of Christ. Additionally, by connecting Christ’s identity, mission, and values to the Old Testament, Wright also accomplishes his purpose of displaying how the Old Testament shaped Christ. Moreover, although minor differences as noted above do exist, none of Wright’s theological perspectives significantly clash with my personal preconceptions. However, the book caused me to think more deeply about the interconnected relationship between Christ and the Old Testament regarding Israel and the covenant promises, as well as the impact the Old Testament may have had on Christ himself. Wright left me with the desire to further my knowledge regarding the intricacies of the Two Covenant Theory and replacement theology as they pertain to Christ and Israel. Without question, Wright’s book is an invaluable resource for students looking for an edifying and accessible answer to the relationship between Christ and the Old Testament. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Christopher J. H. Wright, *Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1992), 1. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 35. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 242. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 44. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 75. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 108. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 210–13. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., ix. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 56. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 75. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 176–77. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 162. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid., 186–87. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid., 193. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid., 195–209. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) John Piper, *Future Grace* (Colorado Springs: Multnomah, 1995), 47. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Barth, *The Epistle to the Romans*, 84. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Stanley M. Horton, “Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 40, no. 2 (June 1997): 287. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) V. Philips Long, “Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament,” *Prebyterion* 19, no. 1 (March 1993): 61–62. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) William A. Dyrness, “Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament,” *Ashland Theological Journal* 28 (January 1996): 149. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) William S. Sailer, “Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament,” *Evangelical Journal* 13 (September 1995): 89–90. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Frank Thielman, “Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament,” *Christianity Today* 40, no. 3 (March 1996): 58. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Ibid. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Ibid., 58. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Ibid. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Ibid., 58. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Wright, *Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament*, 178. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Ibid., 193. ## **Bibliography** - Barth, Karl. *The Epistle to the Romans*. Translated by Edwyn C. Hoskyns. 6th ed. Oxford: Oxford University, 1968. - Dyrness, William A. “Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament.” *Ashland Theological Journal* 28 (January 1996): 149–50. - Holwerda, David E. *Jesus and Israel: One Covenant or Two?* Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans, 1995. - Horton, Stanley M. “Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 40, no. 2 (June 1997): 287. - Kaiser, Walter C. *The Messiah in the Old Testament*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995. - Long, V. Philips. “Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament.” *Prebyterion* 19, no. 1 (March 1993): 61–62. - Piper, John. *Future Grace*. Colorado Springs: Multnomah, 1995. - Sailer, William S. “Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament.” *Evangelical Journal* 13 (September 1995): 89–90. - Thielman, Frank. “Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament.” *Christianity Today* 40, no. 3 (March 1996): 58. - Wright, Christopher J. H. *Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1992.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Evangelical Theology Book Review: Barth](https://www.livestransforming.com/evangelical-theology-book-review-barth/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Evangelical Theology Book Review: Barth ## **Summary** The following review of Karl Barth’s work, *Evangelical Theology: An Introduction*, provides a summary and an appraisal of the book’s content. The author’s intent is to offer an abbreviated account of four decades of theological musings. Barth utilizes a lecture format covering seventeen chapters, the first five of which were presented in Chicago and Princeton in 1962. Organizationally, Barth begins by describing evangelical theology, and then he divides the remainder of his work into four parts: (1) the place of theology, (2) theological existence, (3) the threat to theology, and (4) theological work. Barth’s opening lecture provides a framework for evangelical theology. For Barth, all philosophies and ideologies are forms of theologies that find reality in some phenomenon. However, evangelical theology is built on the New Testament and the Reformation to engage the “God of the Gospel.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The transcendent God of evangelical theology reveals Himself not only as the Object, but also the Subject of the endeavor. Further, evangelical theology presupposes human existence, faith, and reason to relate humanity to God, follows God in his self-disclosure through history, and features God’s yes as He freely extends love with, by, and for humanity. The locus of Barth’s Christocentric theology lands squarely on God Himself revealed in the Word of God, Jesus Christ. The prophets of the Old Testament and apostles of the New Testament are the primary witnesses who point to the authority of the Word, Jesus Christ. The secondary witnesses consist of God’s community on a quest for truth found in Jesus Christ that is proclaimed through preaching, teaching, and counseling. Theology wholly depends on God’s Word, God’s prophets and apostles, and God’s community, which are empowered by the Holy Spirit, the place where “the history of Immanuel…becomes God’s Word.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 65 182x300 - Evangelical Theology Book Review: Barth](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-65-182x300.jpg "Evangelical Theology Book Review: Barth - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/424F2Xv)Evangelical Theology: An Introduction For Barth, engaging the Word of God requires a theological existence that resides within four concentric circles. The outermost ring consists of wonder, the supernatural phenomena that signals the reality of grace wrapped up in the miracle of miracles, Jesus Christ. In the next ring, the wonderment of God transforms the theologian into a concerned man wholly dependent upon God in the world, community, and private life. In the third ring, the concerned theologian becomes responsibly committed as he intellectually pursues three initiatives: the unity of God that avoids reductionism, the priority of God that seeks God in Christ, and the sufficiency of God that embraces God’s yes. The innermost circle consists of the event of faith, the condition of theology that miraculously and perpetually encounters the theologian. Three existential threats to theology logically follow the topic of theological existence. First, Barth identifies the threat of solitude, which is required to maintain a healthy detachment from philosophical influences, community inclusion, and people’s approval. Next, the absence of legitimate doubt that matures the theologian accompanied by the presence of illegitimate doubt caused by worldly influences, church crises, and private indiscretion or exclusivity also threaten a theologian’s existence. Finally, the theologian faces the threat of God’s temptation, the moment God speaks loudly through silence to purify theology. Fortunately, the inner hope in God’s grace empowers the theologian to endure the threats of solitude, doubt, and temptation. Building upon the foundation of theology’s place, existence, and threats, Barth frames the theologian’s work. The work of prayer removes the theologian from sight, which allows him to see the earth and heaven, the Object and Subject, and the answers and questions. The work of study utilizes biblical exegesis that employs all resources, church history that exercises prudence, systematic theology that embraces the Word, and practical theology that serves the community. The work of service directly ministers to the community and indirectly to the world in a selfless display of service to the Word, Jesus Christ. Finally, just as the goal of theology’s place was Spirit, existence was faith, and threat was hope; the telos of work is love, a love that needs nothing, seeks others, and knows God. ## **Appraisal** Barth’s theological intellect continues to astound. Unlike Barth’s monumental *Church Dogmatics*, the brevity of his introduction in the twilight of his career reminds the reader of a sage offering advice to a student, rather than a theological treatise. The dialectical nature of his wisdom seems to grasp the student at the very moment it fades, just before the fog clears. Barth comfortably embraces the beauty of paradox such as God is “exalted precisely in his lowliness.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Barth also comfortably stands at the edge of contradiction and, at times, lacks clarity. For example, for Barth, philosophy must never rule theology, instead theology’s [content is always exegesis](https://www.livestransforming.com/virtue-and-biblical-exegesis/), but its form is through “experiences of whatever psychology, sociology, or linguistics may be most trustworthy.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Accordingly, Daniel Deegan suggests that Barth provides a distinction between content and form, but the distinction is quite ambiguous.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) One of the strengths of Barth’s work is his emphasis on the Word of God, Jesus Christ. The Word of God precedes, controls, directs, regulates, and gives life to theology, whose duty is to “hear, understand, and speak of the consummation of God’s Word.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) However, for conservative evangelicalism Barth’s Christological emphasis comes at a cost. Barth elegantly affirms the importance of Scripture as the recorded words of the prophets and apostles who, as primary witnesses, provided a trustworthy testimony to the Word, Jesus Christ. However, Scripture is not the Word of God; Christ is the Word of God; Scripture points to the Word of God, Jesus Christ. It is difficult to overestimate the benefit of Barth’s focus on God rather than man, which challenges the budding and seasoned theologian alike. A focus that, according to Robert Roth, “cannot go back to Aquinas or Schleiermacher, Harnack or Troeltsch,” but “must go forward driven by the gospel to a united witness which proclaims what God says to man and not what man says about God.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) A perspective that continues to be distinctly and utterly Barthian. The greatest strength of Barth’s effort may be his masterful weaving of practical wisdom into life lessons to benefit the theologian. For example, Barth explicates the transcendent wonder of God that activates an interdependent concern for the world, which reminds the theologian of the risks of dry rationality, reason, and proofs. Barth also encourages the theologian not to fear the inevitable rejection from other people, the necessity of legitimate doubt, or even the judgment of God, all of which purify the theologian in the “fire of the divine love.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Finally, Barth inspires the theologian to immerse himself in the work of theology, not to perform a checklist of duties but because prayer, study, and service are activities that the theologian cannot not do as he looks completely away from himself toward the rule of God. Engaging wonderment, overcoming fear, and self-effacing service are theological life lessons that provide the protective edifice around an enduring life of ministry empowered by the Spirit and built upon faith, hope, and love. Consistent with the paradoxical nature of Barth’s entire theological life, he ends his career with an introductory beginning. Barth’s work is an accessible introduction, skillfully translated from the original German with no footnotes or indices, which allows students, pastors, theologians, or interested lay persons to engage a modest, little giant of theology. A little giant, who provides a warm, gracious, and affable work that is, according to I. John Hesselink, “the next thing to meeting Barth himself.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Certainly, Barth’s work ought to be required reading for anyone interested in “the most thankful and *happy* science” of evangelical theology.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Karl Barth, *Evangelical Theology: An Introduction* (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1963), 5. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Barth, *Evangelical Theology*, 53. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Barth, *Evangelical Theology*, 11. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 183. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Daniel L. Deegan, “Evangelical Theology: An Introduction,” *Theology Today* 20, no. 4 (1964): 569. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Barth, *Evangelical Theology*, 23. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Robert Paul Roth, “Evangelical Theology: An Introduction,” *Lutheran Quarterly* 16, no. 2 (1964): 190. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Barth, *Evangelical Theology*, 137. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) I. John Hesselink, “Evangelical Theology: An Introduction,” *The Reformed Theological Review* 25, no. 3 (1966): 106. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Barth, *Evangelical Theology*, 12. ## **Bibliography** - Barth, Karl. *Evangelical Theology: An Introduction*. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1963. - Deegan, Daniel L. “Evangelical Theology: An Introduction.” *Theology Today* 20, no. 4 (1964): 568–70. - Hesselink, I. John. “Evangelical Theology: An Introduction.” *The Reformed Theological Review* 25, no. 3 (1966): 106–7. - Roth, Robert P. “Evangelical Theology: An Introduction.” *Lutheran Quarterly* 16, no. 2 (1964): 189–90.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [A Theology of Liberation Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/a-theology-of-liberation-book-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # A Theology of Liberation Book Review ## **Summary** The following review of Gustavo Gutiérrez’s book, *A Theology of Liberation: Politics, History, and Salvation*, provides a summary and an appraisal of the book’s content. The purpose of Gutiérrez’s book is to explicate a theology of liberation as a love letter from God’s word to radically transform the mindset of Christianity. Gutiérrez attempts to accomplish his goal by defining significant terms, identifying the problem, and providing a potpourri of potential solutions, which he admits are not conclusive. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 64 182x300 - A Theology of Liberation Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-64-182x300.jpg "A Theology of Liberation Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fZMDtE)A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, and Salvation 50th Anniversary Edition with New Introduction by Michael E. Lee) Three terms command attention from the start. First, Gutiérrez defines theology as “critical reflection on historical praxis.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Theology is not primarily orthodoxy, but orthopraxy. Theology follows praxis by reflecting upon historical events, which leads to social and political engagement to liberate the oppressed. Second, the word development connotes the failed attempts to incrementally reform society (e.g. productivity enhancements), when revolution is required (e.g. social ownership). Finally, liberation means freedom from economic and political oppression, the creation of a new society, and the liberation from sin, which is the bedrock of oppression. Once terms are defined, Gutiérrez suggests that the relationship between salvation and human liberation is the problem that needs solved. Gutiérrez eschews the dualism of the distinction of planes model, and instead, argues that a unity of the spiritual and the temporal exist in salvation. In short, participation in liberation activity is “a salvific work.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, an indigenous response is necessary to identify the proper methods to address the oppression that squelches salvation. Gutiérrez then highlights several contemporary responses, which include increased lay involvement, responses to the poor by Vatican II and the Medellín Conference, and revisions in local church polity denouncing injustice. Gutiérrez expands salvation by asserting its unity with creation, and thus embraces universal salvation where the qualitative aspects of salvation take priority over the quantitative. The unity of salvation reveals itself in God’s creative acts such as the liberation of the Jews from Egypt. Importantly, God’s creative and redemptive acts continue to intervene within history to overthrow oppressors. Accordingly, Gutiérrez asserts that humanity must salvifically join in God’s activity: “To know God is to work for justice. There is no other path to reach God.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Gutiérrez contends that Christ is the liberator of sin. However, liberation theology asserts that sin is not primarily individualistic. Sin has a collective dimension that undermines loving humanity, especially the oppressed. For Gutiérrez, liberation from sin “implies a political liberation.” Accordingly, Christ’s work addresses all three levels of liberation: economic oppression, a new society, and sinful selfishness. As God works through history, the eschatological consequence is a new society and the possibility of a new political theology. Although not considering Jesus a zealot, Gutiérrez suggests that Christ engaged in political activity by opposing oppressive forces, thus the “political is grafted into the eternal.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Thus, the Roman Catholic Church must remove itself from aligning with oppressive regimes, and instead, it must oppose them, which opens the possibility of a type of utopian society provided by the work of humanity. Ultimately, the Church must be a sacrament of salvation, but salvation should extend beyond the Church into a liberating force structured to support social revolution. A force that responds to injustice based on an indigenous theology consisting of both denunciation of dehumanization and annunciation of the Gospel, especially its social and political aspects. However, Gutiérrez does not champion any specific “ideology or specific political program,” and suggests that oftentimes the initiatives must advance by “trial and error.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Gutiérrez concludes with a biblical repudiation of poverty. Specifically, poverty contradicts the Mosaic religion, frustrates the creation mandate, and undermines humanity made in God’s image. Furthermore, beyond material and spiritual poverty, Gutiérrez suggests the deepest form of poverty places itself in solidarity with the poor. A solidarity embraced by liberation theology that utilizes high contextualization to reconceive Christianity to overcome oppression and exploitation. ## **Appraisal** As a native Peruvian, professor Gutiérrez’s heart breaks for the economically and politically oppressed Latin American people. The professor’s broad range of scholarship encompasses economics, politics, and theology, which provides a solid foundation for his thought-provoking considerations. The strengths of Gutiérrez’s work are numerous. First, a deep empathy for the poor is unmistakable. Without question, Scripture advocates for the poor, and Gutiérrez’s references to Matthew 25:31-46, alongside many other relevant passages, support his cause. Second, Gutiérrez courageously indicts the institutional church’s involvement as an accomplice to the dependency of the poor because the “majority of the Church…has sided with the dominant groups.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Third, the renouncement of the distinction of planes model, which separates the spiritual from the temporal, highlights the importance of praxis in the life of followers of Christ: faith must lead to action to live (James 2:14-17). Fourth, during the final chapter, Gutiérrez lays the framework for a biblical theology of poverty, which explores the various forms of poverty, the principles repudiating poverty, and the responses of solidarity and protest against poverty. Although Gutiérrez’s work is almost a half-century old, the concern for the oppressed and exploited must continue to be taken seriously by all Christians. The multitude of weaknesses in Gutiérrez’s work are conspicuous. Although praxis is critical, Gutiérrez goes too far by asserting that the definition of theology is critical reflection on historical praxis. For Gutiérrez, theology is not derived from biblical principles, but derived from activity, which, according to Timothy Erdel, results in a theology that “has no ultimate meaning of its own,” and thus has no way to determine which activity is correct because “there is nothing to give theology authority.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Next, Gutiérrez expands the concept of salvation beyond Christ alone. Gutiérrez’s anthropological emphasis salvifically combines God’s activity with man’s actions to overcome exploitation with the goal of creating a new humanity. Evangelical Christianity would bristle at the suggestion that humanity takes part in or adds to the salvific process through praxis. It is through the gift of Christ’s righteousness received by grace through faith that the entire salvific work culminates in a believer’s new creation status (Rom 5:15-17; 2 Cor 5:17). Third, the method of liberation is misguided. For Gutiérrez, the method of liberation requires a “radical break from the status quo, that is, a profound transformation of the private property system, access to power of the exploited class, and a social revolution.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Gutiérrez’s radical break appears to support the possibility of violence to further a socialistic agenda. Joseph O’Hare astutely recognizes that the gospel does not consecrate capitalism, but to assume that socialism will solve the problem of oppression is an oversimplification.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Fourth, liberation theology takes contextualization too far. Communicating the message of the gospel with cultural sensitivity remains an integral part of missions and evangelism. However, Gutiérrez’s indigenous theology risks both syncretism and reductionism. Syncretism arises as Gutiérrez commingles the salvific work of Christ with human liberation activities. Reductionism occurs as Gutiérrez myopically focuses the breadth and depth of the gospel solely on the plight of the poor. Several other concerns demand further analysis and critique such as universal salvation, the communal nature of sin, and politicizing Jesus’s behavior. However, Gutiérrez’s most glaring weakness may be his inconsistency and ambiguity regarding the answers to his profound questions. Gutiérrez contends that he does not promote an ideology, but clearly defends socialism; he claims to have no conclusive solutions, but suggests using violence to accomplish them, and he concludes by asserting that an authentic theology of liberation must somehow arise from the oppressed. In sum, Gutiérrez provides a relativistic theology that requires immediate action, but the reader is left wondering what steps to take next. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Gustavo Gutiérrez, *A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, and Salvation*, ed. and trans. Sister Caridad Inda, and John Eagleson, rev. ed. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1973), 12. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 46. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Gutiérrez, *A Theology of Liberation*, 156. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 135. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Gutiérrez, *A Theology of Liberation*, 155, 160. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 77. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Timothy Paul Erdel, “A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, and Salvation,” *Trinity Journal* 4 (Spring 1975): 105. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Gutierrez, *A Theology of Liberation*, 17. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) J. A. O’Hare, “A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, and Salvation,” *Theological Studies* 34, no. 3 (September 1973): 490–91. ## ## **Bibliography** - Erdel, Timothy Paul. “A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, and Salvation.” *Trinity Journal* 4 (Spring 1975): 104–9. - Gutiérrez, Gustavo. *A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, and Salvation*. Edited and translated by Sister Caridad Inda and John Eagleson. Rev. ed. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1973. - O’Hare, J. A. “A Liberation: History, Politics, and Salvation.” *Theological Studies* 34, no. 3 (September 1973): 489–91.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Four Views on Hell Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/four-views-on-hell-book-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Four Views on Hell Book Review As the title suggests, *The Four Views on Hell* explores the nature of hell. Four prominent professors express their views on the nature of hell and then provide rebuttals to the alternative views presented. William Crockett, Ph.D., professor of New Testament at Alliance Theological Seminary, is the general editor and contributing author who provides a view of hell that is metaphorical.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) John F. Walvoord, Th.D., former president of Dallas Theological Seminary, presents the literal perspective of hell.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Zachary J. Hayes, professor emeritus of systematic theology at the Catholic Theological Union, communicates the purgatorial position.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Finally, Clark H. Pinnock, professor emeritus of theology at McMaster Divinity College, argues for a conditional view of hell.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) This particular theological critique will show all four views have merit, but also contain significant challenges. This paper will provide a brief summary of the themes followed by a critical interaction with each contributing author. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 63 182x300 - Four Views on Hell Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-63-182x300.jpg "Four Views on Hell Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fT7G11)Four Views on Hell: Second Edition (Counterpoints: Bible and Theology) ## **BRIEF SUMMARY** Walvoord’s literal view argues that hell is literal, eternal, and adequately harmonized with God’s love. Hell is literally fire and punishment, although aspects of punishment may be a combination of physical, mental, and emotional torment.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Walvoord supports the literal view with biblical exegesis from both the Old and New Testament Scripture.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Furthermore, hell has duration, a duration that is everlasting.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) According to Walvoord, the eternality of hell is a requirement of biblical inerrancy.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Finally, due to the most trivial sin having infinite significance, a loving and just God requires infinite punishment and undeservingly shows infinite grace toward believers.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Crockett’s metaphorical view argues that the biblical perspective of hell is metaphorical and symbolic.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) First, based on the conflicting images of hell in [the New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/) and the common cultural images utilized by the biblical writers, Crockett concludes the biblical explanation of heaven and hell is not literal.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The writers simply used familiar first century images such as stones, gates, smoke, and fire to communicate the reality of heaven and hell metaphorically.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Further, the symbolic use of words utilizing techniques such as rabbinic hyperbole and the nonliteral image of fire in Jewish literature is characteristic of first century writers, thus, to conclude the language is literal is to force a biblical interpretation that goes beyond its meaning.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Hayes’s purgatorial view does not specifically address hell, but instead, argues the position of purgatory, a place between heaven and hell that has the purpose of purification, support of Scripture, and an association with grace and works. In Hayes’s view, fire symbolizes a purifying process that enhances the capacity of humanity to meet God, gives humanity the potential to share fate with Christian martyrs, and provides an opportunity for the living to impact the dead.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Additionally, Hayes refers to 2 Maccabees, 1 Corinthians, and Matthew to support the concept of purgatory, but admits no specific textual support exists.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Finally, purgatory is an eschatological extension of the Catholic understanding of grace and works that suggests the effectiveness of God’s grace depends on an adequate human response.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Pinnock’s conditional view does not deny the destructive nature of hell, but instead, argues the biblical perspective of hell is complete annihilation, which supports justice and morality, aligns metaphysically, and opposes the immortality of the soul. Specifically, God’s justice and morality prohibit the act of eternal punishment because it goes beyond what humanity deserves.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Further, annihilation of the wicked supports the eschatological perspective of a new creation in contrast to an everlasting cosmic dualism.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Finally, Pinnock suggests the belief in the immortality of the soul originates from Greek influence and not biblical evidence.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) ## **CRITICAL INTERACTION** Walvoord’s theological perspective provides for a dispensational view toward eschatology and a literal view of biblical prophecy.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) The goal of Walvoord’s account is to convince the reader that the Bible exclusively teaches that life after death for the wicked is everlasting punishment in a literal sense. A combination of a dispensational theological method, exegesis, and inerrancy is utilized to further the argument. The strengths of the literal view reside on the back of biblical exegesis and inerrancy. Specifically, Walvoord suggests the interpretation of the New Testament Greek word *aionios* “in every instance refers to eternity” and quotes W. R. Inge who states that “no sound Greek scholar can pretend that *aionios* means anything less than eternal.”[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Walvoord then powerfully connects the exegesis directly to Revelation 20:10, which states that the wicked “will be tormented day and night for ever and ever.”[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Although all four authors agree that hell exists and is a form of punishment, Walvoord’s distinction primarily relates to duration, and argues that doubting the eternality of punishment doubts biblical inerrancy. The weaknesses in Walvoord’s argument consist of the inability to prove an absence of metaphor and failure to differentiate itself from the metaphorical view. Walvoord attempts to prove that fire is literal because of its frequency of use in relationship to eternal punishment as well as a reference to the rich man in *hades* in Luke 16.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) However, the frequency of word usage does not prove an absence of metaphor and a reference to thirst does not prove the existence of actual fire or water in an eternal dimension, which is likely why Ashland Theological Seminary suggests Walvoord’s “essay comes across as pedestrian.”[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Accordingly, it appears the primary distinction of Walvoord’s analysis pertains to the duration of punishment, which supports the reasonableness of Ashland’s assertion that “Crockett’s so-called ‘metaphorical’ position is virtually the same as his ‘literal’ one.”[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Crockett’s theological perspective positions itself along a relatively modern evangelical context. Crockett’s goal is to convincingly argue that the biblical language pertaining to the nature of hell is symbolistic. The argument is primarily based on recent historical support, symbolism, metaphor, and an opposition to annihilationism. The strengths in Crockett’s argument include recognizing incongruent language in the New Testament, the aligning with prominent theologians, and guarding against a forced interpretation. In particular, Crockett refers to Jude 7 and 13 that describe hell as both fire and darkness, but recognizes the two terms are mutually exclusive.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) The implication is that Jude is either errant or speaking metaphorically, which may explain why Hayes suggests the metaphorical view could be “in reality the most literal reading.”[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Furthermore, numerous relatively recent theologians including John Calvin, Martin Luther, Charles Hodge, and J. I. Packer support Crockett’s position.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Finally, Hayes appropriately points out that Crockett’s metaphorical view safeguards against communicating more than the biblical evidence conveys on topics, “which none has ever experienced.”[\[29\]](#_ftn29) The weaknesses of Crockett’s metaphorical view are a reliance on recent tradition, an illogical reference to Hitler, and an extended argument against annihilationism. First, Halstead notes that the metaphorical view is relatively new, “having been advocated only since the sixteenth century.”[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Second, utilizing a reference from Nels Ferré, Crocket suggests that if a literal interpretation of hell were true “it would make Hitler a third degree saint.”[\[31\]](#_ftn31) Although a strong emotional polemic, Ferré’s logic is skewed. Hitler’s wrath destroyed the lives of innocent Jews, but God’s wrath extends to the guilty, and more closely aligns with the criminal justice system not a tyrannical criminal. Finally, Crockett would have better served the reader by providing additional support for a metaphorical view rather than spending almost half of the essay opposing annihilationism. Hayes’s theological perspective is based the Roman Catholic tradition. The goal of Hayes’s account is to effectively communicate a purgatorial perspective. According to Hayes, the argument for purgatory is based on tradition, Scripture, and a Catholic understanding of grace and justification. Hayes’s essay has a number of strengths including a strong development and defense of purgatory, supportive logic, and a pertinent connection to grace and justification. First, Robertson appropriately notes that Hayes provides a chapter that is “particularly helpful for those wanting to know how the doctrine of purgatory developed and how it is defended.”[\[32\]](#_ftn32) Furthermore, Pinnock observes that the logic in the purgatorial argument is sound by stating that it is difficult to deny that many believers are imperfect upon death and a certain wisdom exists in giving humanity the ability to mature after death.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Finally, by explicating an eschatological extension of grace and works, Hayes provides strong theological support for purgatory from a Catholic perspective, which allows evangelicals to appreciate the doctrine without necessarily agreeing with it. A number of weaknesses also exist in Hayes’s assessment, which include a lack of focus, an absence of Scriptural support, and a lack of eschatological analysis. First, as explained in Pinnock’s response, Hayes focuses on purgatory and not hell in a book whose subject is hell.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) Second, as pointed out in Walvoord’s response and admitted by Hayes, “There is no clear textual basis in Scripture for the later doctrine of purgatory.”[\[35\]](#_ftn35) Finally, although Pyne correctly notes that the entire book is a study in theological method as much as eschatology, the emphasis on theological method appears particularly exaggerated in Hayes.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) Pinnock’s theological perspective is evangelical in nature with a Wesleyan-Arminian soteriology.[\[37\]](#_ftn37) The goal of Pinnock’s view is to persuade readers that annihilationism is the most appropriate perspective of hell. The argument is supported by Scripture, mortality of the soul, the morality and justice of God, and metaphysics. The primary strengths of the conditional view of hell pertain to morality and metaphysics. First, Pinnock refers to God’s boundless mercy and love by effectively highlighting the difficulty in reconciling God’s character with humanity’s moral intuition.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) Furthermore, Pinnock poses an insightful metaphysical question regarding evangelical eschatology by asking how God can ultimately make all creation new and simultaneously allow “heaven and hell go on existing alongside each other forever in everlasting cosmological dualism.”[\[39\]](#_ftn39) A number of weaknesses in Pinnock’s argument exist including a connection of annihilationism with the *Didache*, an avoidance of key Scripture, and a digression regarding theological method. First, Crockett argues that Pinnock’s assertion that annihilationism is found in the *Didache* is incorrect; accordingly, a specific citation is critical to support the conditional view with such a strong tradition.[\[40\]](#_ftn40) Furthermore, although Pinnock does reference Scripture, to ignore Revelation 20:10 appears to be incongruous. Finally, digressing away from eschatology toward theological method by spending almost a quarter of the essay defending the Wesleyan quadrilateral appears unnecessary. ## **CONCLUSION** The *Four Views on Hell* provides a strong method of introducing different views of hell to the reader. It has been shown that all four views on hell have merit, but each one contains significant challenges. Personally, Hayes’s purgatorial view was the most enlightening, but also the most egregious due to the connection of God’s grace with human works to the doctrine of purgatory. Pinnock’s perspective has a natural emotional appeal, but does not reconcile with the full body of Scripture. Walvoord’s literal view seems strongest in supporting the eternality of hell, but does not adequately address the conflicting language of Scripture. Accordingly, Crockett’s metaphorical view seems most adequate. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1)“William Crockett,” http://www.harpercollins.com/authors/90000556/William\_Crockett/index.aspx (accessed January 1, 2012). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2)W. A. Elwell, ed., *Evangelical Dictionary of Theology: Walvoord, John F.*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001), 1254. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3)Thomas A. Halstead, “Four Views on Hell,” *Master’s Seminary Journal 9*, no 2 (Fall 1998): 225-227. http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA0001547578&site=ehost-live&scope=site (accessed December 31, 2011), 226. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4)W. A. Elwell, ed., *Evangelical Dictionary of Theology: Pinnock, Clark H.*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001), 927. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) William Crockett et al., *Four Views on Hell*, ed. William Crockett and Stanley N. Gundry (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 28. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 14-18, 19-23. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 26. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 27. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 44. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 51-52. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 55, 57. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 50-51. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid., 96-98. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid., 104-6. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid., 114. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Ibid., 149-54. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Ibid., 154. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid., 147-49. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20)Elwell, *Evangelical Dictionary of Theology: Walvoord, John F.*, 1254. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21)Crockett et al., *Four Views on Hell*, 23-24. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Ibid., 26. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Ibid., 28. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24)“Book Reviews,” *Ashland Theological Journal*, no 30:0 (1998): 143-144. http://www.galaxie.com. ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/article/202 (accessed January 1, 2012), 143. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25)Ibid. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Crockett et al., *Four Views on Hell*, 59. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27)Ibid., 83. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Ibid., 44-45. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29)Ibid., 84. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30)Crockett et al., *Four Views on Hell*. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31)Crockett et al., *Four Views on Hell*, 50. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32)Paul E. Robertson, “Four Views on Hell,” *Theological Educator,* no 52 (Fall 1995): 152-154. http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA0001547578&site=ehost-live&scope=site (accessed December 31, 2011), 153. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Crockett et al., *Four Views on Hell*, 129-30. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Ibid., 127. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35)Ibid., 107. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36)Pyne, Robert A. “Four Views on Hell,” *Bibliotheca sacra* 150, no 600 (1993): 500-501. http://search. ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&A (accessed December 31, 2011), 501. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37)Elwell, *Evangelical Dictionary of Theology: Pinnock, Clark H.,* *927.* [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Crockett et al., *Four Views on Hell*, 149. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39)Ibid., 154. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Ibid., 172. ## ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - “Book Reviews,” *Ashland Theological Journal*, no 30:0 (1998): 143-144. http://www.galaxie. com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/article/202 (accessed January 1, 2012). - Crockett, William, John F. Walvoord, Zachary J. Hayes, and Clark H. Pinnock. *Four Views on Hell*. Edited by William Crockett and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996. - Elwell, W. A., ed. *Evangelical Dictionary of Theology.* 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001. - Halstead, Thomas A. “Four Views on Hell,” *Master’s Seminary Journal* 9, no 2 (Fall 1998): 225-227. http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true& (accessed December 30, 2011). - Pyne, Robert A. “Four Views on Hell,” *Bibliotheca sacra* 150, no 600 (1993): 500-501. http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&A (accessed December 31, 2011). - Robertson, Paul E. “Four Views on Hell,” *Theological Educator*, no 52 (Fall 1995): 152-154. http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db =rfh&AN=ATLA0000304612&site=ehost-live&scope=site (accessed December 31, 2011). - “William Crockett,” http://www.harpercollins.com/authors/90000556/William\_Crockett/ index.aspx (accessed January 1, 2012). **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [The Complete Green Letters Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-complete-green-letters-book-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Complete Green Letters Book Review Miles Stanford’s book, *The Complete Green Letters,* published by Zondervan in 1983, is an exploration of a believer’s identity in Christ. The theme of Stanford’s work is that all spiritual growth rests on a believer’s status as a new creation living positionally in Christ. The author provides a topical examination of spiritual growth by first uncovering the implications of a believer identifying the new self in Christ and then, in part two, excavates the connections between the believer’s new position and actual experience. The following provides a brief summary, critique, and personal application of Stanford’s work. ## **SUMMARY** Stanford utilizes a topical organization structure to explore spiritual growth. In part one, the author weaves the concept of a believer’s new creation status through eighteen different topics such as faith, purpose, consecrations, self, rest, and help. In part two, Stanford continues with the same basic framework by merging the experience of a believer’s position in Christ into theological topics such as justification, reconciliation, security, and sin. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 62 1 182x300 - The Complete Green Letters Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-62-1-182x300.jpg "The Complete Green Letters Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4j92hWr)Complete Green Letters, The Stanford first addresses the topics of faith, time, and acceptance. The foundation of faith must be facts based on the Word of God, not human effort attempting to believe something will happen (Stanford 1983, 3-5). Next, the author illuminates the importance of time by suggesting [spiritual growth](https://www.livestransforming.com/spiritual-development/) takes years, not days and contrary to a prosperity gospel, authentic growth requires both pain and joy (6-9). Acceptance by God based solely on the work of Christ, not human effort, is the next topic, followed by nine paradoxes that focus on depending on the work of Christ rather than self (10-13). Without question, the author launches the work with a strong Pauline influence, which reminds the reader of Paul’s rhetorical question, “After beginning with the Spirit, are you now trying to attain your goal by human effort?” (Galatians 3:3 NIV). The next three topics introduced by Stanford are purpose, preparation, and completeness. The purpose of believers is to have Christ formed in them, especially through the process of failure (Stanford 1983, 14-17). The preparation of individuals is through the recognition of a growing need for Christ, which often results from personal struggles (18-22). Finally, the Christian life progresses not through effort but in deepening the knowledge of what is already possessed from regeneration (23-26). Critics may now become nervous in Stanford’s passivity toward spiritual formation, but the author’s emphasis is on the origination and direction of growth, not the lack of engagement, for “God is the aggressor in the realm of development” (26). Appropriation, identification, and consecration are the next topics addressed. By appropriation, the author means that believers recognize what is possessed in Christ and are conscious of its necessity (27). Specifically, every spiritual blessing is available to all believers, but experience is required to appropriate the fullness of Christ into the crevices of life (28-30). In other words, a gap exists between availability and appropriation, which may result in the allegation of spiritual elitism. However, if appropriation is progressive, then the accusation weakens, as elitism, by definition, is difficult to apply to gradualism. Stanford then explains that the old self died on the cross with Christ and a new identity formed in believers (31-34). Finally, Stanford highlights that consecration is not the process of improving the old sin nature, but instead, authentic consecration is only available to the new self (35-38). The topics of self, the Cross, and discipleship follow Stanford’s discussion on consecration. First, the author undermines the notion that self can “cast out self” (41). In other words, manufactured efforts to overcome self, such as mortification, training, and confession fail – the only option is death (43-47). Regarding the cross, Stanford expands the focus of grace alone to both justification and sanctification in order to overcome self (50-51). Finally, the author explains that discipleship is the process of continuous failure of the self’s effort to sanctify self so that the believer finally gives up, dies, and then beautifully bears supernatural fruit (53-60). Rest, help, cultivation, and continuance are the final four topics of part one. Stanford believes that once a believer possesses an understanding of justification, acceptance, position, and identity then resting in these truths is necessary for God to produce authentic supernatural activity (61-64). Accordingly, Stanford concludes it is often illogical to continue “asking God for help” (65). Alternatively, David Earley provides 17 biblical references to the Psalms in support of asking God for help (Early 2008, 77-79). The apparent contradiction resolves itself when Stanford’s context relates to blessings already received (Stanford 1983, 65-67). Next, Stanford reinforces the importance of time, which is necessary for cultivating maturity and discourages forcing spiritual growth (68-71). Finally, the author reminds the reader that progressing from “doing” to “being” is a process that will often appear to be void of any spiritual activity, thus patience and perseverance is an essential ingredient for continued advancement (72-74). Part two begins the experiential phase and focuses on position, justification and assurance, and reconciliation and acceptance. First, the author boldly asserts, “All growth…is based upon the principle of position” (77). Using the metaphor of the vine and branch, Stanford emphasizes that the branch’s sole source of nourishment comes from the Vine and because of the cross and resurrection, believers are justified (80-83). Stanford defines justification as an imputed righteousness of God that assures salvation due to the forgiveness of past, present, and future sins preparatory to further growth (84-89). Accordingly, understanding one’s acceptance in Christ, due to his righteous standing, eliminates the need to continue the sinful “struggle to improve his condition in order to feel acceptable to God” (90-91). In other words, Stanford’s approach to spiritual transformation significantly decreases the risk that Christianity falls into what Dallas Willard coined a “gospel of sin management” (Willard 1997, 41). Instead, the Holy Spirit applies the work of the cross to eradicate areas of sin in the life of the believer (Stanford 1983, 92-94). Next, the author revisits the concepts of completeness and security; sanctification and consecration; and identification and growth. Once an understanding of justification and reconciliation exist, the believer can live in the completeness that positionally occurs in Christ (95-99). Through abiding in Christ, the believer is available to be set apart from identification with the world and becomes a consecrated vehicle for Christ (100-105). With overtones of Keswick theology, the strong connection between abiding and consecration risks the accusation of quietism from a Reformed perspective that regards sanctification as a progressive “lifelong struggle” (Naselli 2010, 300). Finally, the identification of the new self in Christ acknowledges the death of the old self and resurrection of the new, which empowers a life that focuses outward toward a hurting world, rather than inward toward the preservation of self (106-111). In the final section, the author explores the topic of sin in relation to purged conscience, conscience, light, and confession. First, the author observes that a carnal Christian lives from his condition of self rather than his position in Christ; thus, the risk of self-righteousness or debilitating guilt significantly increases (112-113). However, the spiritual man lives positionally in Christ and, although awareness of sin exists, condemnation does not (114-117). It is here the influence of Keswick theology may be most evident. One wonders if the author’s differentiation between a carnal Christian and a spiritual Christian implies a “chronological separation of justification of sanctification resulting in two categories of Christians” (Naselli 2010, 299). In light of Stanford’s alignment with Keswick theology, further clarification would be useful. Second, Stanford explains that believers have a dual advocacy of Christ’s intercession and the Holy Spirit’s influence on the conscience that produces confession (Stanford 1983, 118-120). Accordingly, while believers continue to deal with sin, restoration is ongoing through the work of Christ and the Spirit (120-123). Third, the author suggests that believers are to walk in the light but acknowledges various stages of growth (124). Specifically, spiritual infancy focuses on what the believer is doing for Christ, while spiritual adolescence focuses more on living in Christ rather than for Christ (125-129). Finally, when living positionally, the illumination of sin in Christ’s light does not condemn, but instead, prompts confession, which continues the believer’s fellowship with God and encourages personal responsibility without debilitating guilt (130-136). ## **CRITIQUE** Without question, Stanford’s strength lies in the critical connections made between a believer’s spiritual growth and identity, which rest in Christ as a new creation. Three additional concepts are particularly noteworthy. First, in a quick fix westernized society, the acknowledgement of the necessity of time as a key ingredient for growth is beneficial. Second, in light of the recent influence of a prosperity gospel on American Christianity, the emphasis on the requirement of pain and suffering is also welcome. Finally, relief from the burdensome impact of certain evangelicalism that promotes self-effort to overcome sin, which unfortunately, often leads to unhealthy pride or debilitating guilt, is long overdue and quite constructive. The most significant and glaring weakness of Stanford’s work is the lack of practical examples exhibiting a life lived in Christ, rather than a life lived for Christ. For example, simple illustrations of detachment, which may have included the benefits of finding value and worth *in* Christ rather than *in* the world of other people’s opinions, personal performance, or life’s circumstances, may have greatly enhanced the work’s applicability. Three other minor weaknesses also detracted. First, the inordinate amount of references to other works often appeared to undermine the author’s ability to develop fully the sub-themes within each topic explored. Second, references to Keswick theology caused more confusion than clarity. Keswick theology has changed significantly since its inception in the mid nineteenth century, and accordingly, the vague references distracted. Further clarification of assumptions or omission of the references would have benefited the work. A third weakness is an apparent potential anomaly regarding confession. On the one hand, the author asserts that all a believer’s “sins, past, present, and future, have been forever forgiven” (86). However, Stanford simultaneously suggests that unconfessed sin disqualifies believers “from fellowship with our Father” (136). Further clarification would be helpful to reconcile a potential conflict. ## **PERSONAL APPLICATION** Every area of my life has been significantly impacted by my identity in Christ. First, I will reflect on the practical implications on my emotional life and career. Next, I will provide a section that reflects on my current situation and provides steps for future action. My initial introduction to finding my identity and completeness in Christ came approximately fifteen years ago. After graduating from college, passing the CPA exam, and working for an international consulting firm, I spent a number of years building one of the Midwest’s largest construction companies. By the age of thirty, I was financially secure, but emotionally bankrupt. I found myself breaking out in hives, waking up in pools of sweat, and crying unnecessarily. My physician prescribed an addictive form of anti-anxiety medication and encouraged me to find a counselor. Fortunately, I found a Christian executive coach who I hired to assist me. Each week we would have a thirty-minute phone conversation. My coach quickly helped me discover that I had connected my identity with my performance, and specifically, with my business’s performance. Accordingly, I was living with the fear of failure, which produced enormous anxiety. My coach recommended a book endorsed by Billy Graham and written by Robert McGee called *In Search for Significance* (2003), and for the first time in my life, I was able to envision the possibility of living my life in Christ, rather than in my own effort. A number of Stanford’s topical explorations resonate with my initial experience of identifying my life with Christ. The first topic is time. Although I had been a Christian for over twenty years and had grown up in the local church, it took almost thirty years of my life to recognize my identity. The second topic is acceptance. My childhood placed a significant emphasis on performance, and accordingly, I believed that my acceptance as a person was directly connected to how well I performed, instead of my life in Christ. The third topic is completeness in Him. When God revealed that my life was already complete in Christ, then I was free from the tyranny of constantly trying to perform in order to find acceptance, thus my anxiety diminished. The fourth topic is consecration. I remember during my late adolescent and early adult life wearing out my “re-dedicator” trying to find God’s acceptance. Unfortunately, the cycle of commitment fed my performance addiction in other areas of life. The fifth topic is the cross. Ultimately, realizing the dual aspect of justification and sanctification in Christ freed me from the bondage of my performance addiction and allowed me to rest in Christ; instead of relying on myself for my goodness. Although God is continuing to appropriate Christ’s work into the crevices of my life, this section will reflect on my current ministry role and provide steps for future ministry action. I currently am the Executive Director for a relational discipleship and counseling ministry. The primary focus of the ministry is helping individuals spiritually grow and find emotional healing by discovering their value and identity in Christ. Accordingly, the ministry has published a book called *FREEDOM: How Grace Transforms Your Life Now*, and created accredited college curriculum entitled “Thought Life and Spiritual Growth,” which emphasizes identity formation. The ministry has also deployed small group discipleship and recovery programs that have assisted individuals in discovering their identity in Christ. However, the ministry needs to continue furthering the message of Christ. Over the next year, the ministry has identified three specific initiatives to further the mission of helping individuals discover their identity in Christ. The first initiative is the development of a video training curriculum to train leaders in relational discipleship facilitation. Specifically, the training will focus on building trust through disarming, empathy, and encouragement; assessing willingness of the participant through cost-benefit analyses; and facilitating discovery through inquiry. The second initiative is to deploy the training curriculum to small group leaders and licensed counselors. The final initiative is to begin the development of Freedom Groups throughout the Midwest that provide a safe environment for participants to discover their value and worth in Christ, rather than from outside influences such as performance, opinion of others, entitlement, and past and future circumstances. ## **CONCLUSION** Stanford’s book provides a powerful exploration of spiritual growth in light of a believer’s new creation in Christ. The author effectively utilized topics to enhance the reader’s understanding of the theoretical perspectives as well as the experiential nature of positional living in Christ. The work certainly proved its thesis that spiritual growth rests on a believer’s new creation status in Christ. Furthermore, although the omission of practical examples certainly detracted, the other weaknesses were minor and the strengths certainly triumphed. Significantly, Stanford provides an essential contribution to thought development and scholarship regarding spiritual growth and sanctification in the sphere of evangelical Christianity. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Earley, David. *Prayer: The Timeless Secrets of High-Impact Leaders.* Chattanooga, TN: Living Ink, 2008. - McGee, Robert S. *Prayer: The Search for Significance: Seeing Your True Worth through God’s Eyes.* Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2003. - Naselli, Andrew David. *Let Go and Let God? A Survey and Analysis of Keswick Theology.* Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software, 2010. - Stanford, Miles J. *The Complete Green Letters*. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1983. - Willard, Dallas. *The Divine Conspiracy: Rediscovering Our Hidden Life in God*. New York: HarperCollins, 1997. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Spiritual Disciplines for the Christian Life Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/spiritual-disciplines-for-the-christian-life-book-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Spiritual Disciplines for the Christian Life Book Review Donald S. Whitney’s book, *Spiritual Disciplines for the Christian Life,* published by NavPress in 1991, is a thoughtful exploration of various Christian disciplines that broadens the traditional Protestant training regarding the means of saving and strengthening grace. The theme of the entire work is based on 1 Timothy 4:7, which states, “Discipline yourself for the purpose of godliness” (Whitney 1991, 16). Accordingly, Whitney’s objective is to spur the reader toward the disciplines with the goal of Godliness always in sight. Pulling substantially from early Puritan teaching, the author surveys ten specific spiritual disciplines in order to accomplish the objective. The following provides a brief summary, critique, and personal application of Whitney’s work. ## **SUMMARY** In the spirit of Richard Foster’s *Celebration of Discipline* (1998) and Dallas Willard’s *The Spirit of the Disciplines* (1991), Whitney provides ten spiritual disciplines as a framework to accomplish the objective of spurring individuals toward Godliness. The ten spiritual disciplines include Bible intake, prayer, worship, evangelism, serving, stewardship, fasting, silence and solitude, journaling, and learning. As bookends to the disciplines, the author examines the purpose of the disciplines and encourages the reader to persevere in the disciplines. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 35 182x300 - Spiritual Disciplines for the Christian Life Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-35-182x300.jpg "Spiritual Disciplines for the Christian Life Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3Pucxen)Spiritual Disciplines for the Christian Life The opening chapter focuses on the purpose of the disciplines, which is Godliness. Whitney believes God’s three catalysts for change include other people, life circumstances, and human choice, with only choice controlled by the individual (17-18). According to Whitney, the spiritual disciplines lead to holiness because the disciplines “are like channels of God’s transforming grace” (18-19). Thus, since God commands holiness, the spiritual disciplines are mandatory (20). In other words, under the influence of Puritan theology, Whitney expands the boundaries of the phrase “means of grace” taught by the Reformer’s and the Baptist catechism, which focuses on Scripture, baptism, and the Lord’s Supper (Desiring God, Question 95). The next two chapters focus on what Millard Erickson considers the primary evangelical means of grace, the Word of God (Erickson 2007, 1021). Whitney presents three branches of Bible intake, which include hearing, reading, and studying and then asserts that spiritual growth and Bible intake are directly proportional (Whitney 1991, 29-39). Additionally, Whitney advocates memorizing, mediating, and applying Scripture to life (41-61). The author provides a number of benefits to memorization such as providing guidance and power as well as benefits of meditation, which include insight and wisdom (41-55). Whitney claims the second most important [spiritual discipline](https://www.livestransforming.com/donald-whitney-spiritual-disciplines/) is prayer (66). In this regard, Whitney aligns with the Reformed theologian, Charles Hodge, who also includes prayer as a means of grace (Hodge 1995, 466). Whitney identifies three prayer tenets (Whitney 1991, 66). First, God expects prayer since Scripture specifically commands it, but many Christians do not pray due to doubt, discouragement, and lack of awareness (67-70). Second, individuals learn prayer by practicing, meditating, praying corporately, and reading biographies of prayer warriors (70-78). Third, prayer is always answered, not necessarily the way desired, but the way that glorifies Him (78-80). Although Whitney does reference Richard Foster here, the author appears to avoid aligning with Christian mysticism, which is an accusation leveled against Foster, especially in his use of imagination as a “route into God’s presence” (Foster 1998, 25). The third spiritual discipline is worship. Whitney admits the difficulty in defining worship, but submits that attributing worth to God by focusing on and responding to God may suffice (Whitney 1991, 86-88). Additionally, the author references John 4:23-24 contending that worshipping in spirit signifies sincerity and worshipping in truth indicates an alignment with Scripture (89). Alternatively, D. A. Carson’s exegesis does not connect worshipping in spirit with human sincerity, but instead, suggests a worship that is “out of the fullness of the supernatural life” (Carson 1991, 225). Whitney then adds that both public and private worship represent important disciplines that point to God and lead to Godliness (Whitney 1991, 92-95). The author identifies the fourth spiritual discipline as evangelism, which encompasses three precepts. First, an expectation of evangelism exists for all believers, not just those gifted (100-101). Second, evangelism is empowered in that it is the believer’s job to share and God’s job to convert (101-106). Third, evangelism is a discipline requiring intentionality (106-111). The fifth spiritual discipline is serving. Whitney argues that each believer has one of seven spiritual gifts identified in Romans 12, and the purpose of these gifts is for service (123-125). Although the author admits serving is difficult and that one’s pride and sloth deter, the motivation for service must rest on obedience, gratitude, gladness, forgiveness, humility, and love (117-123). Finally, Whitney notes the symbiotic relationship of serving and worship by suggesting a proper balance is necessary to empower an individual’s willingness to serve (127-129). It is worth noting that Whitney does not define balance as apportionment, but observes that a worshipful relationship with God leads to obedience. The sixth spiritual discipline is the stewardship of time and money. Whitney explains that time is a gift and provides a number of reasons for using time wisely such as its uncertainty and value (131-139). Likewise, the author furnishes reasons for stewarding money that entail giving as an act of trust, worship, faith, and trustworthiness, as well as giving sacrificially, generously, lovingly, cheerfully, specifically, and systemically, resulting in God’s blessing (139-154). Whitney’s primary focus is giving to the institutional church in accordance with how much one trusts (142-143). It is here the risks of the author’s assumptions regarding means of grace increase. If giving is a spiritual discipline and Whitney’s disciplines are all channels of grace, then supporting a pastor would appear to convey God’s grace. The risks are obvious. The seventh discipline is fasting, and the eighth is silence and solitude. Whitney first explains various types of fasts, such as partial and absolute, and then reminds the reader that fasting is another discipline expected by God with various purposes such as the strengthening of prayer and overcoming temptation (160-178). Whitney begins by defining silence and solitude as temporarily withdrawing for the purpose of spiritual growth for various purposes including seeking God’s voice (184-194). Additionally, Whitney contributes a number of practical suggestions to support silence and solitude such as mini-retreats (194-199). The ninth and tenth spiritual disciplines are journaling and learning. A journal functions as a repository of learning and assists the writer in self-evaluation, meditation, and maintaining the other disciplines (205-217). Journaling documents learning, which is critical for wisdom and fulfilling the command of loving God (224-228). As Whitney finishes exploring the ten disciplines, it is apparent that he moves further and further away from Scripture. For example, the biblical support for journaling is tenuous and linking journaling to a channel of grace that is on par with Scripture seems an anomaly. The final chapter encourages perseverance in the disciplines. Whitney now turns to the topics of the Holy Spirit, fellowship, and struggle (237). Specifically, the Holy Spirit provides the motivation, power, and perseverance to engage in the disciplines, while fellowship, and struggle both support sanctification through refinement (239-245). Finally, the author exhorts the reader to practice the disciplines, which are the only roads to Godliness (245-249). At this point, one may question the coherence of a seemingly inexhaustible list of disciplines referenced in chapter one with the fact that the disciplines are the only way (17, 246). ## **CRITIQUE** The foundational strengths of Whitney’s work include its practical approach to the exercise of the disciplines and its Scriptural support for the necessity and benefits of the disciplines that lead to Godliness. In regards to practicality, the author provides very specific instructions on what to do as a Christian. Furthermore, the author provides biblical evidence to support the exercise of the disciplines along with benefits that point toward Godliness. Whitney’s work contains three significant weaknesses. First, although the author sprinkles references to the Holy Spirit throughout and allocates two pages to the topic in the final chapter, the attributions are woefully inadequate. Millard Erickson explains that sanctification, the process of becoming more Godly, “is the Holy Spirit’s applying to the life of the believer the work done by Jesus Christ” (Erickson 2007, 980). Certainly, discipline leads to Godliness, but the Holy Spirit empowers the discipline of the believer, otherwise, the pursuit of Godliness becomes a human rather than divine endeavor. Whitney overemphasizes the human role and deemphasizes the Spirit’s role, which leads to the next weakness. Although the above summary mentioned certain risks associated with expanding the means of grace, the most significant risk is a potential works based theology whereby works precede grace. If the disciplines are like channels of grace, then, for example, the author needs to be much clearer on whether serving procures grace or whether grace causes service. Whitney appears to lead the reader toward the former rather than the latter by comparing the disciplines to playing an instrument, lowering a golf score, and extending significant effort in a career because individuals “know it takes sacrifice to succeed” (21). The emphasis on works preceding grace is furthered by Whitney’s statement, “As we place ourselves in them \[the disciplines\] to seek communion with Christ,” *then* “His grace flows to us and we are changed” (19). Third, Whitney often refers to blessings that result from the disciplines (56, 92, 112, 153). However, a biblical anomaly exists because believers have already been blessed “with every spiritual blessing…in Christ” (Eph. 1:3, NAS). Regarding spiritual growth, Peter O’Brien explains that it is a matter of appropriating “more fully ‘every spiritual blessing’ that has graciously been given to them in Christ” (O’Brien 1999, 126). In other words, because of a believer’s new identity “they are to become what they already are” (O’Brien 1999, 265). Whitney at best, underemphasizes the critical relationship between identity, the disciplines, and Godliness, and at worst, reverses the order of blessings and the disciplines. ## **PERSONAL APPLICATION** Upon reflection on Whitney’s book, I found myself categorizing the spiritual disciplines as personal strengths and weaknesses. My strengths are Bible intake, stewardship, silence and solitude, journaling, learning, and more recently, prayer. However, glaring weaknesses exist regarding worship, evangelism, serving, and fasting. The following analysis briefly summarizes my current strengths and then provides a more extensive examination of my present weaknesses with suggestions for future mitigation. I am an introverted, intuitive, thinking, spiritually gifted leader, which reinforce my strengths. Accordingly, certain disciplines such as bible intake, silence, solitude, and learning come naturally. I thoroughly enjoy withdrawing and learning especially when thinking pertains to spiritual matters based on Scripture. I would have considered prayer to be a significant weakness a month ago, but the impact of David Earley’s book, *Prayer: The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders,* has revolutionized my thought process and activity around the spiritual discipline of prayer. Furthermore, as a gifted leader, stewarding time is also strength, and even risks moving into a weakness when occasionally obsessing over making every minute count. With a background in accounting and finance as a Certified Public Accountant, financial stewardship began as a young adult, and I currently enjoy tithing and looking for ways to continue to increase giving beyond a ten percent tithe. Finally, I started journaling approximately ten years ago and it has been the impetus for much self-discovery and writing for ministry. Alternatively, blatant weaknesses exist regarding worship, evangelism, serving, and fasting. First, the concept of worship has been quite allusive and, at times, confusing. I find myself moved to tears while listening to Josh Groban’s rendition of *Per Te* and Beethoven’s *Pastoral Symphony* and struggle to worship God corporately. I thoroughly enjoy the adoration part of my personal prayer life, but struggle to simply quiet myself for a moment during the day and admire my Creator. Accordingly, I am planning to immediately begin praying for God to bring clarity to my confusion, and shed His light on areas of my life that stifle worship of Him. Second, although I am in constant communication with others about God, my intentionality regarding personal evangelism is almost non-existent. I agree with Whitney that evangelism is expected and empowered (100-106). Unfortunately, I have allowed the manipulative techniques of numerous evangelistic efforts to inappropriately taint my view of personal evangelism. However, while reading Whitney’s book, I began reading William Fay’s book, *Share Jesus Without Fear*, which introduced me to a mode of personal evangelism that employs a non-argumentative approach via inquiry and empathy. Accordingly, I plan to begin implementing personal evangelism into my daily routine by looking for God at work and asking relevant spiritual questions to those God places into my life. The third area of weakness is serving. In my particular case, I believe I must serve to train myself away from pride. The ugliness of my prideful flesh prods me to delegate jobs beneath me and avoid lowly tasks. Accordingly, I decided to take action. Prior to writing the last sentence, I went to a website called Kids Against Hunger that packs food for starving children once every month. They limit participants to 100 individuals at each pack and, not so coincidentally, the website stated that 98 participants had already registered for the forthcoming Saturday. I asked my wife if she wanted to pack food for starving kids on Saturday. She replied that she would love to help, and then raised her eyebrows and with an incredulous smile asked, “Are you going with me?” My wife was as surprised as my flesh, which screamed that I had much better things to do with my time and then I registered for the two remaining spots. The fourth identified weakness is fasting. My longest fast lasted approximately two weeks, but unfortunately, it had very little to do with spiritual growth. However, I have personally noticed that my spiritual life wanes as the week progresses. Accordingly, regular fasting in the tradition of the church fathers and John Wesley appears appropriate to assist in recalibrating during the week. My plan of action is to participate in a liquid fast on Wednesday for the next two weeks and then assess the Spirit’s leading to prepare for future fasts. ## **CONCLUSION** Without question, Whitney accomplishes the objective of spurring the reader toward the disciplines with constant reminders that the purpose of discipline is for Godliness. Specifically, the author’s practical approach and biblical support for many of the disciplines provide a strong motivational message. Although significant risks exist, which include a lack of emphasis on the role of the Holy Spirit, a potential works based theology, and a disconnection between one’s identity in Christ and the disciplines, the importance of Whitney’s message remains. In fact, Whitney’s work presented the opportunity for re-evaluation of a number of personal weaknesses including areas of worship, evangelism, serving, and fasting and provided motivation to create a mitigative action plan. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Carson, D. A. *The Gospel According to John.* Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1991. - Desiring God. “A Baptist Catechism” adapted by John Piper. (accessed April 7, 2013). - Erickson, Millard J. *Christian Theology*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007. - Foster, Richard. *Celebration of Discipline: The Path to Spiritual Growth*. New York: HarperCollins, 1998. - Hodge, Charles. *Systematic Theology*. Vol. 3. Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1997. - O’Brien, Peter T. *The Letter to the Ephesians*. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999. - Whitney, Donald S. *Spiritual Disciplines for the Christian Life*. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1991. - Willard, Dallas. *The Spirit of the Disciplines*. New York: HarperCollins, 1991. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Radical: Taking Back Your Faith from the American Dream](https://www.livestransforming.com/radical-taking-back-your-faith-from-the-american-dream/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Radical: Taking Back Your Faith from the American Dream David Platt’s book, *Radical: Taking Back Your Faith from the American Dream,* published by Multnomah in 2010, is a call to a radical abandonment of the perceived safety and comforts of the American culture in order to advance the kingdom of God. The theme of Platt’s work may be that a self-reliant consumerist approach to the Gospel in America needs turned back to a God-reliant missional approach to the Gospel. The following provides a brief summary, critique, and personal application of Platt’s work. ## **SUMMARY** Platt begins *Radical* by casting a vision for a decentralized approach to discipleship backed by a strengthened commitment to forsaking self in order to follow Christ. The author then describes the depravity of humanity and its desperate need for God and emphasizes the importance of relying on the power of God rather than fabricated human methods for furthering the Gospel. Next, the author calls the reader to engage in God’s global purpose by individually engaging in the lives of others. Platt then addresses the unhealthy control that wealth has on the American psyche followed by a short treatise against universalism. Finally, the benefits of radical abandonment take center stage prior to the author formulating a blueprint to exuviate the American dream in one year. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 33 182x300 - Radical: Taking Back Your Faith from the American Dream](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-33-182x300.jpg "Radical: Taking Back Your Faith from the American Dream - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/404R6p2)Radical: Taking Back Your Faith from the American Dream Platt first addresses the risks associate with the modern American attractional church culture by juxtaposing its consumerist mindset against a biblical perspective of abandonment of self (Platt 2010, 1-7). More specifically, in opposition to catering to consumers in an attempt to increase followership, Jesus actually raised the bar and created barriers of entry (7-12). The author asserts that Western Christianity rationalizes away the radical call of detachment from the world at the risk of experiencing God (12-18). Platt finalizes chapter one by inspiring the reader to risk it all for the sake of the Gospel by believing and obeying Jesus to fulfill our purpose and “discover that our meaning is found in community and our life is found in giving ourselves for the sake of others” (18-21). Although the youthful exuberance of the author’s comments are quite compelling, the assertion that community provides a path to meaning potentially risks the accusation that Platt is advancing a modified form of liberation theology. The author next provides narrative from personal experience, both domestically and abroad, to encourage a deeper commitment to Scripture (23-28). Platt then extends the conversation into an important discussion regarding the depravity of man and man’s sinful nature (28-36). Interestingly, Platt senses the need to imply that God not only hates sin, but also hates sinners (29). However, Ephesians 1:4 states that God chose believers prior to the beginning of the world and a proper exegetical study of [the New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/) Greek word for choose, ejklevgomai, and its comparable Hebrew word in the LXX never suggest “the object or the person not chosen \[was\] spurned or regarded with dislike” (Hoehner 2002, 185-187). Regardless, Platt’s argument highlights an important point…that an authentic relationship with God goes beyond a one time “repeat after me” prayer (37). The author concludes the chapter with a smidgen of irony by inviting the readers into a fist time decision or potential rededication to Christ and one can only assume Platt is implying that the reader should pray (41). Once the issues of man’s depravity and the necessity of an authentic relationship with Christ are settled, Platt then warns of the risks associated with living a Christian life through the eyes of American individualism (44-50). In particular, the author exhorts the reader to rely on God’s power, not human effort to further the kingdom (50-60). Ironically, Platt admits being part of the problem by creating a “whole host of means and methods…for doing church that require little if any power from God” (48-49). Next, Platt suggests that God created humanity for the dual global purpose of enjoying a relationship with Him and spreading His glory throughout the world (61-69). The author recognizes a disconnection between grace and glory by many believers (69-72). Platt believes that Christians tend to take the grace, but not give the glory (70-71). The author recognizes this theology potentially sets God up as a needy and selfish Deity, but considers the hypothesis justified due to God’s greatness (71). If not careful, the potential risk associated with Platt’s perspective is a quid pro quo relationship with God whereby God provides the grace and humanity provides the glory. However, God does not need humanity, humanity needs God, and God empowers both grace and the obedience that leads to His glory (Ephesians 2:9; Romans 15:15-16 \[NASB\]). Platt continues by asserting that God’s purpose is global for every Christian, not just those called (72-75). Furthermore, Platt considers the argument that local needs should take precedence as a “smoke screen” and supplies statistics to support the assertion that global challenges are greater than local ones (75-78). Once Platt solidifies the argument for a global perspective, he attempts to provide a solution. In opposition to manufactured programs and seminars that focus on the masses, the author suggests every believer follow Christ’s examples to focus on the few (85-93). Specifically, Platt suggests that individuals immerse themselves into the culture of the lost, build relationships, baptize, and teach, and accordingly, measure success not on how many believers “come” to a building, but by how many “go” to the lost (93-106). Here the reader clearly observes the author combining the evangelical theology of the previous chapters with a missional focus that supports the primary purpose of the book. After Platt casts a strong vision for mobilizing evangelical missional activity, it appears the author attempts to overcome two potential obstacles – prosperity and universalism. First, the author addresses American wealth by comparing poverty to the blind spot of slavery, but qualifies that wealth is not inherently evil (107-113). Platt then explains that New Testament theology neither connects financial prosperity with obedience nor commands the construction of buildings for gatherings (115-119). Next, the author explores the temptations and risks of wealth and encourages giving as much as possible to those in need (119-140). It seems centuries of traditions around church buildings and finances would impede most institutionalized churches from Platt’s vision of decentralized missional activity, but the author is certainly at his best when motivating and inspiring the reader to a global vision. The second potential obstacle identified by Platt pertains to universalism, which if true, would certainly curtail the author’s vision. Platt’s utilization of Scripture is strongest in this chapter as he systematically undermines universalism with seven truth statements (143-157). The author then concludes the polemic by casting a missional vision of going into all the world (157-160). Reflecting back on the radical detachment from chapter one, Platt discusses the risks associated with living a missional life for Christ (161-169). The author then argues that the benefits of God’s sovereignty, love, and presence provide believers’ ultimate safety, security, and satisfaction (171-175). Platt finalizes the message with a few inspirational stories of Christian leaders who “did not love their lives” (175). In the final chapter, Platt encourages the reader to commit to a one-year radical experiment (184-186). Accordingly, the author provides a five-step plan to direct the experiment. First, pray for the world (186-190). Second, read the entire Bible (190-193). Third, give sacrificially to a specific need (193-196). Fourth, immerse oneself into a new culture (196-204). Fifth, engage in a “multiplying community” (204-212). Platt then provides a few disclaimers regarding the American dream prior to extending one last call to missional living (212-217). ## **CRITIQUE** The primary strength of Platt’s book is certainly the motivational and inspirational vision for missional living with the purpose of moving Christians from passive to active, from pews to streets, and from self to others. Additional strengths include the message of detachment from the influence of the world, the identification of weaknesses associated with the attractional growth model of the institutional church, the sound polemic against universalism, and the exploration of the paradoxes surrounding the idea that losing life means gaining it. The weaknesses include theological ambiguity, potential hypocrisy, and a not-so-radical plan. First, Platt appropriately suggests that salvation goes beyond a “repeat after me” prayer. Accordingly, the author questions the salvation of church attenders and states that salvation “consists of a deep wrestling in our souls with the sinfulness” (39). The author attempts to answer the implicit question of how much wrestling is necessary by stating, “We want him so much that we abandon everything else” (39). Platt is certainly not supporting a works based theology, but the overtones of lordship salvation may leave the reader wondering if salvation is even possible. Furthermore, Platt hints at a form of liberation theology when referring to providing for the poor: “As we meet needs on earth, we are proclaiming the Gospel” (135). However, many non-Christian organizations provide for the poor, and such activity does not necessarily constitute a proclamation of the Gospel. Finally, although the author provides important instruction regarding detaching one’s identity from the world, Platt provides little explicit focus on attaching a believer’s identity to Christ. In sum, the fusion of grace, lordship salvation, and liberation theology is not necessarily heretical, but creates theological obscurity. The second weakness pertains to the potential accusation of hypocrisy of an author who acknowledges the risks associated with the organized church’s attractional model while simultaneously admitting to the activities he denounces. Specifically, Platt is a mega church pastor and charismatic communicator in a multi-million dollar facility providing programming for the crowds while holding seminars and speaking at conferences across the nation with God’s power being, in the author’s words, “at best an add-on to our strategies” (50). Third, Platt concludes by providing the “radical” plan of praying more, reading the Bible more, giving more, performing more missional work, and being more involved in the church community. Although certainly nothing wrong with any of the items on the list, the concepts seem anything but radical to the messaging of the traditional institutionalized church of the twentieth and early twenty-first century. In fact, modern Roman Catholicism would likely purport the same plan save reading the Bible outside of mass. ## **PERSONAL APPLICATION** During the past fifteen years, I have felt a call to ministry, but not a call to the institutional church. The call to ministry, albeit directionally ambiguous, along with fifteen years of church consulting, is the primary reason I decided to further my education with the Liberty University’s seminary. I am one class away from finishing my degree and the following summarizes how God is honing the direction of my call to ministry in light of Platt’s work. David Platt’s book highlighted in significant ways the importance of discipleship, evangelism, and missional activity within an environment of decentralized “multiplying communities” (85-106). Although Platt’s vision is clear, the deployment seems cryptic and confusing. Similarly, the emerging church has highlighted the importance of missional activity in significant ways since the mid 1990’s, but with significant risks. In the book, *Becoming Conversant with the Emerging Church: Understanding a Movement and Its Implications*, D. A. Carson identifies a number of these risks, which include “the tendency toward reductionism, its condemnation of confessional Christianity, \[and\] some theological shallowness and intellectual incoherence” (Carson 2005, 57). Accordingly, though Platt’s deployment strategy is disjointed, the endeavor at combining evangelical theology with missional activity while not undermining confessional Christianity is admirable. However, a deployment of Platt’s vision is crucial and provides the content for the remainder of my personal application. The deployment strategy consists of the formation of Decentralized Evangelical Missional Communities (DEMC) called Freedom Communities (see Appendix for DEMC illustration). The formation of DEMC’s center around three processes that include identity in Christ, servant leadership development, and decentralized communities. First, at its core is the Gospel message declaring at regeneration that believers are in Christ, and Christ is in believers. In other words, believers identify self with Christ, not the world (Ephesians 1:13, 2:4-5, 3:6). Second, the development of the DEMCs depends on individualized training in servant leadership. The leadership training will be for the purpose of planting DEMCs utilizing a thirty-day video training program with weekly one-on-one mentoring lasting a minimum of ninety days. The video training will focus on how to lead a DEMC in light of its three purposes: discipleship, evangelism, and mission. First, the discipleship training will focus on the concept of “empathic discovery.” Empathic discovery is a form of discipleship based on the book, *FREEDOM: How Grace Transforms Your Life Now* (2010), which is a relationally focused discipleship process that utilizes five chronological steps: (1) empathy, (2) assessing willingness, (3) inquiry, (4) Scripture, and (5) sharing the identity solution. Second, evangelism training will focus on the concept of “intentional inquiry.” Intentional inquiry is a form of evangelism that utilizes five steps similar to relational discipleship: (1) empathy, (2) asking permission, (3) Scripture, (4) inquiry, and (5) sharing the Gospel. Third, mission training will focus on the concept of “dangerous serving.” Dangerous serving is moving out of one’s comfort zone and into the culture, whether across the street or across the globe. The mission training is similar to discipleship and evangelism. By using the steps of empathy, inquiry, permission, and Scripture the servant leader can join God where He is working in the lives of the DEMC, as opposed to furthering a personal agenda, which allows the leader to share the mission of the community with the community. The training not only supports an individualized biblical approach to the development of servant leaders, but also competently engages a postmodern mindset through inquiry and discovery rather than argumentation and evidence (Luke 22:24-27). Third, the DEMCs will consist of communities of no more than fifteen people. The individuals will meet within their culture in houses, café’s, parks, schools, offices etc. The communities will actually “be” the church by engaging in discipleship, evangelism, and mission. The leaders will encourage attendance of Sunday morning services, regardless of where the participants attend, for the purpose of celebration and hearing God’s Word. Although further explanation is necessary, the constraints of space limit any further analysis to a short breakdown of timing. The creation of the leadership training will be in the summer of 2013 and the deployment of Freedom Communities will follow in the fall of 2013. ## **CONCLUSION** Platt’s book provides a strong argument against a consumerist Christian mindset and for a God-reliant missional Christianity. The author effectively motivates the reader living within a Western culture toward missional living. Although theological ambiguity, potential hypocrisy, and a not-so-radical plan distract, Platt’s book was worth reading for its strong motivational impact alone. Furthermore, the thought provoking nature of Platt’s work provided the additional benefit of relevant ministry integration. ## **APPENDIX** Decentralized Evangelical Missional Communities (DEMC) Illustration\* \* The above diagram represents a conceptualization of Decentralized Evangelical Missional Communities that intend to keep the current institutions of confessional Christianity intact. Illustration created by Derek Wilder for Lives Transforming Group, Inc. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Carson, D. A. *Becoming Conversant with the Emerging Church: Understanding a Movement and Its Implications.* Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005. - Hoehner, Harold W. *Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary*. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002. - Platt, David. *Radical: Taking Back Your Faith from the American Dream*. Colorado Springs, CO: Multnomah, 2010. - Wilder, Derek E. *FREEDOM: How Grace Transforms Your Life Now*. Anderson, IN: Lives Transforming, 2010. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Prayer The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/prayer-the-timeless-secret-of-high-impact-leaders-book-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Prayer The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders Book Review David Earley’s book, *Prayer: The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders,* published by Living Ink in 2008, is a practical exposition on prayer and its relationship to spiritual leadership. The author’s goal is explicit: “To motivate Christian leaders to pray more fervently, more frequently, more effectively, and more contagiously than ever before” (Earley 2008, xii). Utilizing research based on the prayer life of seventy-seven spiritual leaders, Earley identifies and expounds on nine specific prayer disciplines in order to accomplish the goal. The following provides a brief summary, critique, and personal application of Earley’s work. ## **SUMMARY** Earley’s nine prayer disciplines create the organizational structure used to accomplish the goal of motivating Christian leaders to pray. The nine disciplines include learning to value prayer’s power, making time to pray, praying for followers, training others to pray, turning problems into prayers, and connecting fasting with prayer. In addition to these six prayer disciplines, the author identifies three more, which include the importance of possessing boldness in prayer, building variety and depth into prayer, and adopting the best prayer practices from other spiritual leaders. A short summary of the nine disciplines delineated by chapter provides the impetus for this summary. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 15 182x300 - Prayer The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-15-182x300.png "Prayer The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gOVNKH)Prayer: The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders The first prayer discipline, which is the cornerstone of the entire work, is valuing the power of prayer. Earley begins by linking prayer to maximizing leadership impact and suggests that prayer is the most critical ingredient to effective spiritual leadership and then provides a number of arguments to support the claim (Earley 2008, 1-2). Earley argues that prayer moves God to influence individuals the spiritual leader serves, saves time as God has the ability to accomplish more in less time than the leader, and increases the leader’s efficacy as God’s activity is omnipresent compared to the leader’s finite abilities (3-6). Furthermore, the author asserts that increasing prayer is directly proportional to individual’s spiritual breakthroughs and insights, that God is completely absent from ministerial work without prayer, that prayer is the most powerful spiritual weapon against spiritual warfare, and that the intense demands of spiritual leadership require prayer for the leader to survive (7-14). Similar to each subsequent chapter, Earley concludes with a call to action regarding potential insights and practical next steps (16). The second prayer discipline is making time to pray. Earley augments the arguments in the previous chapter by adding and reviewing reasons for the necessity of prayer. The reasons include following Jesus’s example, increasing leadership capacity, and optimizing time (18-23). The author then provides a number of practical ways to make time to pray that include creating a daily prayer time, setting aside a certain amount of time each day, and locating a specific place to pray (23-30). The next prayer discipline involves intercessory prayer by the spiritual leader. Following important references to Moses, Samuel, and Jesus, who provided intercession for followers, Earley contends that spiritual leaders have an obligation to intercede for followers (33-39). Additionally, the author notes that intercession can tax leaders both emotionally and physically and, at times, requires irrepressible perseverance (44-48). The chapter concludes with specific suggestions regarding how to intercede, which involve focusing primarily on spiritual matters, referencing prayer in Scripture, as well as specific ideas regarding praying for prodigals, the lost, and one’s local church (48-50). The fourth prayer discipline pertains to training other individuals to pray for the spiritual leader. Earley explains that spiritual warfare and the adversity of leadership necessitate prayer for spiritual leaders (53-57). The author then references a number of spiritual leaders throughout history including Moses, the Apostle Peter, Jonathan Edwards, John Maxwell, Charles Finney, and D. L. Moody who all relied on prayer partners during their ministry (58-66). Finally, Earley suggests tapping into prayer partners by first praying for a prayer partner and then considering the development of a team of prayer partners who meet on a regular basis (67-69). Turning problems into prayer is the fifth prayer discipline. Earley recognizes that burnout is common among spiritual leaders (71-72). Accordingly, the author explains the importance of the spiritual leader discerning when the appropriate response to challenges is simply to let God to carry the burden (72-77). Earley reinforces the concept by exploring prayerful cries for help raised by David, King Asa, King Hezekiah, and Peter (77-80). Furthermore, the author encourages turning worry lists into prayer lists in the tradition of Martin Luther and then references George Muller and D. L. Moody’s reliance on God’s provision and rescue (84-86). Finally, a brief story of Billy Graham turning the challenge of indecisiveness into prayer concludes the chapter (86-88). The sixth prayer discipline is fasting in conjunction with prayer. Earley provides a number of examples of prominent biblical and church leaders who advocate fasting with prayer (91-93). The author then defines fasting as the denial of food due to spiritual hunger and then lists twenty different biblical blessings that occurred in response to fasting (94-98). Additionally, Earley provides four potential reasons for fasting, which include fasting for revival, monetary miracles, healing, and evangelism (101-106). The chapter concludes with specific advice on how to fast effectively through proper preparation and gradual progress (107-108). Praying with boldness is the seventh prayer discipline. Earley suggests that effective spiritual leaders pray with confidence in God’s promises by treating them as a reality (111-114). The author presents three caveats for claiming God’s promises, which include studying the meaning of Scripture, recognizing the promise is for the leader, and keeping motivations pure (116). Early then explains that boldness entails being specific, asking big, and documenting requests (117-125). The eighth prayer discipline involves building variety and depth into prayer. Earley utilizes the Lord’s Prayer to support a model of balanced prayer based on the acronym ACTS (129). ACTS signifies adoration, confession, thanksgiving, and supplication, although the author suggests rearranging the order and placing thanksgiving prior to adoration (130). Earley provides a number of alternatives within each section of the ACTS model. For instance, adoration is available in many forms such as verbal, a few written sentences, a song, and corporate worship (138-142). Adopting the best prayer practices from other spiritual leaders is the ninth prayer discipline. Earley presents a plethora of best practices for the reader to consider including praying between daily activities, praying until answered, and taking a prayer retreat (153-157). The author provides a number of suggestions for prayer retreats such as booking a hotel room, beginning with rest, and utilizing the ACTS model (158-159). Additional prayer practices include praying short instant messages to God, praying the Scripture, praying candidly, attending prayer groups, and praying while walking (160-170). In the final chapter, Earley asks the reader to review the key insights identified while reading the book and apply them to life (173). Next, the author provides a prayer life inventory to complete, which assists in evaluating the reader’s’ prayer life (174-175). Finally, Earley asks the reader to document certain areas to improve based on the inventory, create a specific plan for application, and to document at least one exceptional idea learned from the reading (178). ## **CRITIQUE** The primary strength of Earley’s work rests on the concepts of motivation and practicality. The author’s goal is to motivate Christian leaders to pray, and without a doubt, the mission is accomplished. The first two chapters alone regarding transformational efficacy, spiritual timesaving, and ministerial survival provide enough motivation for any gifted leader to kneel in prayer. The remaining chapters continue to contribute to the goal of motivation via inspirational stories, but the author further enhances motivation through useful practicality. Specifically, a plethora of practical advice regarding how to pray and when to pray adds significantly to why one prays. A number of minor weaknesses also emerge from Earley’s work. First, in an attempt to motivate the reader further, the author unnecessarily borders on a form of prosperity gospel. Specifically, Earley explains that success in prayer “will make success in the other areas much easier” (2). Additionally, the author states, “If I start my day in prayer, the rest of the day always goes better” (19). The language utilized may cause one to conclude inappropriately that success and an easy life are somehow expected results of a prayerful life. Second, at times Earley may take the power of prayer too far. Quoting David Jeremiah, the author suggests God “does nothing in ministry apart from prayer” (10). The extreme nature of statement appears to potentially undermine the providence of God and risk placing God at the mercy of man. Furthermore, referring to a number of sobering pastoral statistics, Earley correctly suggests, “Spiritual leaders need prayer” (57). However, to imply that pastoral unhealthiness is primarily due to a lack of prayer may take the evidence further than exists. Finally, Earley’s theology of confession raises questions. Certainly, confession is an integral part of spiritual life. However, to suggest the necessity of confessing “every sin” because God does not use “dirty vessels” risks moving the reader back to the despair of the young Martin Luther (145-146). ## **PERSONAL APPLICATION** After completing the life inventory at the conclusion of Earley’s book, Upon reflection, I realized that I have allowed growing up in the local church to taint my view of prayer. For example, most prayer in the local churches I have attended seemed to focus on issues such as physical and financial health. During the last decade, God has revealed the sin of coveting in my life and continues to remind me that He is all I need because I am complete in Christ (Colossians 2:9-10). Accordingly, praying for physical and financial health appeared to represent a term I have coined ‘covet-praying.’ Specifically, God was asking me to relinquish these areas of my life to Him, thus praying for areas I had been coveting felt sinful. Furthermore, I sensed praying before meals became a shallow meaningless routine that constituted an act that mirrored sin more than a spiritual event. Finally, God also has been revealing that challenges are actually gifts He provides for my [spiritual growth](https://www.livestransforming.com/spiritual-development/) (James 1:2). However, most of my prayers and the prayers of others focused on the avoidance, not the celebration, of challenges. Once again, praying for God to remove a challenge that He was using to further my spiritual growth seemed inappropriate. Accordingly, I had lost most of my reasons to pray. A couple weeks prior to beginning the course, I ordered the required books and recognized the book on prayer pertained specifically to leaders. As a spiritually gifted leader, I was intrigued by the potential combination. I devoured chapter one and then went back and read it again. Although somewhat embarrassing, I must admit that I had never understood the power of prayer. Specifically, four principles purported by Earley made a tremendous impact on my perspective of prayer. The first principle was the relationship between God’s omnipresence and prayer. I understand that for life change to occur within individuals I serve that God has to reveal Himself to them. However, for some reason, I had not thought about God’s efficacy in ministry from a leadership perspective. The thought of the omnipresent power of God working in ministry every minute of the day is very motivating to a leader. Secondly, the principle that prayer actually saves time was a foreign concept to me, but in light of God’s omnipresence, it is quite logical, and again, quite motivating. The third principle is that God might intentionally limit His work in light of the absence of prayer. Specifically, two reasons support Earley’s contention that prayer and God’s work are directly proportional. First, as a father of three adolescent children, I have learned that when I push myself on my children, it often hinders our relationship, but like God, when I wait for them to ask for help and then oblige, our relationship grows. Second, if God works within my ministerial efforts without me asking for God’s involvement it would be difficult for the credit to be attributed properly to God. The fourth principle relates to asking others to pray for me. I often do weekly large group facilitations as part of my ministry and have noticed the physical damage the enemy attempts to invoke during those days of ministry. However, I cannot ever remember requesting that someone specifically pray for me against spiritual attacks. Retrospectively, these concepts seem elementary, but it was as if I was wearing blinders regarding prayer and its connection to leadership. Spiritual leaders are spiritual doers. Accordingly, I immediately deployed three initiatives, which included creating the plan, working the plan, and sharing the plan. First, I created a thirty-minute prayer plan, which consisted of part listening and part talking. During the listening phase, I find a quiet place, read approximately three verses of Scripture, read a section of commentary pertaining to the Scripture, and journal what I hear God revealing. During the talking phase, I use the ACTS method Earley teaches and write out the prayer in a journal. Each phase lasts approximately fifteen minutes. Second, I determined that I would not roll out of bed until I worked my thirty-minute plan. I found that once I was out of bed the risk significantly increased that I would not find time to pray. Third, I sent a message out to my email lists explaining that I was starting a prayer group for ten people for ten weeks. My commitment was to teach them how to pray and what I was learning about prayer, but they had to commit to a minimum of thirty minutes of prayer every day to be a part of the group. The group filled up within a few days. I purchased Bibles, commentaries, and journals for each participant and last Monday night we had our first prayer group. It was an amazing evening. ## **CONCLUSION** Earley’s book certainly accomplishes its goal of motivating spiritual leaders to pray more fervently, frequently, effectively, and contagiously by providing significant benefits of the power of prayer and numerous practical recommendations regarding the activity of praying as referenced in the summary. Accordingly, the work’s greatest strengths revolve around its motivational impact and practical application, and although a number of potential weaknesses regarding prosperity, providence, and confession detract, the benefits far outweigh the costs. Most importantly, the author was able to undermine certain faulty beliefs regarding prayer, provide powerful reasons for a spiritually gifted leader to pray, and offer specific guidelines regarding how to pray and start a prayer group, which allowed immediate personal integration of the concepts. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Earley, David. *Prayer: The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders*. Chattanooga, TN: Living Ink, 2008. - Always the 1st step to progress! **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [The Complete Guide to Crisis & Trauma Counseling Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-complete-guide-to-crisis-trauma-counseling-book-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Complete Guide to Crisis & Trauma Counseling Book Review ## **Summary** Loss, crisis, trauma, and death are some of the most difficult challenges people will face. Caring individuals want to help those suffering, but often they simply do not know what to do or say. H. Norman Wright (2011) provides a highly accessible work geared to help pastors, chaplains, and laypeople minister to those in their darkest hours. In general, Wright’s work focuses primarily on the overarching topics of loss, crisis, trauma, death, and suicide. Within each of these categories, the author first describes the topic, then helps the counselor recognize the issue, highlights the steps or phases the counselee will likely experience, and finally, recommends specific ideas the counselor can use to assist the survivor. Wright also introduces various methods from leading authors to enhance the reader’s breadth of knowledge and access to resources. The purpose of the book is not to train ministers to be professional crisis counselors, but instead, to provide direction to those who want to minister to hurting people during such difficult times. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 60 182x300 - The Complete Guide to Crisis & Trauma Counseling Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-60-182x300.png "The Complete Guide to Crisis & Trauma Counseling Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gQ3Y9w)The Complete Guide to Crisis & Trauma Counseling What to Do and Say When It Matters Most! by Wright, H. Norman Beginning by laying a biblical foundation of [pastoral counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/pastoral-counseling-faith-and-reason/), Wright (2011) highlights Jesus’s capacity to care for hurting people with compassion, encouragement, and hope (pp. 17-27). Wright sprinkles many of these biblical counseling principles, such as listening, inquiry, empathy, skillful confrontation, as well as building trust and rapport, throughout the remainder of his work. Wright then moves into the specific issue of loss, which ranges from the concrete, such as the loss of a loved one, to the abstract, such as the loss of identity (p. 67). Wright provides several helpful suggestions for caregivers to normalize and educate, which are two of the most important ways to help counselees face loss and deal with grief (p. 86). Also, numerous practical suggestions assist the counselee in learning to say goodbye such letter writing, journaling, and making amends (pp. 113-125). Although related to loss, crisis often pertains to a sudden tragedy. Following his helpful methodology, Wright (2011) describes the elements of a crisis, provides advice regarding staying balanced, identifies the patterns of crisis response and recovery, and enumerates steps for intervention (pp. 127-185). Understanding these patterns help caregivers normalize and educate. Unfortunately, crisis events often lead to trauma. Although a referral to a professional is often necessary, the minister can deploy basic intervention procedures such as creating a safe environment, normalizing triggers and flashbacks, and helping the counselee take steps toward recovery (pp. 213-236). Death and suicide often fit the categories of loss, crisis, and trauma, but Wright provides a separate analysis for these challenges to highlight their nuances. Wright also identifies certain suicide myths and refines his approach to address situations such as the difficult task of breaking bad news to family members (pp. 302-327). Wright recognizes that children and adolescents process crisis situations differently than adults. Learning to recognize unspoken anxiety, fear, and anger in children, as well as helping youngsters adjust by using playtime are examples of methods distinctive to children (Wright, 2011, pp. 372-383). Similarly, by understanding the unique power of peer acceptance and distinctive coping mechanisms of adolescents, such as withdrawing and rebelling, the minister is more prepared to utilize listening skills and empathy rather than to emotionally react (Wright, pp. 386-387, 404-413). By addressing the distinctives of adolescents and children, Wright provides valuable tools for caregivers to adjust their approach to the type of counselee. Finally, Wright concludes with a valuable segment on utilizing Scripture and prayer within a crisis counseling environment, which brings the biblical impetus for the book full circle (pp. 415-431). ## **Concrete Responses** The personal life episode that Wright’s book triggered in my memory was an emotional breakdown that I experienced when I was in grade school and highlights my interest in Wright’s work. A schoolmate of mine named Lori had leukemia. She set next to me in my second-grade class. During this time her hair started to fall out, and then she was gone. A year or two later, a friend named Michelle, who rode on my school bus, did not get on the bus. She had died in her sleep. I was confused and scared. I told my dad I was scared. My dad was a policeman and death was a common occurrence. My father replied, “Sometimes it happens.” I started having physical problems such as asthma, chest pains, and stomach issues. My doctor admitted me to a hospital for tests. Nothing was wrong. When I got home, I told my mom that I felt bad. My mother replied, “I don’t know what to tell you, but nothing is wrong with you, so you need to get over it.” I decided I would ignore my feelings and indeed “get over it.” Unfortunately, Wright (2011) insightfully explains, “The long-term effects of childhood trauma are often worse than the trauma itself” (p. 339). In my case, Wright is correct. Fast forward about two decades later and I started having health issues again. Anxiety around death once again reared its head. I was responding to certain health and career issues in irrational ways. Fortunately, I had a licensed therapist who helped me recognize the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. She explained that I had never dealt with the trauma I had experienced as a child. In line with the insights of Wright (2011), my therapist provided a safe place for me to share embarrassing thoughts and beliefs (pp. 213-214). She also helped me deal with my intrusive thoughts, recognize my triggers, and understand my symptoms (Wright, pp. 213-217). Much progress has occurred, but I still struggle with triggers and must remind myself of God’s truth to replace the irrational thoughts and fears that still sometimes occur. ## **Reflection** The positive attributes of Wright’s book are numerous. First, Wright’s (2011) common-sense approach to helping clients is refreshing. For those with little to no counseling education, even basic counseling skills such as listening, empathy, and inquiry are critical to caring for hurting individuals. Second, Wright’s numerous references to other authors’ approaches, such as Jeffrey Mitchell’s critical incident stress debriefing, provides the reader with an introduction to various methods and additional resources to explore (pp. 226-230). Third, Wright’s book provides a format that can be used as a reference manual by ministers to quickly refer to when specific crisis situations arise. The primary question that arose while reading was how Wright’s work can be implemented into my current ministry efforts. A few weaknesses detract. First, at times, Wright provides a potpourri of ideas without a linear thought path. For example, regarding helping trauma survivors, Wright (2011) provides tools to create a safe environment but lacks implementation guidelines regarding the recovery process and goals (pp. 213-236). Furthermore, some of Wright’s suggestions such as desensitization and relaxation techniques would normally be administered by a licensed counselor (pp. 219-220). Accordingly, Wright’s work appears to sometimes blur the lines between a pastoral counselor and licensed counselor. Granted, overlap is common, but additional clarity regarding distinctions would prove beneficial. Finally, although Wright does refer to Jesus’s methods of care, the virtual absence of the gospel creates concern. For instance, the impact of loss is often exacerbated because an individual’s identity is wrapped up in the item lost, such as a career or spouse, rather than in Christ. The integration of the gospel needs to be a staple of all Christian crisis counseling. The primary question arising from the weaknesses is how I can integrate the gospel into a crisis care ministry program within my ministry. ## **Action** Lives Transforming Group (LTG) is a non-profit Christian counseling and coaching ministry I founded a number years ago. LTG currently has five licensed counselors on staff with several discipleship coaches. The focus of the counseling has been primarily on anxiety, depression, and relationships, but not crisis counseling. In response to the questions raised in the reflection section above, the action plan is to integrate a crisis counseling initiative that integrates the gospel into the LTG ministry. The specifics of communicating the action plan entail three steps. First, I will meet with my counseling staff and discuss the possibility of a crisis hotline and response system for our clients. Second, I will work with the LTG team to develop a plan that allows appropriate level response from our non-licensed discipleship coaches to those in crisis. Third, and most importantly, I will integrate the gospel message into a crisis response system. More specifically, I will summarize the basic concepts outlined in Wright’s book regarding crisis response and add a discussion regarding leaning on Christ for self-worth, value, and identity when individuals may be feeling as if they are losing their identity due to loss, crisis, trauma or death. Personally, considering my own childhood trauma, I have often shied away from helping people in crisis. In the past, I would immediately refer individuals in crisis to one of the LTG licensed counselors. However, the tools Wright provides have given me hope that I can help in certain crisis situations. Accordingly, I plan to begin responding to people in crisis as God brings people into my life rather than immediately referring. Also, I plan to continue to work on my own PTSD responses around certain triggers to be able to extend ministry to those in crisis by using my experience and story to help others. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **Reference** - Wright, H. N. (2011). *The complete guide to crisis & trauma Counseling: What to do and say when it matters most!* Minneapolis, MN: Bethany House. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Re-discovery of Silence in Pastoral Care Article Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/re-discovery-of-silence-in-pastoral-care-article-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Re-discovery of Silence in Pastoral Care Article Review ## **Summary** The journal article, “Re-discovery of Silence in Pastoral Care,” written by Shuji Moriichi (2009) focuses on the power of silence and listening when ministering to care seekers (pp. 1-6). In an American society where divisive combative politics and rude social media outbursts represent power and strength, Moriichi’s article may be more relevant today than when it was written almost a decade ago. The author’s thesis attempts to prove a counter-cultural movement toward silence, listening, and empathy is more powerful in building relationships and caring for those in need, than the incessant need to talk, give advice, or offer interpretative evaluations (Moriichi, p. 5). [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 61 182x300 - Re-discovery of Silence in Pastoral Care Article Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-61-182x300.png "Re-discovery of Silence in Pastoral Care Article Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3WiiTkS)Professional Spiritual & Pastoral Care: A Practical Clergy and Chaplain’s Handbook Moriichi’s (2009) background provides the backdrop for his observations (p. 2). Through his own childhood cross-cultural experience in Japan, he has firsthand experience of the benefits of a high-context culture that values the nuances of non-verbal forms of communication over verbal expressions (Moriichi, p. 2). However, Moriichi insightfully acknowledges that words can be wielded as weapons, but silence also has potential weaknesses (p. 3). Silence may be used to avoid confrontation or manipulate (p. 3). Furthermore, the risks associated with a high-context form of communication include overthinking responses and attempting to read people’s minds at times when a direct request for clarification may be most appropriate (p. 2). These risks notwithstanding, Christianity has a long history that recognizes silence as a powerful force (p. 4-5). The message of the Benedictine Monks, the Desert Fathers, and more recently, Henri Nouwen all highlight the importance of being rather than doing, listening rather than talking, and responding empathically rather than giving advice (Moriichi, 2009, p. 4-5). Moriichi also recognizes that not only is silence a gift of God, but God manifests the power of silence as He listens to our prayers, comforts our hearts, and heals our wounds (Moriichi, p. 5). In sum, while verbal initiative and clarifications are often appropriate, pastoral counseling would do well to intentionally deploy the power of silence as a healing force in a world full of wounded people (p. 4-5). ## **Interaction** My initial response to the article was positive and supportive of my own experience as a caregiver, who has learned the power of listening and empathy over the years. The insights I gained from reading the article included a deeper understanding of cultural diversity, the risks of silence, and the character of God. First, it is easy to assume that one’s cultural perspectives are “right.” However, contrary to much of American culture, the author’s explanation of a culture that honors nonverbal expression aligns closely with certain truths of Scripture: “Everyone should be quick to listen, slow to speak…” (James 1:19, New International Version). Second, as a caregiver, self-awareness is critical. [Pastoral counselors](https://www.livestransforming.com/pastoral-counseling-faith-and-reason/) must honestly assess whether their motivation for silence originates from fear or from a desire to extend comfort and care. Third, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of recognizing that God is a God of silence, and through His silence, He effectively communicates His love, truth, power, and might. As a pastoral counselor, I have recognized the power of silence, listening, and empathy to effectuate change in the lives of care seekers. Accordingly, the primary reason for my interest in the article is to enhance my ministry impact and further support the individuals I counsel. Based upon this article, I plan to continue to explore the power of silence by reading works by Henri Nouwen (2003), which include *The Way of the Heart: Connecting with God Through Prayer, Wisdom, and Silence*. Talkers often justify their responses as an effort to help. However, in a counseling environment as well as relationships in general, the necessity to talk often has more to do with the pain of the talker than the pain of the care seeker. It pains the counselor to see people suffer. The quicker the person is relieved of suffering the quicker the counselor can experience relief. Unfortunately, attempts to heal or fix may backfire. Often advice-giving results in defensiveness, and evaluation results in blame, when the person suffering simply needs the psychological space extended from an empathic ear or a quiet hug. ## **Application** My son, Connor, had just finished his freshman year at college. After moving back home, he started working at a local restaurant. Connor called me one afternoon and asked if I could meet him at the restaurant. I could tell he was upset. When I entered the restaurant, Connor came out and sat at one of the tables with me. He started to cry. I asked if he would like to take a walk outside. We started walking toward a local park. Connor explained that he had begun using marijuana at college with his friends, believed he was addicted, and wanted to kill himself. At this point, many parents would reply with advice-giving and threats in response to the drug use and simultaneously react with fear in response to the suicide threat. I decided to stay silent. As we walked, Connor continued talking by telling the story of how he succumbed to peer pressure and took his first hit of marijuana. He then told stories of the numerous times that he attempted to quit. Finally, Connor concluded that he could not quit, and now he just wanted to end it all. I finally broke my silence and asked Connor how he planned to take his life. Connor did not have a plan for a time, place, or method. At this point, I was confident the suicide threat came more from a feeling of discouragement, rather than active effort to execute the act. I asked Connor if he was interested in brainstorming some potential solutions. Connor admitted that he really wanted to solve the problem. I took out my phone and opened a document application. I told Connor that I would listen to him and take notes as he brainstormed through ways to solve the problem. At first, Connor said he did not know where to start. Instead of trying to fix Connor, I decided to stay silent. After a long pause, Connor decided he needed to reach out for help from other people, rather than trying to solve the problem on his own. I took notes and remained silent. After a few more minutes, Connor decided he needed some accountability, but was not sure how that would work. Again, I took notes and remained silent. A few more minutes went by and Connor restated that he was very motivated to stop using marijuana. Connor then explained that he thought that taking a drug test each week and putting the results on my vanity for proof might hold him accountable and help him stop. I took more notes and remained silent. Finally, Connor asked me if I would help him with his plan. I agreed to help Connor, told him that I was proud of him for taking steps in solving his problem, and then hugged my son. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Moriichi, S. (2009). Re-discovery of silence in pastoral care. *Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling*, *63*(1-2), 1–6. - Nouwen, H. (2003). *The way of the heart: Connecting with God through prayer, wisdom, and silence*. New York: Ballantine Books. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [A Study of Church Members During Times of Crisis Article Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/a-study-of-church-members-during-times-of-crisis-article-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # A Study of Church Members During Times of Crisis Article Review ## **Summary** The journal article, “A Study of Church Members During Times of Crisis,” written by Stone, Cross, Purvis, and Young (2004) attempt to identify resources that assist church members to healthily cope with a crisis. The purpose of the article is to first discern what church members experience during situational crisis and then determine the relevant resources. As a precursor to the research methodology, the authors assert that social support, such as financial and emotional assistance, enhances the survivors’ self-concept and provides a buffer to stress. Similarly, beliefs and social support within the context of religion also have a positive impact on survivors’ ability to cope with crisis. Accordingly, the article’s hypothesis asserts that certain religious factors that play an important part in coping with crisis can be identified, and when identified, can be used assist caregivers in assisting survivors through a crisis event. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 60 182x300 - A Study of Church Members During Times of Crisis Article Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-60-182x300.png "A Study of Church Members During Times of Crisis Article Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4h8QTIk)The Complete Guide to Crisis & Trauma Counseling What to Do and Say When It Matters Most! by Wright, H. Norman The authors’ research methodology entailed in-depth interviews with 26 subjects experiencing situational crisis in a suburban, [Southern Baptist](https://www.livestransforming.com/growth-of-southern-baptists/) congregation. The interviews focused on obtaining information that described the crisis and its impact, the ability of the subject to cope, and the resources utilized to assist in coping. Upon completion of the interviews, the researchers identified common themes from the data. The analysis led to a general framework that classified the results into three categories: self, acts, and others. Examples of general resources that assist in coping include spiritual beliefs, acts of kindness, and personal relationships. Specific themes that emerged from each participant’s crisis included the following types of reactions: shock, paralysis, feeling overwhelmed, openness, embarrassment, and struggling with the problem of evil. Specific themes of helpful resources included the presence of others, prayer, acts of kindness, music, personal resiliency, and relational empathy. The implication of the research is that caregivers can learn from the results to extend greater care for individuals experiencing situational crisis. ## **Interaction** My initial response to the article was that the research seemed straightforward and provided a common-sense approach to identifying resources that help individuals in crisis who attend church. Regarding the research methodology, the population is concerning. The limited scope of one congregation, one demographic, one specific denomination, and only 26 participants risks skewing the results, especially if assuming the results can be extrapolated to religion in general. On a positive note, the authors attempted to maintain a non-bias interview approach through the development of the Crisis Appraisal and Coping Interview Protocol. The insights gained were numerous. First, the research provided support for a multi-faceted approach to resource deployment for those in crisis situations. A combination of inner qualities, behaviors, and relationships appear to provide categories of optimal support. Second, the characteristics of crisis provide important content to assist caregivers in normalizing the responses of survivors who may feel guilty for experiencing common responses to crisis situations. Finally, the specific resources identified provide valuable topics for training laypersons to help survivors that are based on qualitative empirical evidence. Most everyone will experience situational crisis during their lifetime. Accordingly, as a caregiver, I am interested in the article because it provides several resources for survivors to use and ministries to deploy in assisting those who attempt to healthily cope with crisis. Based on having read this article, other relevant readings would surround the topic of authentic community making, especially within religious environments. An example might include M. Scott Peck’s (1987) book, *A Different Drum: Community Making and Peace*. Church environments have the potential of assuming crisis is caused by personal sin or God’s judgment, which can lead to a response of shunning, advice-giving, or evaluation that stifles community and healing. Accordingly, additional resources, such as Peck’s book, that highlight the dark side of church community may create additional growth and training opportunities. ## **Application** My phone rang. Heather asked if she could meet with me. Heather’s husband was a pastor of the one of the largest mega-churches in the Midwest. She has two beautiful teenage daughters. As a professional singer and worship leader, the spotlight on Heather made her crisis almost unbearable. Heather explained that she had just found out that her husband of 25 years had been unfaithful with another man, and he is now convinced that he is a homosexual. Heather felt overwhelmed, embarrassed, and wondered what she did wrong to deserve the crisis. Heather agreed to discuss a few potential problem-solving strategies. To assist Heather in enhancing a coherent representation of herself, I asked a few questions regarding the basis of her identity. Heather admitted that her identity seemed to be aligned more with her husband’s ministry and her career, than as a child of God. Accordingly, once her husband left and her career was at risk, it felt like the foundation of her life was crumbling. We read Romans 8:16, “The Spirit himself bears witness with our spirit that we are children of God” (English Standard Version). Heather realized she had deified her husband and career and lost her true identity. Although Heather began to detest the “show” associated with worship music, she was open to aligning her thoughts and feelings with God’s truth through the acts of story-telling, Scripture meditation, and prayer. I asked Heather if she would consider journaling about the time she first recognized she was a new creation in Christ. Heather agreed to the journaling exercise, and she mentioned that she also would meditate on Romans 8:16 and other similar verses. I also suggested the possibility of implementing the stories and Scripture into her prayer life. Finally, I asked Heather whether she would be open to connecting more closely with friends and family to enhance her social support during this difficult time. She feared the backlash from a church community that might judge her for getting a divorce, blame her for not being a good enough wife, or condemn her husband, which could risk alienating her children from their dad. I affirmed Heather’s concerns, and then I asked whether she would be open to revitalizing relationships, if she knew the people were safe. She agreed she needed the support and had a few people in mind. Heather left our meeting committed to focusing on a proper representation of self; performing acts of journaling, meditation, and prayer; as well as revitalizing safe relationships to support her during her crisis. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Peck, M. S. (1987). *The different drum: Community making and peace*. New York: Touchstone. - Stone, H. W., Cross, D. R., Purvis, K. B., & Young, M. J. (2004). A study of church members during times of crisis. *Pastoral Psychology*, *52*(5), 405–421. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [The Holy Spirit, Common Grace, and Secular Psychotherapy Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-holy-spirit-common-grace-and-secular-psychotherapy-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Holy Spirit, Common Grace, and Secular Psychotherapy Review The Holy Spirit, Common Grace, and Secular Psychotherapy** The purpose of this paper is to critique the journal article, “The Holy Spirit, Common Grace, and Secular Psychotherapy,” by Lydia Kim-van Daalen. The critique first provides a summary of the article that includes a description of the thesis, purpose, and its overall content. The analysis then critically interacts with the article by identifying the primary theological issue at stake and its connection to the primary pastoral counseling issue at stake. Next, an examination of the strengths and weaknesses of the author’s arguments ensues to assess the logic behind the thesis. Finally, the critique identifies the author’s goal of pastoral counseling and highlights two relevant pastoral counseling applications that support the author’s goal. ## **Summary** Kim-van Daalen’s (2012) purpose is to clarify the value of Christians using secular forms of psychotherapy and proposes the following thesis, “This paper seeks to demonstrate how the Holy Spirit, through common grace, may be actively working and using secular psychotherapy in light of the dual reality of belief and unbelief in this world” (p. 229). The author attempts to validate her thesis by first defining common grace, which is a form of God’s grace extended to *all* humanity that provides certain blessings. The specific blessings of common grace touch a cross-section of life including the physical, intellectual, moral, vocational, societal, and religious realms. Kim-van Daalen then encourages Christians to use the blessings of common grace, which include certain forms of secular psychotherapy, to benefit both believers and humanity in general. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 56 182x300 - The Holy Spirit, Common Grace, and Secular Psychotherapy Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-56-182x300.jpg "The Holy Spirit, Common Grace, and Secular Psychotherapy Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fXbEFT)A Christian Approach to Counseling and Psychotherapy: Christ-Centered, Biblically-Based, and Spirit-Filled (Integration Series) Within a Christian context, the author admits that several objections exist against the utilization of secular psychotherapeutic methods. Important objections include the argument that the Bible is sufficient, the unredeemed lack the ability to remain value-neutral and properly interpret the conclusions of research, the organizations related to secular psychotherapy may compete with the church, and the integration of secular psychotherapy risks syncretism. Objections notwithstanding, Kim van-Daalen asserts that the benefits of utilizing secular psychotherapy, both philosophically and practically, outweigh the risks. Furthermore, the author contends that Christians can determine whether the Holy Spirit is working in secular psychotherapy by discerning if the methods move people toward or away from God. In sum, if secular psychotherapy is led by the Holy Spirit, then Christians should utilize it to help humanity. ## **Critical Interactions** The primary theological issue at stake is whether the Holy Spirit is actively involved in secular psychotherapy through common grace, and if so, then the primary pastoral counseling issue at stake is whether the utilization of Spirit-influenced secular psychotherapy is reasonably necessary. The author provides a strong practical argument for the theological reality of common grace in the general population. It is difficult to deny the reality of good in unredeemed individuals that could only occur through the influence of the Holy Spirit. However, the author’s arguments weaken regarding whether the utilization of secular psychotherapy is reasonably necessary. First, Kim van-Daalen appropriately acknowledges the dangers associated with engaging secular psychotherapy, but then simply assumes that the benefits outweigh the risks because of common grace. The author’s arguments would strengthen if she had attempted to logically overcome certain objections, such as the self-sufficiency of Scripture, and explained specifically how the benefits outweigh the risks. Second, the author asserts that discernment of the Holy Spirit’s involvement in secular psychotherapy can be determined if a movement toward God and His rule exists. However, just because individuals move toward God does not mean the impetus is necessarily good. For example, Christ’s death and resurrection moves mankind toward God, but the impetus was the evil act of crucifixion. Accordingly, the argument for discerning Holy Spirit involvement needs logically strengthened. Kim van-Daalen’s (2012) goal of [pastoral counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/pastoral-counseling-faith-and-reason/) is to assist Christians in “progressing in their relationship with the triune God,” and not impeding non-Christians from “their movement towards this true God” (p. 236). The author provides several potential pastoral counseling applications that support her goal. For example, a secular therapist could assist a non-Christian by not impeding movement toward God through the influence of common grace, and a Christian counselor could use the techniques of secular psychotherapy to assist a Christian in progressing in their relationship with God through the influence of common grace. ## **Conclusion** Kim van-Daalen provides a thoughtful exploration of the potential use of secular psychotherapy within a Christian context. The author accomplishes her purpose of elucidating the potential benefits of utilizing secular psychotherapy. Kim van-Daalen also effectively argues for the Holy Spirit’s involvement in the theological reality of common grace. Although it is certainly possible that secular psychotherapy could be effectively utilized within a Christian context because of common grace, the author fails to prove whether Spirit-influenced secular psychotherapy is reasonably necessary. By overcoming certain objections to the utilization of secular psychotherapy, proving that the benefits of using secular psychotherapy outweigh the risks, and enhancing the logic behind the discernment of Spirit involvement in secular psychotherapy, the author’s arguments would strengthen. Finally, Kim van-Daalen competently provides several insightful applications of how the Holy Spirit, through common grace, could possibly use secular psychotherapy to support her identified goal of counseling to assist both believers and unbelievers. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **Reference** - Kim-van Daalen, L. (2012). The Holy Spirit, common grace, and secular psychotherapy. *Journal of Psychology & Theology*, *40*(3), 229–239. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [The Life You’ve Always Wanted Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-life-youve-always-wanted-book-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Life You’ve Always Wanted Book Review ## **Summary** John Ortberg’s book, *The Life You’ve Always Wanted: Spiritual disciplines for ordinary people,* published by Zondervan in 2002, is a contemporary exploration of the spiritual disciplines. Ortberg first introduces the purpose of the disciplines, and then examines eight specific disciplines, followed by a proposed plan for integration and endurance. The following provides a brief summary of Ortberg’s work. Ortberg (2002) begins with a broad assertion, “The primary goal of spiritual life is transformation” and defines transformation as “the inward and real formation of the essential nature of a person” (p. 21). Accordingly, Ortberg (2002) warns of outward and inauthentic change, which includes image management, judgment, legalism, and superficiality. Importantly, the author clarifies that spiritual disciplines are not indicators of spiritual growth; instead, their purpose is to provide training that enhances individuals’ ability to love (Ortberg, 2002). [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 59 182x300 - The Life You’ve Always Wanted Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-59-182x300.png "The Life You’ve Always Wanted Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4haX12H)The Life You’ve Always Wanted: Spiritual Disciplines for Ordinary People Once the author establishes the purpose of the disciplines, an examination of eight practices commences. First, Ortberg (2002) suggests that joy is a command; thus the discipline of celebration is crucial so that sin no longer is appealing (Ortberg, 2002). Next, the author introduces the discipline of slowing, which attenuates an unrelenting attempt to achieve more (Ortberg, 2002). Ortberg (2002) suggests the achievement trap reveals itself in multi-tasking, clutter, superficiality, and fatigue, and then suggests the solution is solitude. Third, the author explores the discipline of prayer and asks whether God’s sovereignty avoids the necessity of prayer and then answers by arguing that prayer’s purpose is to change individuals and possibly change God’s mind (Ortberg, 2002). The fourth discipline is the practice of servanthood, especially secretive service, which forges humility into the life of the believer (Ortberg, 2002). Specifically, Ortberg (2002) highlights the power of providing mundane service, allowing interruptions, and embracing weaknesses as effective pride killers. Next, the author focuses on confession, which is not necessary for God, but has the transformative effect of both freeing individuals from guilt and simultaneously making sin less attractive (Ortberg, 2002). Ortberg (2002) identifies guidance from the [Holy Spirit as the sixth discipline](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-holy-spirit-common-grace-and-secular-psychotherapy-review/). Specifically, the author encourages a spiritual mindfulness powered by attentive listening in order to receive Spirit-led promptings that guide daily living (Ortberg, 2002). The seventh discipline is the practice of secrecy that is instrumental in attacking approval addiction (Ortberg, 2002). Ortberg (2002) suggests that practicing doing good without being noticed helps individuals break the need for human approval that does not satisfy. Finally, the author suggests that reflecting on Scripture undermines double-mindedness and then encourages individuals to bring an attitude of repentance with a laser-like focus on brief passages to assimilate the transformative effects of the Word (Ortberg, 2002). Subsequent to presenting the disciplines, Ortberg (2002) discusses a plan for integrating the practices into a life that endures. In opposition to the paradigm of balance that compartmentalizes faith, the author supports a rhythm of life that extends from a well-ordered heart and results in love (Ortberg, 2002). Finally, although Ortberg (2002) recognizes that challenges attempt to derail growth, he also observes that tests and trials often support the spiritual growth process. ## **Concrete Responses** When referring to hurry sickness, Ortberg (2002) appropriately quotes Carl Jung who wrote, “Hurry is not of the devil; hurry is the devil” (p. 77). Ortberg insightfully connects hurry with achievement addiction, an area of difficulty I have faced my entire life. Last week before church, my wife asked me to go grocery shopping with her. Because everything in my life must have a plan, I asked if she had her grocery list. She explained that she had the grocery list and all the items on the list were in order of the product aisles in the store. Satisfied that grocery shopping would not take too much time, I informed her that I would join the excursion. Once we entered the store, I immediately perused the bottom of the list. I figured that by memorizing the end of the list, I could save time by meeting her with groceries from the other end of the store. I met my wife in the middle just in time to be frustrated by the fact that I did not select the right cat food, which would mean that I would have to waste more time going back to the pet food aisle. Finally, we paid for the groceries and when we pulled the car away from the curb, my wife started laughing. I looked at her inquisitively and she replied, “You are no fun to take grocery shopping, you are exhausting.” Luckily, my wife thought the episode was amusing, but unfortunately, I knew I was sick. ## **Reflection** The author’s greatest strength may be his accessibility. More specifically, he is able to communicate important truths that are digestible to readers of various educational backgrounds. A specific strength is Ortberg’s careful avoidance of legalism while emphasizing the importance of the disciplines. Although the author sprinkles reminders throughout the book, the strongest argument against legalism occurs when stating that if spiritual growth can materialize “without the practice of any particular spiritual disciplines, then we should by all means skip them” (Ortberg, 2002, p. 45). A significant weakness of the book is its ambiguity regarding regeneration and sanctification. Ortberg (2002) suggests ongoing sanctification is the purpose of the work and references Paul who wrote he was “in the pain of childbirth until Christ is formed in you” (p. 14). The author then reinforces the assertion by stating that God “wants to make us new creatures” (Ortberg, 2002, p. 15). The inconsistency arises because orthodox theology suggests that the new creature status is a result of instantaneous regeneration (Erickson, p. 957). Ortberg does not clearly distinguish or relate the instantaneous new creature status of regeneration with the ongoing sanctification, which may cause confusion. For example, when discussing confession, Ortberg (2002) states, “We resolve that, with God’s help, we will change” (p. 138). One wonders if this means that the new creature status empowers personal responsibility, or that one’s effort is the change agent and with God’s help, he or she will become a new creature. The ambiguity is bothersome and has enormous ramifications for grace and obedience. ## **Application** The practice of celebration and appropriate smallness are profoundly important to my personal growth. First, I have a tendency to focus only on areas of my life perceived to be missional. Accordingly, I deceive myself into believing that one “date night” per week with my wife satisfies the requirement of celebration. Second, I have a paraphrased quote from Dietrich Bonhoeffer (2010) on my desktop that reminds me that I must completely abandon attempts to make something of myself, but most days I ignore the benefit of appropriate smallness. Regarding my celebration deficiency, I plan to add at least one additional activity per week with a family member or friend that is not missional. Next, I am committed to set aside my evening agenda to be interrupted by my children and assist them with pure motives to practice appropriate smallness. Furthermore, I will read two quotes each day to renew my mind. The first quote is the “failure to attain a deep satisfying life always has the effect of making sinful actions seem good” (Willard, 1991, p.81). Second, I will read that my “world could grow infinitely bigger” if I were only willing to become “appropriately small” (Ortberg, 2002, p. 109). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Bonhoeffer, D. (2010). *Letters and papers from prison*. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. - Erickson, M. J. (2007). *Christian theology*. (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. - Ortberg, J. (2002). *The life you’ve always wanted: Spiritual disciplines for ordinary people.* Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. - Willard, D. (1991). *The spirit of the disciplines: Understanding how God changes lives*. San Francisco, CA: Harper San Francisco. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Reaching Out Book Review: Nouwen](https://www.livestransforming.com/reaching-out-book-review-nouwen/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Reaching Out Book Review: Nouwen ## **Summary** Henri J. M. Nouwen’s book, *Reaching Out: The Three Movements of the Spiritual Life,* published by Doubleday in 1975, examines three aspects of spiritual movement. Nouwen first explores the movement from loneliness to solitude, then the movement from hostility to hospitality, and finally, the movement from illusion to prayer. The following provides a brief summary of [Nouwen’s three movements](https://www.livestransforming.com/henri-nouwen-reaching-out/). [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 58 182x300 - Reaching Out Book Review: Nouwen](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-58-182x300.jpg "Reaching Out Book Review: Nouwen - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/404Zdli)Reaching Out: The Three Movements of the Spiritual Life According to Nouwen (1975), the first movement, from loneliness to solitude, reaches to the innermost self. Beginning with the chapter, “Suffocating Loneliness,” Nouwen (1975) immerses the reader into a loneliness paradox, which suggests that the solution to loneliness is not “human togetherness” (p. 33). Based on the theological principle of idolatry and the psychological principle of detachment, the author succinctly communicates the risks of attempting to fulfill human longings with other individuals. The next chapter, “A Receptive Solitude,” explores the solution of solitude and the benefits of the loneliness paradox. Specifically, the benefit of authentic community comes alive when solitude usurps loneliness that deteriorates into selfish dependency and exacerbates the loneliness that one wants to escape (Nouwen, 1975). The third chapter, “A Creative Response,” examines how the internal transformation of solitude results in external actionable love (Nouwen, 1975). In particular, solitude allows humanity to squelch its neediness and instead, promote solidarity with pain instead of judging, interpreting, and advising (Nouwen, 1975). The second movement, from hostility to hospitality, reaches out to others. In chapter four, “Creating Space for Strangers,” the author introduces a hospitality that is paradoxically full of emptiness, which creates the safety necessary for spiritual growth (Nouwen, 1975). In other words, by removing personal agendas and the need to fix and control others, an environment of discovery provides the hospitality necessary for others to find God (Nouwen, 1975). Next, in the chapter, “Forms of Hospitality,” Nouwen (1975) applies hospitality to specific relationships including parents and children, teachers and students, as well as healers and patients. The author poignantly addresses the risk of manipulation when relationships hinge on conditions of intellectual compliance (Nouwen, 1975). Finally, in the chapter, “Hospitality and the Host,” Nouwen (1975) reminds the reader of the risks of loneliness that obliterates hospitality, and alternatively, suggests that poverty of the mind and heart empowers listening and serving by eliminating the need to protect through defending and blaming. The author suggests that the final movement, from illusion to prayer, reaches out to God (Nouwen, 1975). Chapter seven, “Prayer and Mortality,” argues that the final movement induces solitude and hospitality (Nouwen, 1975). Specifically, the recognition of immortality extinguishes the illusion of control that attaches humanity to the idols of dreams and community, and instead, moves individuals “from false certainties to true uncertainties” (Nouwen, 1975, p. 126). Next, in the chapter, “The Prayer of the Heart” Nouwen (1975) introduces three rules of prayer that include contemplating Scripture, listening to God, and trusting in obedience, which must encompass the trichotomous self. Finally, in chapter nine, “Community and Prayer,” Nouwen highlights the necessity of a prayerful community of believers who discover, help, and heal by focusing on God as opposed to focusing on each other (Nouwen, 1975). ## **Concrete Responses** I enjoy reading and learning in the evenings after managing and leading individuals for the previous eight hours at work. However, with three teenage students in my house, it seems as if every night rings with the phrase, “Dad can you help me?” Unfortunately, all too often my stomach sinks, as I selfishly wonder why I cannot be left alone. Inappropriately believing the interruption is for the sole purpose of assisting my children; I often hurry along the process of accomplishing the task and leave my children wondering if they have an assistant or a father. Nouwen (1975) encourages his readers to consider the possibility that interruptions are opportunities. Interruptions that provide opportunities for me to learn patience, abandon selfishness, deepen relationships, and hear God. I long for the day I am wise enough to see the beauty of interruptions. Work, ministry, school, kids, spouse, and events consume my life. Occasionally I see a light at the end of the tunnel, but quickly cover the hole with more activity. I have always been viewed as a secure individual, but is it possible the actions of my life are simply a mask for insecurity? Nouwen (1975) suggests that perpetual activity easily becomes an anesthetic to loneliness, and “we panic when there is nothing or nobody left to distract us” (p. 27). I confess that resting in Christ seems elusive to me, and I pray for the Holy Spirit to guide me out of the illusion that all is well, and point the way into my Father’s arms. ## **Reflection** Nouwen’s depth and wisdom may have already established *Reaching Out* as a spiritual classic. One of the author’s greatest strengths is his practical application of paradoxical truth, especially concerning the true meaning of relational living. With the poignancy of G. K. Chesterton and wisdom of C. S. Lewis, Nouwen smashes the deceptive message that humanity can find fulfillment in itself. Instead, with clarity and concision, the author points the reader back to the true Source of meaning while insightfully exploring the perils of what psychology may define as approval addiction and theology may define as idolatry. Without questioning the strength of the Nouwen’s work, two questions arise. First, organizationally, one wonders whether the third movement is actually a first movement. Although the author clearly states that solitude and hospitality depend on the final movement, it appears possible that providing the foundational nature of movement three at the beginning of the work would enhance Nouwen’s polemic. Second, and more importantly, Nouwen (1975) clearly conveys a need for reaching out to “our loving God in whom all life is anchored,” but one wonders exactly how the process of reaching out occurs (p. 113). Without question, the author masterfully constructs a case for the necessity of God, the connection of prayer, and necessity of pain, which all move humanity toward God and highlights the importance of God indwelling humanity. However, it is bothersome that the author provides little direction regarding whether sacraments, faith, works, or other methods provide the connection to the Source “from whom all reality comes forth” (Nouwen, 1975, p. 114). ## **Application** Nouwen (1975) provides a powerful reminder that “we keep giving an eternal value to the things we own, the people we know, the plans we have, and the successes we ‘collect’” (p. 116). Personally, I battle my own illusion of immortality; especially valuing my plans. Accordingly, I plan to intentionally practice laying aside my plans each morning as reflect on God’s Word, and instead, attempt to be mindful throughout the day of where God is working and align my plans with His as opposed to pursuing the idolatry of my dreams. Nouwen (1975) also reminds me that I have no power to cause others to grow. In a reference to Paul’s first letter to the Corinthians, the author states that “we cannot force a plant to grow but can take away weeds and stones which prevent its development” (pp. 76-77). It is easy to slip into the mode of fixing, which often are my feeble attempts at self-aggrandizement in an attempt to provide solutions without “the existence of a question” (Nouwen, 1975, p. 85). Accordingly, this week I plan to make a concerted effort to stay focused on listening, understanding, and providing a safe place for discovery by removing any remnants of advice giving and lecturing that inflict weeds and stones. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Nouwen, H. J. M. (1975). *Reaching out: The three movements of the spiritual life*. New York, NY: Doubleday. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/psychology-theology-and-spirituality-in-christian-counseling-book-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling Book Review ## **Summary** Mark McMinn’s book, *Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling,* published by Tyndale House in 1996, attempts to bring theology, evangelical spirituality, and psychology into the counseling office. McMinn first introduces a number of challenges with integration, and then provides a proposed pattern of healing, followed by an exploration of six Christian concepts within counseling. The following provides a brief summary of McMinn’s work. McMinn (1996) begins with an explanation of a number of challenges facing intradisciplinary integration, which include complications of spiritual formation, blurred personal and professional life, training difficulties, worldview differences, lack of scientific support, and unique ethical considerations in religious counseling. The author then attempts to map a pattern of healing, which assumes that an accurate sense of self, based on orthodox theology, leads to an accurate awareness of need that ultimately progresses toward relational growth (McMinn, 1996). Subsequent chapters explore six aspects of Christianity in light of McMinn’s pattern of healing. [![03 6 182x300 - Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-6-182x300.jpg "Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/409XISZ)Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling (AACC Library) First, McMinn addresses prayer in counseling. From a psychological perspective, the author acknowledges the lack of empirical research regarding praying aloud, but references numerous studies that support prayer’s positive impact (McMinn, 1996). McMinn (1996) also identifies numerous risks of prayer, including potential dependency, ritualism, and ethical considerations, and then lists various types of prayer in order of risk. Next, the author focuses on utilizing [Scripture in counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-counseling-role-of-scripture/). With a reference to Stanton Jones, McMinn (1996) maintains that Scripture is a tool that can assess the validity or risks of counseling strategies. More specifically, Scriptural content may benefit the counselee through meditation, intervention, and truth discovery, but the author warns of the risks of shame and power associated with integration (McMinn, 1996). Third, McMinn (1996) addresses the concept of sin by discussing attributional styles, namely whether problems are due to sin or sickness. McMinn (1996) resolves the tension theologically by suggesting problems include both personal sin and the sickness of original sin. In other words, personal responsibility may exist without the detrimental effects of guilt (McMinn, 1996). Fourth, McMinn (1996) confronts confession by recognizing its therapeutic power within a shame-free environment. Furthermore, the author acknowledges the importance of voluntary acts of contrition for personal sin, but also argues that Roman Catholic public confession and penance relieve the burden of guilt (McMinn, 1996). Finally, McMinn (1996) highlights that in counseling, “an accurate understanding of sin and confession” leads “to humility and hope” (p. 181). Fifth, the psychological community views the topic of forgiveness as adversarial, as a technique, or as a duty (McMinn, 1996). McMinn (1996) suggests the integration of all three is necessary for a healthy approach to forgiveness in counseling. Specifically, forgiveness is dangerous if it elicits shame and fear, but at times a powerful technique and duty (McMinn, 1996). Finally, McMinn (1996) defines redemption as humanity’s having “value and meaning restored to their lives” (p. 241). The author views redemption as a one-time work and an ongoing process powered by God (McMinn, 1996). However, the redemption found in Christ encourages individuals to be redemptive agents who reflect God’s grace in counseling (McMinn, 1996). ## **Concrete Responses** I provide leadership consulting for various churches in the Midwest. Last month, I was meeting with a staff of a growing church of approximately 2,000 members. The frustrated staff asked me to facilitate a meeting regarding a potential building campaign. As part of the presentation, I summarized where the church had been, the status of the expansion plan, and the necessary next steps. However, toward the end of the meeting I began receiving pushback from one of the lead pastors regarding the next steps. The resistance was unexpected for a couple of reasons. First, this particular pastor had asked me to make the presentation and secondly, I thought he and I had an enormous amount of trust. Unfortunately, upon sensing the resistance, and realizing time was limited, I continued to cast vision, pointing toward the solution, which caused even more defensiveness. Once the meeting was over, I realized my mistake. The church’s leadership came primarily from the eldership, and the staff was feeling stifled and micromanaged. Although I have utilized “empathic confrontation” numerous times, this time I fell short (McMinn, 1996, p. 153). Instead of confronting the defensiveness empathically, I focused on the agenda at hand. The next morning I received a phone call from the pastor and apologized for my lack of empathy and compassion for his concerns. By responding empathically with, “It sounds like you are frustrated with the elders, and resent being micromanaged,” the tension could have subsided and openness to facing the defensive posture may have occurred. ## **Reflection** McMinn’s greatest strength may be his objective view of the risks of religion alongside various psychological constructs. The author’s insights into the potential risks of Scripture, prayer, confession, and forgiveness, while maintaining an evangelical perspective, are constructive. In addition, McMinn needs commended for pursuing the impossible – aligning a number of extremely diverse theological and psychological perspectives. One weakness of McMinn’s work relates to theological clarity. The author suggests the sacrament of penance has merit in “paying the price for sin” (McMinn, 1996, p. 175). Although one can appreciate McMinn’s (1996) integrationist effort, it is difficult to reconcile the assertion with his stance against Pelagianism. Additionally, McMinn (1996) creates confusion by examining redemption as instantaneous and simultaneously ongoing. Without question, the author claims that instantaneously, “God redeemed us through the sacrificial work of Christ” (McMinn, 1996, p. 248). However, McMinn (1996) also suggests that sin separates individuals from God, and God continually buys back humanity from sin. The confusion arises as the reader wonders about the exact nature of humanity’s effort or involvement in the perpetual purchasing process, especially in light of the author’s presupposed Reformed perspective (McMinn, 1996). A second weakness of McMinn’s work pertains to clarity regarding the therapeutic relationship. McMinn (1996) clearly states that redemption “comes directly from God” (p. 247). However, one wonders if the risk of exaggerating the power of the therapeutic relationship remains due to numerous references to human relationships as “ultimately transforming” (McMinn, 1996, p. 243). ## **Application** Two areas of McMinn’s content are essential to my personal growth. First, increased knowledge of the relationship between therapy and theology is critical to my understanding of integration and effectiveness of discipleship. Second, by more clearly understanding the risks associated with Scripture, prayer, confession, and forgiveness, my sensitivity to the utilization of spiritual formation techniques increases in order to better serve individuals I disciple. Specifically, I plan to create three risk analysis worksheets pertaining to the counseling techniques of prayer, Scripture reading, and confrontation and include them in my accredited curriculum and discipleship training. First, regarding prayer, I have often felt uncomfortable incorporating prayer into coaching sessions unless specifically prompted, but McMinn (1996) provides tangible guidelines for assessing the risk of dependence, misunderstanding, and even heresy that I plan to integrate into my curriculum and coaching. Next, assessing the risks associated with Scripture reading and incorporating them into my discipleship ministry is necessary as a counselee may view Scripture as intimidating, judgmental, or even use it to distract (McMinn, 1996). Finally, the risks of confrontation may be obvious, but understanding the necessity of discrete forms of confrontation such as silence and empathic confrontation and implementing them specifically into my ministry is critical (McMinn, 1996). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **Reference** - McMinn, M. R. (1996). *Psychology, theology, and spirituality in Christian counseling.* Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/integrative-approaches-to-psychology-and-christianity-book-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity Book Review [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 57 182x300 - Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-57-182x300.jpg "Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4acN42u)Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity, 4th edition: An Introduction to Worldview Issues, Philosophical Foundations, and Models of Integration ## **Summary** David Entwistle’s book, *Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity: An Introduction to Worldview Issues, Philosophical Foundations, and Models of Integration,* published by Cascade Books in 2010 is an analysis of the integration of psychology and Christianity, organized in four sections. First, the author examines the historical context of the [integration of psychology and Christianity](https://www.livestransforming.com/integrative-approaches-to-psychology-and-christianity/), and then provides its philosophical underpinnings, followed by a section that explores various models of integration. Entwistle concludes by proposing his preferred integrative solution. The following provides a brief summary of Entwistle’s four sections. Entwistle (2010) launches into the first section with a reference to Tertullian’s famous quote, “What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?” (p. 8). However, the author quickly answers the question by introducing his primary presupposition that “All truth is God’s truth,” in other words, “wherever and however truth is discovered, its author is God” (Entwistle, 2010, p. 13). Entwistle (2010) then unfolds a historical context of theological integration with references to Augustine, the Middle Ages, and medieval Scholasticism prior to transitioning into a history of psychology. The second section lays a philosophical foundation for integration, critical for an orthodox perspective of integration, by probing the topics of worldview, epistemology, metaphysics, and anthropology. First, Entwistle (2010) introduces the concepts of worldview and then identifies four ingredients of a Christian worldview – creation, fall, redemption, and consummation. Second, a discussion on epistemology ensues with an investigation of its history, perspectives on certainty, and relevant methodologies (Entwistle, 2010). The author suggests four epistemological methodologies that support integration, which include logic, empiricism, revelation, and hermeneutics (Entwistle, 2010). Next, Entwistle (2010) tackles metaphysics by exploring the origin of the world and the topic of supernaturalism, followed by analysis of the reality of ethics and beauty. Entwistle (2010) concludes by focusing on both psychological anthropology, which includes biology and behaviorism, as well as theological anthropology that includes humanity’s finiteness, fallenness, and its *imago Dei*. Entwistle’s (2010) third section explores five models of integration of psychology and Christianity, which include the Enemies, Spies, Colonialists, Neutral Parties, and Allies models. The Enemies model assumes that psychology and theology are incompatible (Entwistle, 2010). The Spies model rests on either psychology or theology and selectively extracts elements from the other discipline to further its position, which places orthodoxy at risk (Entwistle, 2010). The Colonialists model attempts to maintain orthodoxy, but borrows from psychology (Entwistle, 2010). The Neutral Parties model views psychology and theology as completely independent, but acknowledges certain parallels (Entwistle, 2010). Finally, the Allies model relies on the “unity of truth,” which presupposes that all truth originates from one sovereign God (Entwistle, 2010, p. 147). In the final section, Entwistle (2010) argues that the Allies model is the most appropriate integrative solution based on the presupposition that God’s truth exists in both “God’s Word (Scripture) and…God’s Works (creation)” (p. 205). Accordingly, since God is the sovereign creator of all subjects, the disciplines can cooperate (Entwistle, 2010). Finally, the author furnishes a framework to resolve integrative conflicts between the disciplines such as Galileo’s famous heliocentric theory controversy (Entwistle, 2010). Specifically, solutions for interdisciplinary conflict result from a sensitive approach toward the differences between fact and interpretation (Entwistle, 2010). ## **Concrete Responses** I grew up in a performance based home environment. My father was a world-class pistol shooter and a member of the United States pistol team for almost two decades. His performance coach, Dennis Waitley, was the sports psychologist at the Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs. I remember the training tapes and books my father brought home maintaining that positive thinking and visualization techniques create champions. The mantra that still rings in my ears is “If you see and believe it, you can achieve it.” Waitley’s alignment with other Christian thinkers, including Robert Schuller, Norman Vincent Peale, and W. Clement Stone, caused much confusion in my young mind as I listened to sermons that seemed, at times, to oppose the positive message of the Domestic Spies (Entwistle, 2010). A compelling interest in both psychology and Christianity led me to a Christian university where I planned to make ministry my vocation. However, I quickly realized my worldview, influenced by the Domestic Spies, did not align with the Enemies model espoused by the strong Arminian theology of the university. Accordingly, I changed majors, became a Certified Public Accountant, worked for an international consulting firm, and then used Waitley’s principles to create a thriving business. However, I must confess the confusion of my youth continued to exist, which led me to further my education. Fortunately, Entwistle’s (2010) Allies model provides a viable, orthodox alternative to the Domestic Spies or the Enemies model and allows me to better understand a calling I felt over two decades ago. ## **Reflection** Entwistle’s greatest strength may be his ability to encapsulate hundreds of years of conflict between two disciplines in a rather concise and objective manner. Entwistle (2010) also shines brightly in supporting the Allies model of integration and masterfully resolving many potential integrationist conflicts through his “quest for faithful reading” view of disciplinary integration (p. 243). However, one wonders if Entwistle’s desire for friendly integration may overemphasize the details of reconciliation at the risk of minimizing the gospel message. Specifically, Entwistle (2010) attempts to balance the priority of theology and psychology by suggesting the primacy of theology due to its influence on one’s worldview, but simultaneously suggests neither have primacy because God is the source of all truth. It appears Entwistle’s logical high wire act of commensurate priority is unnecessary and may even be risky. By suggesting the possibility that neither have primacy, the risk increases that one may minimize the fact that a Christian worldview must specifically understand humanity as a new creation in Christ or the entire system fails. Alternatively, a misunderstanding of God’s truth of psychology does not automatically cause the system to fail. In other words, although Entwistle references Millard Erickson’s suggestion that general revelation is critical, Erickson (2007) also notes the antecedent nature of a “new birth,” which is a “supernatural occurrence” within individual Christians (p. 958). Without question, Entwistle would agree with Erickson’s “new birth” assertion, but it is bothersome that the author extends so little effort in emphasizing this specific cornerstone of his theoretical foundation. ## **Application** Although the philosophical foundations presented by Entwistle are mostly review for those with a theology and apologetics background, the models of integration are powerful tools for assessing and developing counseling methods. Personally, the models have already changed the lens through which I view counseling and discipleship. Specifically, I now have a framework to understand and appreciate different perspectives of counseling as I continue to develop my own. Furthermore, by understanding the risks of the various models, I have an enhanced ability to discern both God’s Word and God’s Works and their relationship to each other in my spiritual growth process. I am currently involved in a counseling and discipleship ministry that provides curriculum to Christian liberal arts universities regarding Christian Convergence Therapy (CCT). CCT integrates psychology and theology by converging cognitive therapy and other psychological constructs with identity formation based on Judeo-Christian principles. Specifically, I will synthesize the philosophical underpinnings and presuppositions of the Allies model as detailed by Entwistle into the curriculum. Furthermore, I will document the location of CCT on the integrative map between the Christian combatants and secular combatants in order to provide students with a better understanding of CCT as well as alternative approaches to integration. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Entwistle, D. N. (2010). *Integrative approaches to psychology and Christianity: An introduction to worldview issues, philosophical foundations, and models of integration.* (2nd ed.). Eugene, OR: Cascade. - Erickson, M. J. (2007). *Christian theology*. (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Why Don’t We Listen Better Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/why-dont-we-listen-better-book-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Why Don’t We Listen Better Book Review [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 55 182x300 - Why Don’t We Listen Better Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-55-182x300.jpg "Why Don’t We Listen Better Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fT7qiz)Why Don’t We Listen Better? Communicating & Connecting In Relationships 3rd Edition ## **My Summation** James C. Petersen’s book, *Why Don’t We Listen Better? Communicating & Connecting in Relationships,* is a treatise on talking and listening organized in five sections. The first section explores communication options. The second section develops a practical approach to talking and listening, followed by a section that identifies numerous communication traps and listening techniques. Petersen then explores the integration of the talker-listener methodology with group facilitation and concludes with a final section on basic philosophical precepts. The following provides a brief summary of the five sections. Petersen’s first section, “Options in Communicating,” develops a theory of emotions designated as the Flat-Brain Theory, which purports a triadic formula of self that includes the stomach, heart, and head (Petersen 2007, 11-12). The stomach personifies emotions, the head corresponds to thoughts, and the heart represents personal responsibility (Petersen, 16). Petersen then defines the Flat-Brain Syndrome as a contorted relationship of the triad (23). Specifically, the emotional stomach bloats and causes heart pressure that stifles personal responsibility, resulting in a flattened brain that skews thoughts (23-26). The consequence is a Flat-Brain Tango where emotional overload leads to hurtful language landing in the stomach of the recipient who responds defensively and then retaliates (34). Finally, Petersen constructively suggests that terminating the destructive cycle entails letting go of winning prior to introducing the talker-listener process (39). The second section, “The Talker-Listener Process,” describes how to use the talker-listener card. The author explains that the card clarifies who is talking and who is listening and then encourages the talker to take responsibility and the listener to stay detached (65-71). The card also identifies the goals of each party. The goal of the talker is to share feelings and thoughts, while the goal of the listener is to provide a safe, understanding, and clarifying environment (77-83; 93-99). Finally, the card provides warnings to both parties. The card warns the talker to avoid accusations, attacks, labels, or judgment and warns the listener to avoid agreeing, disagreeing, advising, or defending (89-91; 102-108). Petersen then briefly explains when to take turns talking and listening prior to exploring various communication traps and listening techniques. Petersen’s third section, “The Listening Techniques,” begins by focusing on a number of communication traps, which include ritualistic listening, disguising questions as statements, asking accusing questions, and yes-butting (115-123). The author then highlights numerous basic listening techniques that entail thought and feeling empathy, several methods of inquiry, emotional connection devices, rapport building processes, a modified cost-benefit analysis and solution focused questions (126-156). Finally, Petersen addresses a number of special circumstances including how to listen well during boring stories, sad tears, death experiences, persistent anger, and suicidal situations (157-179). The last two sections, “Using the TLC in Groups” and “Concluding Philosophy,” are brief. Petersen provides a lighthearted utilization of the talker-listener card with families and a more serious application of the card for moderating difficult conversations and negotiations (183-206). Finally, the author emphasizes the empirically proven value of empathy, genuineness, and warmth within the therapeutic process regardless of the school of psychology deployed (209-213). ## **My Reflection** About fifteen years ago, my wife and I were standing in our kitchen arguing over how to rear our children. I clearly remember my wife’s poignant question, “It sounds like you are going to keep talking until I agree with you…do you have to always be right?” I was creating additional arguments in my head as fast as the words were leaving my mouth without listening to my wife. As a CPA, I had been right more often than not in my work environment, and accordingly, led a business to one of the top construction companies in the Midwest. Unfortunately, I brought the arrogance from my business success into my relationship with my wife, which led to an emotional break. Petersen summarizes my attitude when he states that winning “turns into an unhealthy need to win when it is additionally fueled by anxiety – where we ‘must’ win to assuage our insecurities and prove ourselves” (39). Fortunately, God intervened and revealed that He alone gives me His righteousness (Romans 3:21-22 \[NASB\]). If God’s righteousness completed me, then I no longer had anything to prove. God’s truth empowered me to focus on my wife instead of proving myself, which prompted me to read a book on empathy. I will never forget the night I asked my wife to dinner – to listen to her. Although quite incompetent, I began to reflect her thoughts and feelings back to her and enter her world for the first time in our marriage. ## **My Investigation** Although Petersen competently covers the basic principles of empathy and listening, the most interesting areas were the communication insights that augmented his foundational concepts. Specifically, the recognition that individuals lean into their potential only when solutions emerge from within helps mitigate the risk of attempting to fix or control (Petersen 2007, 72). In addition, the author identifies a common communication trap entitled the “Perry Masons,” which are statements disguised as questions with hidden motives that undermine relationships (Petersen, 116). Finally, Petersen’s paradoxical observation that interruption is a tool utilized to demonstrate interest in the counselee is another insightful strength (141). Two areas of concern emerged during the reading of Petersen’s work that may need further exploration. Most importantly, the question arises of whether it is reasonable for the author to ignore the integration of practical application and the transformative power of the gospel of Christ. For example, Petersen appropriately suggests not defending oneself when criticized, but an explanation regarding how to eliminate defensiveness is absent (40). Defensiveness often occurs when individuals’ identities attach to external sources, but Petersen ignores that when individuals fuse their identity with Christ, defensiveness subsides. Another question may emerge, which is whether Petersen’s presupposition that humanity consists of “basically nice people” aligns with orthodox theological constructs (83). Although Petersen’s point is not completely mistaken, even mildly Reformed theologians may take exception. Many of the techniques espoused by Petersen necessarily interface with Hawkins’ and Rice’s models of personhood. The assessment models provide a framework to source habituated patterns within individual counselees that include, for instance, thoughts, feelings, and relationships (Hawkins 2012a, slide 2). Petersen’s methods, which include listening techniques such as empathy and inquiry, provide the vehicle by which a counselor may identify the location of the negative habituated patterns within the counselee’s framework (Hawkins 2012a, slide 3). Furthermore, the techniques also provide a skill set necessary to move beyond locating the presenting problem into the relocation phase, which facilitates the discovery of solutions by the counselee through thoughtful inquiry (Rice 2012, slides 1-2). ## **My Application** My DISC profile suggests I am a D/C from a public perspective and a C/S/D from a private perspective, which appears to correspond to the Myers-Briggs type indicator that identifies me as an INTJ. My relational style has a number of weaknesses that need mitigating. Although relating with individuals comes somewhat naturally, relating to crowds is difficult. Accordingly, I need to work on friendliness, charisma, and enthusiasm especially with larger groups. Furthermore, at times I am perceived as uncaring while inwardly a deep concern for others exists. Thus, taking time to encourage others is important as well as providing a relaxed and inviting atmosphere. Based on my DISC profile, a number of Petersen’s techniques may improve my relational style. First, it is imperative that I extend authentic compliments with an appropriate amount of feeling (Petersen 2007, 81). Second, it is important for me to prudently share feelings with the counselee (Petersen, 79). Next, utilizing the technique of “alternating hand gestures” may help outwardly exemplify the inward care that exists toward the counselee (135). Finally, gentle interruption by asking for clarification and extending empathy is another technique that may assist in showing concern for the counselee when my outward appearance may be perceived otherwise (141). The insights and techniques in Petersen’s work will also assist in mitigating the risks of my relational style when placed within the various locations of the “Hawkins’ [Pastoral Counseling Scenario](https://www.livestransforming.com/pastoral-counseling-faith-and-reason/).” First, the insights and techniques help my relational style demonstrate “fit” and build rapport with the counselee while creating an environment of change (Hawkins 2012b, slide 4). Second, the insights aid in uncovering the presenting problem through actively listening with compassion (Hawkins 2012c, slide 5). Third, compliments provide courage to the counselee to respond and move toward a preferred solution (Hawkins 2012c, slides 6-7). Finally, encouragement also is a powerful technique deployed during the feedback stage of Hawkins’ Pastoral Counseling Scenario (Hawkins 2012d, slide 2). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ # References - Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012a. *Hawkins’ pastoral assessment model.* http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867905-dt-content-rid-84442501\_1/xid-84442501\_1 (accessed May 16, 2012). - Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012b. *The counselor’s relational style.* http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867902-dt-content-rid-84442507\_1/xid-84442507\_1 (accessed May 16, 2012). - Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012c. *The counseling structure/strategy.* http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867903-dt-content-rid-84441962\_1/xid-84441962\_1 (accessed May 16, 2012). - Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012d. *The counseling summation.* - http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867904-dt-content-rid-84442503\_1/xid-84442503\_1 (accessed May 16, 2012). - Petersen, James. 2007. *Why don’t we listen better? Communicating and connecting in relationships.* Portland, OR: Petersen Publications. - Rice, Dwight C. 2012. *A Multi-faceted view of the self.* Adapted from *Hawkins’ pastoral assessment model.* http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867922-dt-content-rid-84442451\_1/xid-84442451\_1 (accessed May 16, 2012). **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [9 Things You Simply Must Do to Succeed Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/things-you-simply-must-do-to-succeed-book-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # 9 Things You Simply Must Do to Succeed Book Review [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 54 182x300 - 9 Things You Simply Must Do to Succeed Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-54-182x300.png "9 Things You Simply Must Do to Succeed Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40sIDx8)9 Things You Simply Must Do to Succeed in Love and Life: A Psychologist Learns from His Patients What Really Works and What Doesn’t ## **My Summation** Henry Cloud’s book, *9 Things You Simply Must Do to Succeed in Love and Life: A Psychologist Probes the Mystery of Why Some Lives Really Work and Others Don’t,* is an analysis of nine practices of successful people. Cloud labels these successful individuals déjà vu people (Cloud 2004, 9). The following provides a brief exploration of the nine principles. The first principle, “Dig it Up,” is the practice of self-awareness. First, honestly examine any weaknesses, process them, and then throw them away or sow them (Cloud, 35). Second, take an honest inventory of one’s passions and talents, develop them, face any fears, and take calculated risks (40-41). The second principle, “Pull the Tooth,” is the practice of confronting problems and letting them go. The key concept is that avoidance is unhealthy and limiting (59). Accordingly, déjà vu people do not allow unhealthy negative situations to linger; they face the issues and then move on with their life (60-64). The third principle, “Play the Movie,” is the practice of seeing the end before making decisions. By actively visualizing a potential positive or negative outcome, the individual increases the capacity for effective decision-making (71-73). The author suggests seeing, planning, and then evaluating each scene “in light of where the movie is supposed to end” (94). The fourth principle, “Do Something,” is the practice of taking personal responsibility. Although painful circumstances and difficult people are often out of one’s control, the ability to respond healthily to these challenges is always within one’s control (102-104). The author highlights the importance of the principle by explaining that freedom results from “ownership and responsibility” (105). The fifth principle, “Act Like an Ant,” is the practice of taking small steps to accomplish large tasks. The principle decreases the risk of feeling overwhelmed while encouraging the individual by shifting the focus to small accomplishments (122, 128). Finally, the author paradoxically warns, “wanting it now keeps you from having it” (133). The sixth principle, “Hate Well,” is the practice of hating in a way that solves problems instead of creating them (146). Cloud suggests that hating well preserves life and hating poorly destroys life (147). An integral component of hating well is objectivity, which hates the issue without hating the person (153-156). The seventh principle, “Don’t Play Fair,” is the practice of loving unconditionally. Loving without conditions is unfair and incredibly powerful (169). Further, the author suggests that loving without conditions is possible only when healthy detachment exists (179-181). In summary, undeserved love transforms lives. The eighth principle, “Be Humble,” is the practice of serving and learning. First, arrogance denies failure, avoids correction, and fears criticism, all of which undermine learning (200-209). Second, déjà vu people understand that humility is a prerequisite to service, and service precludes success (209-210). The ninth principle, “Upset the Right People,” is the practice of risking the loss of the approval of others. Allowing other people’s unhealthy reactions to manipulate decisions trains them to respond immaturely in the future (224-228). Accordingly, disconnecting from the emotional response of others is critical to healthy decisions and healthy relationships. Finally, Cloud provides twelve steps to help apply the nine principles (238-246). ## **My Reflection** I grew up in a home with little money. The absence of a college education limited my parent’s employment, and numerous family arguments about finances still haunt me. Accordingly, from an early age I wanted to make something of myself. I remember my dad hanging a poster on my bedroom wall that stated, “Winners make it happen, and losers let it happen.” I wanted to make life happen. I studied hard, graduated college with a 4.0, passed the CPA examination the first time, and was the number one recruit at Deloitte, an international consulting firm. Then I started my own business and missed my goal of being a millionaire by the age of thirty by just a few months – then it happened. I like to refer to it as my beautiful train wreck. Fifteen years ago, I started having hives, panic attacks, stomach issues, and asthma. My doctor prescribed some pills for anxiety and warned they were addictive; thus, he immediately encouraged me to see a counselor. I told my counselor I was making something of myself. My counselor asked, “Why?” In this moment, I saw the benefit of “giving up the need to be greater than we are” (Cloud 2004, 209). Some may believe God demands humility solely for moral reasons, but humility may have saved my life. Dietrich Bonhoeffer may best summarize humility by stating, “If one has completely renounced making something of oneself…then one throws oneself completely in the arms of God” (Bonhoeffer 2010, 486). ## **My Investigation** In addition to being humble, Cloud provides three enlightening insights. First, Cloud advances the paradox of perseverance – “wanting things quickly…causes you to miss getting them at all” (Cloud 2004, 133). Next, Cloud recognizes that one cannot simultaneously love and need (Cloud, 180). Specifically, the measure of love conferred is indirectly proportional to the extent one needs the recipient. Finally, the author ironically proclaims that criticism is a gift, a reminder of James 1:2 (204). A number of potential logical and [biblical inconsistencies](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-biblical-creation-account/) also exist. For example, Cloud encourages individuals to take personal responsibility, yet simultaneously suggests that taking responsibility could mean getting someone else to take responsibility (98). Furthermore, the author advises against depending on a spouse to meet one’s needs, but suggests the solution is to fill those needs with other individuals (180-181). Unfortunately, this simply replaces one idol for another and avoids real fullness – that of Christ (Colossians 2:10 \[NIV\]). Finally, the author repeatedly suggests that solutions reside in others, concluding that people are “in our lives to show us the way” (Cloud 2004, 237). Although community is critical, Christ alone is the way (John 14:6 \[NASB\]). Much of the material in Cloud’s work interfaces with the Hawkins’ assessment and Rice’s model of personhood. Hawkins’ model provides a framework to locate “what” is happening rather than “why” stimuli occur (Hawkins 2012a, slide 4). Most of Cloud’s tenets integrate with Hawkins’ framework including the principles of pulling the tooth, doing something, hating well, and not playing fairly. For example, the individual does not need to know why a negative circumstance arose in order to pull the tooth or why an unhealthy situation exists in order to hate it well. Additionally, Rice’s model of personhood emphasizes the importance of relocation through “imagineering purposeful movement” (Rice 2012, slides 1-2). Although a number of Cloud’s principles align with Rice’s imagineering perspective, Cloud’s principle of playing the movie amalgamates seamlessly. Specifically, playing scenarios out to the end helps motivate healthy decisions in the present (Cloud 2004, 72). ## **My Application** The DISC profile suggests that I believe others expect me to be a D/C type, but I am more aligned with the C/S/D type. There are two areas of weaknesses that limit my growth – risk taking and humility. First, although the D portion encourages getting things done, the cautious C component creates a propensity to fear risk. Accordingly, I need to work on being more positive and fearless. Second, the D component of my personality has a propensity to be caustic; thus I need to work on serving others by extending humility. In light of my DISC profile, a couple of Cloud’s principles may be particularly helpful. First, incorporation of Cloud’s paradoxical precept is crucial – “avoidance of risk is the greatest risk of all” (Cloud 2004, 36). The integration of the “digging it up” principle allows me the freedom to take appropriate risk with counselees, thus increasing opportunities for positive relocation. Second, I must give up the desire to be greater than who I am in accordance with Cloud’s “be humble” principle, which mitigates the risk of abrasiveness (Cloud, 209). Cloud’s insights applied to my relational style are powerful tools to assist counselees in moving toward solutions within the “Hawkins’ Pastoral Counseling Scenario.” First, humility helps build rapport with the counselee, which supports a safe environment for change (Hawkins 2012b, slide 4). Second, humility allows me to engage in active listening to the presenting problem without improperly judging (Hawkins 2012c, slide 5). Third, humility mitigates the risk that I will inappropriately attempt to intervene with advice giving, but instead, allow the counselee to move healthily toward his or her own solution (Hawkins 2012c, slides 6-7). Finally, the combination of risk taking and humility allows me to convey affirmative, non-condescending feedback to the counselee, and receive honest debriefing from peers during the debriefing stage of Hawkins’ Counseling Scenario without becoming defensive (Hawkins 2012d, slide 2). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. 2010. *Dietrich Bonhoeffer works: Volume 8: Letters and papers from prison*. Ed. John W. de Gruchy. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress. - Cloud, Henry. 2004. *9 things you simply must do to succeed in love and life: A psychologist probes the mystery of why some lives really work and others don’t*. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. - Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012a. *Hawkins’ pastoral assessment model.* http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867905-dt-content-rid-84442501\_1/xid-84442501\_1 (accessed May 16, 2012). - Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012b. *The counselor’s relational style.* http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867902-dt-content-rid-84442507\_1/xid-84442507\_1 (accessed May 16, 2012). - Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012c. *The counseling structure/strategy.* http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867903-dt-content-rid-84441962\_1/xid-84441962\_1 (accessed May 16, 2012). - Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012d. *The counseling summation.* - http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867904-dt-content-rid-84442503\_1/xid-84442503\_1 (accessed May 16, 2012). - Rice, Dwight C. 2012. *A Multi-faceted view of the self.* Adapted from *Hawkins’ pastoral assessment model.* http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867922-dt-content-rid-84442451\_1/xid-84442451\_1 (accessed May 16, 2012). **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Pastoral Ministry Book Review: MacArthur](https://www.livestransforming.com/pastoral-ministry-book-review-macarthur/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Pastoral Ministry Book Review: MacArthur ## **Summary** In *Pastoral Ministry: How to Shepherd Biblically*, John MacArthur and the faculty of Master’s Seminary provide a series of twenty-two vignettes in the form of chapters that address a broad spectrum of topics related to pastoral ministry. With the stated goal of preparing men for pastoring the local church (MacArthur 2005, vii), the authors’ purpose is to identify the biblical philosophy, qualifications, and priorities of pastoral ministry (MacArthur 2005, viii). In this highly accessible and practical book, the authors highlight three overarching pastoral themes that reappear through all the chapters: a caring heart, impeccable character, and a diverse skillset. These themes illuminate numerous ministry principles and envelop the concepts of ministry call, pastoral training, and deployment. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 53 182x300 - Pastoral Ministry Book Review: MacArthur](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-53-182x300.jpg "Pastoral Ministry Book Review: MacArthur - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40xMwBi)Pastoral Ministry: How to Shepherd Biblically (MacArthur Pastor’s Library) The first theme is pastors must have a caring heart. From the start, MacArthur (2005, 22) asserts that a proper philosophy of ministry rests on the biblical definition of spiritual leadership, which is a shepherd caring for his flock. Thus, the heart of a pastor overflows into activities that focus on the health of the flock, such as teaching, oversight, and leading by example (MacArthur 2005, 21-24). Even as a pastor assesses his call to ministry, a primary ingredient is a pastor’s desire or longing to serve and care for those in his flock, rather than a desire for authority or status (MacArthur 2005, 89-90). Finally, a pastor’s heart must naturally flow into prayer as a spiritual weapon against the power of darkness, which is necessary to maintain personal pastoral health and protect the flock against the enemy (MacArthur 2005, 136-143, 149-153). The second theme is pastors must have impeccable character. Leaning primarily on Titus 1:6-8, MacArthur (2005, 67-80) asserts that a pastor’s character must be above reproach in attitude and conduct, especially in the areas of sexual misconduct and family leadership. James George emphasizes biblical morality by maintaining that a pastoral call assessment must include an analysis of whether he is morally qualified to shepherd a flock (MacArthur, 2005, 90-91). Furthermore, godly character is a key ingredient in the ordination process, and it is critically important to the ongoing training and lifestyle of the minister (MacArthur 2005, 92-97, 115). The third theme is pastors must have a diverse skillset. James Stitzinger explains that the New Testament presents five terms that refer to the same pastoral office, which include elder, overseer, shepherd, preacher, and teacher (MacArthur 2005, 30-32). Accordingly, George contends that a proper assessment of talent and abilities is necessary to confirm a pastor’s call to ministry (MacArthur 2005, 86-89). Further, Irvin Busenitz notes that the breadth of training for ministry must be wide enough to match the plurality of necessary skills (MacArthur 2005, 97-106). Finally, the activities of pastoral ministry must align with the five terms that identify the pastoral office. MacArthur et. al. (2005, 189-313) suggest these pastoral activities include preaching, modeling, leading, evangelism, discipling, warning, worshipping, and observing communion and baptism. In sum, a pastor’s caring heart, impeccable character, and diverse skillet must drive the principles of pastoral call, training, and ministry deployment. ## **Critique** MacArthur’s work exhibits several strengths. First, *Pastoral Ministry* provides a good starting point for potential pastors to assess the possibility of entering vocational ministry. Individuals may sense a desire to become pastors based only on their experience of participating in church activities, without any experience in shepherding, overseeing, or administrating. Disillusion may quickly set in as new pastors experience the pressure of living up to the moral and performance expectations of modern-day vocational ministry. Accordingly, MacArthur’s work provides a transparent guide to the challenges a new pastor should expect regarding moral standards and the diversity of talent needed to meet the demands of ministry. Second, *Pastoral Ministry* provides an unapologetic approach to the necessity of strong personal character. Unfortunately, several highly publicized scandals continue to plague the Christian community. From the child abuse of the Roman Catholics, to the abuse of power by evangelicals such as Mark Driscoll, the perception of pastoral ministry suffers each time lapses occur within the Christian community. MacArthur’s effort candidly and unabashedly addresses the importance of impeccable moral character. Third, *Pastoral Ministry* provides an appropriate critique against the modern consumer-oriented and market-driven approach to ministry (MacArthur 2005, 13-14). In this regard, it is the absence of material that stands out. Readers will not find marketing systems, attractional gimmicks, or manipulative church growth initiatives. Instead, numerical growth is de-emphasized as the authors attempt to align the pastoral role solely with Scripture. Several weaknesses also exist. First, although MacArthur appropriately eschews a market-driven approach to ministry, the presupposition that church is an “institution” continues to exist (MacArthur 2005, xi). MacArthur (2005, 304) gives lip service to the church being a community of believers, but the content of the book aligns with an approach to ministry that makes preaching at an event on Sunday morning the highest priority (MacArthur 2005, xiii, 204). However, Neil Cole points out that prioritizing a centralized institutional event misses the point of the New Testament church (Cole 2005, 34-45). Second, MacArthur admirably highlights the importance of morality, but his dogmatic approach poses certain risks. First, MacArthur (2005, 67-73) appears to identify specific automatic disqualifications, while leaving other attributes ambiguous as to their force. Next, focusing on disqualifying behaviors (MacArthur 2005, 69) without an equal emphasis on the inner self, may increase the risk that pastors will not assign enough emphasis to unhealthy thoughts and emotions. Third, MacArthur asserts that a rebellious child disqualifies a pastor, but ignores how the meaning of Titus 1:6 may be interpreted differently today than during the “honor and shame framework of first-century Mediterranean culture” (Towner 2006, 682). Fourth, MacArthur’s considerable emphasis on behavior without consistently explaining its relationship to the gospel misses the mark, which may lead to posing and sin-management. As Gordon Fee (1987, 391) explains, immorality is always a “misunderstanding of the gospel.” The third weakness is the understatement of the primary purpose of pastoral ministry, which, according to James Thompson (2006, 20), is “participation in God’s work of transforming the community of faith.” Research has shown that church activities do not necessarily lead to transformed lives (Hawkins and Parkinson 2011, 17). Thus, assuming MacArthur’s list of pastoral priorities, such as preaching, teaching, leading etc. will automatically accomplish the purpose of transforming lives is a mistake. MacArthur’s heavy emphasis on ministerial effort, without directly connecting each activity to the purpose of pastoral ministry, detracts from the book’s impact. ## **Evaluation** A recent mantra of organizational life is that “everything rises and falls on leadership” (Maxwell 1999, xi). Accordingly, a biblical approach to pastoral leadership is critical for the health of every church community.[ MacArthur’s book](https://www.livestransforming.com/macarthur/) attempts to provide biblical and practical guidance to potential and current pastors. The value of MacArthur’s work in its larger academic context is its contribution to a holistic approach to pastoral ministry, which includes a philosophy of ministry built on shepherding, qualifications of ministry built on impeccable character, and priorities of ministry built on the skills of the pastor. Although certain weaknesses detract, *Pastoral Ministry* provides a beneficial starting point for anyone exploring vocational ministry or desiring to expand their understanding of pastoral ministry. Young pastors, individuals exploring the possibility of ministry, and even lay pastors looking to expand their knowledge of a biblical approach to pastoral ministry will benefit from the efforts of John MacArthur and his faculty. The work is highly accessible, straightforward, and generously cited to encourage additional study. Although seasoned pastors may obtain a few insights and words of wisdom from the vignettes, most of the content will be familiar. Alternatively, *Pastoral Ministry* will leave scholars and academic oriented readers frustrated. The authors provide conclusions based on the Master’s Seminary theological assumptions, but do not provide possible alternative views. Presuppositions are not overtly stated, but are also not opaque. Conclusions regarding specific Scripture verses are often not adequately supported by their cultural or literary context, and language analysis is limited. However, the book was not written for scholars, so if readers are looking to explore one seminary faculty’s attempt at providing a biblical approach to pastoral ministry, they will not be disappointed. ## **Bibliographic Entry** - Cole, Neil. 2005. *Organic Church: Growing Faith Where Life Happens*. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. - Fee, Gordon D. 1987. *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans. - Hawkins, Greg L., and Cally Parkinson. 2011. *Move: What 1,000 Churches Reveal about Spiritual Growth*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. - MacArthur, John, and the Master’s Seminary Faculty. 2005. *Pastoral Ministry: How to Shepherd Biblically*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson. - Maxwell, John. 1999. *21 Indispensable Qualities of a Leader: Becoming the Person Others Will Want to Follow*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson. - Thompson, James W. 2006. *Pastoral Ministry According to Paul*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. - Towner, Philip H. 2006. *The Letters to Timothy and Titus*. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Letters to My Students Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/letters-to-my-students-book-review/) **Published:** February 16, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Letters to My Students Book Review [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 52 1 182x300 - Letters to My Students Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-52-1-182x300.jpg "Letters to My Students Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BVFmNI)Lectures to My Students: The 28 Lectures, Complete and Unabridged – A Spiritual Classic of Christian Wisdom, Prayer and Preaching in the Ministry ## **Summary** *Lectures to My Students* is a compilation of Charles Spurgeon’s lectures to students of the Pastors’ College, a college Spurgeon (2010, vii) opened in 1856 to train students to preach rather than to become scholars. The purpose of the original lectures was to provide practical advice and encouragement to prospective ministers, which, once published, would influence pastors outside the college and in future generations (Spurgeon 2010, 6). The following summary examines the primary themes, concepts, and principles in twelve of the lectures from Spurgeon’s compilation. Spurgeon’s pragmatic purpose drives his topics and the delivery. Many pastors want to know “how” to be and act like a minister, and the author delivers specific, poignant answers. Spurgeon primarily focuses on the concepts of a minister’s call, prayer life, sermonizing, social life, personal growth, and earnestness. Spurgeon’s delivery reflects the sagacity and pithiness of G. K. Chesterton with a whimsical style that engages readers from the start. Three unifying ministerial themes: self-awareness, balance, and common sense envelop six key principles of ministry. Although Spurgeon masterfully weaves these three themes into all six principles with humorous anecdotes and proverbial wisdom, specific examples are provided for illustration purposes. First, Spurgeon (2010, 23-42) addresses the principle of an authentic call. A minister must honestly assess whether adequate desire and aptitude exist. The theme of self-awareness is palpable as Spurgeon addresses a minister’s call. The second principle is reliance on private and public prayer as “the minister who does not earnestly pray over his work must surely be a vain and conceited man” (Spurgeon 2010, 49). The themes of self-awareness and common sense highlight the importance of not praying with pompousness, vanity, or vulgarity and varying the length of prayers (Spurgeon 2010, 43-72). The third principle is diligent preparation. Regarding sermon preparation, the theme of balance is noteworthy as Spurgeon (2010, 73-113, 377-389) suggests strong content, but not too much; focused content, but not monotonous; spiritualizing the text, but with caution; and the generous use of illustrations, but not too many. The fourth principle is an authentic and upright social life. Both common sense and balance are evident as Spurgeon (2010, 171-179) addresses the importance of sociability without pretentiousness, gentleness without losing conviction, and slowness to speak without being “a dummy.” The fifth principle is continual growth empowered by the Spirit. The self-awareness theme again becomes evident as the minister must assess his mental, oratorical, moral, and spiritual growth patterns (Spurgeon 2010, 217-230). The final principle is zealous earnestness. The theme of balance is found as Spurgeon (2010, 325-341) highlights the importance of being zealous in preaching, but solace regarding results; kindling the flame of Christ’s love, but continuing to feed on the Word; and keeping close to God, but not shirking relationships with other men. In sum, Spurgeon wraps six biblical principles of ministry in the timeless wisdom of three thematic components: self-awareness, balance, and common sense. ## **Critique** The strength of Spurgeon’s work rests on the author’s wisdom presented with alacrity and clarity. Commenting on the book of James, Ralph Martin (1998, 17) explains that wisdom means “practical righteousness in everyday living.” In the case of Spurgeon’s work, wisdom means practical righteousness in everyday ministry as a pastor of a local church. Although Spurgeon’s content is orthodox and sensical, the real strength is in the author’s presentation. Four specific attributes highlight Spurgeon’s wisdom: disclaimers, forthrightness, humor, and pragmatism. First, regarding disclaimers, Spurgeon has an uncanny knack of making an assertion with absolute certainty, just prior to announcing that his certainty is not quite absolute. Reminiscent of the Book of Proverbs, where the righteous are rewarded, but not always (e.g. Prov. 11:18), Spurgeon weaves disclaimers throughout. For example, when discussing spiritualizing a text, Spurgeon (2010, 101, 113) dissents from never going beyond the obvious meaning of the text, but then provides seven disclaimers, such as not straining the text and using discretion. Second, regarding forthrightness, Spurgeon’s straightforward approach leaves nothing to the imagination. For example, Spurgeon (2010, 29, 32, 34) clearly communicates that ineptness is not acceptable, results are important, and if people are not following, then the pastor is not leading. Third, Spurgeon’s humor allows the poignant message of wisdom to be more easily swallowed. For example, Spurgeon (2010, 38-39) recognizes that many zealous and devoted men have a “conspicuous absence of brains,” and were certain of their call to ministry “because they had failed at everything else.” Spurgeon’s tongue-in-cheek turn of phrase will not soon be forgotten by his readers. Fourth, Spurgeon’s pragmatism is likely unmatched even in recent times. For example, instead of pontificating on the theory of public prayer, Spurgeon (2010, 55-72) provides seventeen maxims. Instead of theorizing about sermon preparation, Spurgeon (2010, 73-83) provides a practical checklist, which includes such items as doctrine, congruence, focus, arrangement, and clarity. Although Spurgeon’s six principles are solid, students of his lectures are better off seeking the author’s sagacious thought process behind the principles. Two specific weaknesses also stand out. First, Spurgeon’s forthrightness may, at times, do more harm than good. Specifically, Spurgeon (2010, 13-22) asserts that a minister must be mature, advanced, and vigorously pious down to the smallest detail. Furthermore, ministers must not be stilted, fussy, or pretentious, and always be on duty, sociable, cheerful, conversational, gentle, sensible, and firm (Spurgeon 2010, 171-179). Unrealistic moral expectations, with no outlet to communicate struggles with sin, have been the downfall of many pastors. As Craig Groeschel (2010, 7-15) explains, attempting to “live up” can lead to image management resulting in short-term posing and long-term destruction of the soul. Admittedly, Spurgeon opposes inauthentic behavior, but sin issues reside much deeper than a pastor’s behavior. Second, Spurgeon, the plain preacher of the gospel, surprisingly misses the opportunity to consistently integrate the impact of the gospel into each principle espoused. Gordon Fee (1987, 391) explains that the Apostle Paul, like Spurgeon, prohibits immorality, but only after explaining that the reason for failure is always a “misunderstanding of the gospel.” In Paul’s teaching, “The imperative follows the indicative” (Fee 1987, 391). Spurgeon provides behavioral imperatives regarding character, prayer, sermonizing, social life, personal growth, and earnestness, but does not consistently emphasize the gospel indicative that empowers the imperatives. Without consistent gospel messaging, the reader could disconnect his new nature in Christ from his conduct, which may result in the futility of sin management. ## **Evaluation** The future of the body of Christ depends on the training and development of leaders. Scott Douglas (2014, 84) notes that churches “survive by the capable and continued leadership of their pastors, who have learned from those who came before them.” Spurgeon’s lectures allow pastors to sit under the mentorship of one of the most influential pastors in modern history. The value of Spurgeon’s work in its larger academic context is, without question, its ability to provide practical guidance to pastors ministering in a local church community. Although published a century and a half ago, the timeless wisdom and enduring principles remain relevant in this highly accessible work. Part-time and full-time pastors, lay pastors, young pastors, and soon-to-be pastors will all benefit from Spurgeon’s lectures. Seasoned pastors will also relate to Spurgeon’s entertaining anecdotes and stories, while lay leaders will appreciate the author’s common-sense wisdom applicable to all forms of ministry. The lectures are not recommended for pastors or scholars desiring a theology of pastoral ministry, or those attempting to understand pastoral ministry within the context of [the Ancient Near East](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-ancient-near-east-context/) or Second Temple Judaism. However, if the reader is seeking an accessible and entertaining guidebook wrapped in timeless wisdom written from the perspective of a seasoned pastor, then Spurgeon’s lectures fit perfectly. ## **Bibliographic Entry** - Douglas, Scott M. 2014. “Developing Leaders for Pastoral Ministry.” *The Journal of Applied Christian Leadership* 8, no. 2 (Fall): 84–90. - Fee, Gordon D. 1987. *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans. - Groeschel, Craig. 2010. *Dare to Drop the Pose: Ten Things Christians Think but Are Afraid to Say*. Colorado Springs: Multnomah. - Martin, Ralph P. 1998. *Word Biblical Commentary*. Vol. 48, *James*. Dallas: Word. - Spurgeon, C. H. 2010. *Lectures to My Students*. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Sharing Jesus without Fear Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/sharing-jesus-without-fear-book-review/) **Published:** February 15, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Sharing Jesus without Fear Book Review ## **Content Summary** The thesis of Fay’s book is that all believers can share the Gospel and never fail, and the purpose is to encourage believers to do so. Accordingly, Fay begins by suggesting that sharing one’s faith is, by definition, success, and conversion is not the responsibility of the believer but the responsibility of God (3). Next, the author casts an evangelistic vision by exposing the sin of silence and encouraging believers to join God in releasing the Holy Spirit’s power to change the world (6-9). Fay then statistically proves the critical importance of one-on-one evangelism by suggesting up to 90 percent of nonbelievers come to Christ via personal evangelism (12). Once Fay casts a vision for personal evangelism, he immediately addresses the issue of fear. The author suggests the predominate fears that hinder evangelism include potential rejection, the opinion of others, risks associated with coworkers, lack of knowledge, losing friends and relatives, and incompetence (17-27). Alternatively, Fay insists that the joy associated with sharing one’s faith far surpasses the risks (27). Next, Fay introduces his evangelistic approach, the primary focus of the book, which begins with conversation joggers and five questions. Conversation joggers are preliminary questions with the purpose of moving the discussion toward spiritual matters, in particular, the five share questions (30-32). The five questions consist of asking about spiritual beliefs, Jesus Christ, heaven and hell, eternal destiny, and whether the individual would want to know if what he or she believes is incorrect (34-36). Next, the “hmm” principle is introduced by suggesting the interviewer not argue with any of the responses to the five questions but instead simply reply with hmm (33). If the nonbeliever responds to the final question affirmatively, then the interlocutor asks permission to share Scripture (40). When sharing Scripture, Fay emphasizes the importance of the nonbeliever reading the verses aloud and then asking the individual what the Scripture verses mean (45). The seven verses are Romans 3:23, Romans 6:23, John 3:3, John 14:6, Romans 10:9-11, 2 Corinthians 5:15, and Revelation 3:20 (54-55). Fay explains that if the nonbeliever does not understand the verse, then simply have the verse reread and allow the Holy Spirit to reveal the meaning (51-53). Once the nonbeliever reads the Scriptures, Fay suggests asking five additional commitment questions. These questions pertain to whether the individual is a sinner, desires forgiveness, believes that Jesus died and rose, is willing to surrender, and is ready to invite Christ into his or her life (62-63). Upon asking the last question, Fay implores the interlocutor to be silent and pray (63-65). If the nonbeliever responds in the affirmative, then the author suggests leading the individual in the sinner’s prayer. Fay then suggests asking a couple of questions that confirm the new believer understands what happened, teaching the new believer how to pray, connecting the believer with a local church, and encouraging the individual to read the Gospel of John (71-79). Alternatively, if the individual responds negatively to the questions regarding inviting Christ into his or her life, then Fay suggests simply asking why (65). Fay then provides 36 responses to objections that nonbelievers may assert when answering the why question (81-112). The objections range from the cognitive, such as potential errors in the Bible, to the experiential, such as a Christian hurting a nonbeliever. Next, the author offers advice regarding developing and keeping non-Christian friends, which include joining God’s activity, engaging in activities to build relationships, and having fun maintaining relationship. Fay then provides guidance and specific verses to use when praying for nonbelievers as well as a final encouragement to believers to be obedient. Finally, in five appendices, Fay provides summaries of the evangelistic approach and finishes the book with his personal testimony. ## **Evaluation** [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 34 182x300 - Sharing Jesus without Fear Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-34-182x300.jpg "Sharing Jesus without Fear Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40vaMnx)Share Jesus Without Fear William Fay’s theme that all believers can share the Gospel and never fail is convincing and motivating. The author achieves the intended purpose and sustains the book’s theme in three ways. First, Fay provides a very simple, practical, and specific approach to evangelism to prove that all believers have the ability to share the Gospel. Second, the author defines success as sharing, as opposed to convincing, convicting, or converting in order to prove that one can never fail as long as the believer obediently shares the Gospel. Third, Fay furnishes numerous personal examples of sharing the Gospel, which not only support the thesis, but also motivates the reader. Fay’s presuppositions appear to rest on his educational experience as a graduate of Denver Seminary. Denver Seminary is a non-denominational, evangelical seminary. Accordingly, the author assumes an evangelical Christian perspective, which emphasizes beliefs such as the sovereignty of God, inerrancy of Scripture, depravity of humanity, substitutionary atonement, miraculous nature of the resurrection, and salvation by grace. Denominationally, Fay attempts to stay neutral. However, the primary target is centrist Protestant denominations. The Protestant extremes such as hyper-Calvinism may see little need to engage in evangelism since God’s sovereignty may overshadow any human evangelistic effort. Similarly, a so-called hyper-fundamentalism may reject Fay’s assertions by suggesting the author’s techniques risk undermining a form of separatism necessary to keep the church pure. The strengths of Fay’s book are numerous. The following summarizes seven primary strengths of Fay’s work. First, the author reveals a number of telling statistics, which immediately motivate the reader. For example, 90 percent of Christians do not share the Gospel in a given year, only 17 percent of conversions occur from an event, and a hundred thousand churches will fail in the current decade (Fay and Shepherd 1999, 6-12). Second, Fay provides a very simple methodology. In light of the sobering statistics, an entire cultural shift is necessary within Protestant Christianity regarding evangelism. Accordingly, a simple approach is critical in order not to impede potential movement. Fay’s brilliance shines in the area of keeping it simple by condensing evangelism into five share questions, seven verses, five more commitment questions, and then the sinner’s prayer. Granted, Fay encourages additional activity, but at its core, Fay compresses the approach to very few moving parts. Third, Fay provides a methodology that effectively engages a postmodern world. Will McRaney explains that a postmodern mindset entails a deconstructionist perspective that rejects “any one individual’s ability and right to determine absolute truth for another person” (McRaney 2003, 119). Accordingly, McRaney suggests that asking questions rather than giving information is more effective in a postmodern world (McRaney 2003, 128). Fay’s no-argument approach hinges entirely on a methodology of discovery through inquiry versus information through imperatives, thus effectively engaging a postmodern paradigm. Fourth, Fay provides an approach that engages [the Holy Spirit](https://www.livestransforming.com/holy-spirit-in-revelation/). Masterfully, the author suggests the interlocutor ask the nonbeliever to read the Scripture aloud and determine its meaning. Not only is the technique sensitive to a postmodern perspective, it also allows the Holy Spirit to lead the nonbeliever. Fifth, Fay provides numerous ways to overcome objections by nonbelievers. Although certain risks occur within the context of Fay’s apologetics documented below, the training Fay offers has the potential of significantly increasing the confidence of believers to share the Gospel. In particular, Fay skillfully overcomes objections using inquiry, empathy, and disarming techniques. A sixth and related strength is Fay’s utilization of sound psychology. Although certain Christian camps appropriately eschew the integration of theology with certain forms of psychology, Fay’s work is an effective illustration of how the two disciplines have the potential to align. For example, ancient Socratic inquiry suggests questions, not answers, best encourage learning, Rogerian psychotherapy assists clients in discovering solutions in a non-judgmental environment, and, more recently, cognitive therapy extends empathy and inquiry to uncover faulty beliefs – all of which have been proven effective in human growth and learning (*Baker Encyclopedia of Psychology and Counseling* 1999, 664; 1235-1236; 216-217). Fay utilizes many of these sound psychological methods within the context of his evangelistic approach. Finally, Fay provides a biblical approach to evangelism. The author effectively provides Scripture for the nonbeliever to read during the witnessing process. Furthermore, Fay furnishes Scripture to support the no-argument approach, the responses to objections, and the follow-up questions once an individual makes a decision for Christ. A number of weaknesses also exist within Fay’s work. The following summarizes three key weaknesses of the book. First, although Fay’s methodology effectively engages a postmodern mindset, the content of the author’s approach, at times, risks offending a postmodern perspective. In particular, McRaney points out that spiritual conversations that pertain to significance, meaning, and purpose effectively engage postmodernity, while discussions around heaven and hell aligns more closely with modernity (McRaney 2003, 127). Accordingly, within Fay’s five share questions, the third and fourth questions that directly address the issues of heaven and hell may not be as effective as questions regarding meaning and purpose, especially regarding identity formation of the Christian life, to a nonbeliever steeped in a postmodern paradigm. Furthermore, as mentioned above, McRaney points out that postmodernism rejects “any one individual’s ability and right to determine absolute truth for another person” (McRaney 2003, 119). Again, within Fay’s five share questions, the fifth question regarding whether the nonbeliever would want to know if something is true or not may cause an individual with a postmodern mindset to recoil against a perceived arrogance of the interlocutor. Alternatively, a question regarding permission to share a personal experience regarding how Christ and Scripture forged meaning and purpose may be more effective. A second weakness pertains to Fay’s response to potential objections. As mentioned above, Fay’s methodology of inquiry, empathy, and disarming are ingenious. However, the flippant responses to certain objections may create unnecessary risks. For example, in response to the “I want to think about it” objection, the author reminds the nonbeliever that he or she is hell bound and then sarcastically states, “Then have a wonderful day, sir” (Fay and Shepherd 1999, 93). Although potentially humorous when received by a Christian crowd, the response initiates two potential risks. First, the nonbeliever may perceive the interlocutor as aloof and more interested in pushing an agenda to coerce the nonbeliever. Second, if the nonbeliever actually accepts Christ out of fear with the sole purpose of hell avoidance, then one wonders how the new believer will come to terms with a loving relationship with God. Hell avoidance as an exclusive motivator runs the risk of future relational challenges with God, which is likely why “Paul never in his letters explicitly uses hell as a means of stimulating unbelievers to repent” (Moo 2004, 109). Third, certain interpretations of Scripture do not hold up under scrutiny. For instance, Fay twice refers to Philemon 6 to exhort the reader to share the Gospel by quoting from the 1984 edition of the New International Version that states, “I pray that you may be active in sharing your faith” (Philemon 6 \[NIV 1984\]). However, most commentators believe the verse pertains to Philemon’s hospitality or generosity not evangelism (cf. O’Brien 2000, 279-281). Accordingly, the 2011 edition of the New International Version corrects the 1984 edition stating, “I pray that your partnership with us in the faith may be effective” (Philemon 6 \[NIV 2011\]). Although the weaknesses detract, the strengths certainly outweigh any deficiencies. Furthermore, the scarcity of evangelism within Western Christianity causes Fay’s book to be necessary reading for any Christian who desires to increase the skills and courage to reach lost people for Christ. The teaching and implementation of Fay’s approach is appropriate within many venues including one-on-one coaching, seminars, and small groups. Fay’s methodologies have the potential to enhance significantly the evangelistic efforts in a postmodern society and move Western Christianity forward into a position that Fay envisions – a Christianity where everyone is an evangelist and nobody fails. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Benner, David G., and Peter c. Hill, eds. *Baker Encyclopedia of Psychology & Counseling*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999. - Fay, William, with Linda Evans Shepherd. *Share Jesus Without Fear*. Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999. - McRaney, Will Jr. *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003. - Moo, Douglas J. “Paul on Hell.” In *Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment.*, edited by Christopher W. Morgan and Robert A. Peterson. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004. - O’Brien, Peter T. *Word Biblical Commentary: Colossians, Philemon*. Vol. 44. Mexico: Thomas Nelson, 2000. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Family to Family Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/family-to-family-book-review/) **Published:** February 15, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Family to Family Book Review ## **Content Summary** The thesis of Jerry Pipes and Victor Lee’s book is that parents can provide a meaningful and significant family experience and pass the Christian faith to their children (Pipes and Lee 1999, 1). The purpose of *Family to Family* is to help parents discover the purpose, mission, and values of their family while simultaneously making time to spiritually mentor their children (3). Pipes and Lee begin by asserting that American families are facing a crisis (6-8). The authors then define a healthy family as one who spends quantity and quality time together, commits to love each other, encourages equal involvement of both parents, aligns significance with a life in Christ, passes faith to the next generation, and centers on God’s purposes (11-15). Pipes and Lee continue by referencing the book *Experiencing God* to provide a framework for families to join God in His work and purposes (15-16). Each chapter concludes with questions, applications, activities, and Scripture to assist families in integrating the book’s concepts (19-22). Chapter two focusses on developing a family mission statement. Pipes and Lee suggest that prioritizing family life around a family mission statement decreases the risk of children rebelling (23). The authors then furnish a number of Scriptures that define Christ’s mission to use as a guideline in developing a family’s mission (27-32). A discussion then ensues regarding how to develop a family mission statement, which proposes that families take an inventory, consider the goals, conceptualize the mission, and personalize the statement (33-34). Finally, Pipes and Lee list a number of warnings about and examples of family mission statements (35-36). Passing the Christian faith to the next generation is the subject matter of chapter three. First, Pipes and Lee address how parents may assess the age of accountability, and then the authors enumerate the minimum requirements to present the Gospel (44-47). Pipes and Lee then give a number of guidelines to address teenagers followed by a discussion regarding mentoring (47-50). Specifically, the key elements of mentoring include modeling, availability, affirmation, prayer, transparency, empowerment, and God’s Word (52-58). Finally, the authors address the issues of family worship and identify a number of myths regarding family devotions (58-63). Chapter four addresses the issue of family evangelism. Specifically, the authors encourage families to look, listen, and linger in order to extend evangelistic efforts through service (72-73). Pipes and Lee then offer a few tips for family evangelism followed by a plethora of ideas for families to consider as practical ways to reach the lost (74-84). The ideas range from writing an encouraging note to initiatives that are more elaborate, such as developing a Backyard Bible Club during the summer (76, 78). Finally, the authors address the issue of reaching families with special needs children, which constitute a large unreached population (84-86). Pipes and Lee assert three ways to connect family ministry to church, which is the topic of chapter five (92). First, neighborhood block parties provide a safe environment for nonbelievers to develop relationships with other members of the church and increase the chance of attending church (92-93). Next, family mission trips are a way for families to connect beyond the local community and may occur in partnership with the local church (93-96). Finally, families can collaborate with their local church by packaging the *Jesus Video* as a gift to neighbors, which creates opportunities to follow up and invite the local community to church (96-97). The final chapter focuses on how to share the Gospel once the family builds relational bridges. First, the authors highlight the importance of prayer in reaching the lost (103-105). Next, Pipes and Lee address the role of the Holy Spirit as a guide within a believer’s witness and as the agent of general revelation in the nonbeliever (106-108). The authors then encourage believers to ask about family, interests, and religion before asking permission to share the message (114-115). Pipes and Lee conclude by advising families to choose a method of evangelism that stresses repentance such as a testimony, a memorized presentation, or a witnessing booklet (115-117). ## **Evaluation** The theme of Pipes and Lee’s book that parents can provide a meaningful and significant family experience and pass the Christian faith to their children is quite relevant and convincing in an American society that many have coined post-Christian. The authors provide evidence that partially supports the theme through numerous stories of practical experience and specific ideas regarding how to provide meaning, significance, and faith to family members. The authors also partially fulfill the objective, which is to help parents discover the purpose, mission, and values of their family, while simultaneously making time to mentor children spiritually. Although Pipes and Lee do provide a number of tools to assist parents, the broad nature of the purpose becomes almost impossible to fulfill completely. In the section below regarding weaknesses, a further exploration of the theme and purpose ensues. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 51 182x300 - Family to Family Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-51-182x300.jpg "Family to Family Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3PRVmnj)Family to Family: Leaving a Lasting Legacy The authors presuppose an evangelical theological perspective that appears to align with a Baptist denominational emphasis. Jerry Pipes’ educational background at Luther Rice Seminary supports an evangelical Christian context by aligning with such beliefs as the sovereignty of God, inerrancy of Scripture, depravity of humanity, substitutionary atonement, miraculous nature of the resurrection, and salvation by grace (Luther Rice University & Seminary, 2013). Furthermore, Victor Lee’s involvement with the North American Mission Board and ministry at First Baptist Concord Church likely provides the denominational Baptist perspective that encapsulates the work. The strengths of Pipes and Lee’s work are numerous. First, *Family to Family* is very practical and unique. Specifically, the book provides a practical resource that uniquely focuses on the importance of evangelism within the context of family. In a country where 90 to 95 percent have chosen not to share their faith, the integration of evangelism and family life is critical to the future of Christianity and the stability of the family (Fay and Shepherd 1999, 6). By providing practical tools such as mission statements, guidelines for sharing the Christian faith with children, ideas for family evangelism, suggestions for integrating evangelism with church, and suggestions regarding sharing the Gospel, the authors have offered parents very pragmatic advice regarding the topic of faith and evangelism, which often is not discussed in a family setting outside of Sunday morning. Second, Pipes and Lee’s writing is very accessible. The writing style and organizational structure of the work make the book appropriate for age groups ranging from middle school students through adulthood. An example of the authors’ accessibility is the utilization of the acronym FIRM. FIRM is an approach to listening that encourages believers to move into the life of nonbelievers by asking them questions about family, interests, and religion, and then asking permission to share the message of the Gospel, which is appropriate for a wide spectrum of ages. In addition, the questions, application, activities, and Scripture section at the conclusion of each chapter are also quite accessible and support immediate implementation and integration for both individuals and group learning for a variety of age groups. Third, the authors sprinkle insights throughout the book that are quite constructive. For example, Pipes and Lee suggest never telling a child or adolescent anything that he or she can discover on their own (Pipes and Lee 1999, 61). The wisdom regarding discovery should ring true to any seasoned parent. Another example pertains to the necessity of detachment. The authors reference John 12 and suggest that when an individual focuses primarily on self, then seeing the needs of others is impossible (Pipes and Lee 1999, 74). In other words, unless Christians are able to appropriate their significance from a life in Christ, a self-focus will naturally result as believers attempt to find meaning outside of Christ, thus stifling the selflessness necessary to serve Christ and others. A number of weaknesses also exist within Pipes and Lee’s work. The following analysis explores three key weaknesses of the book. First, and likely the most glaring weakness of the book is its difficulty in proving its thesis and completely fulfilling its purpose. Again, the theme and purpose of the book pertain to finding purpose, meaning, and significance within a family environment and passing on the Christian faith through the spiritual mentorship of family members. Without question, the authors partially prove both the thesis and purpose of the book. However, the primary focus of [*Family to Family*](https://www.livestransforming.com/family-to-family-leaving-a-lasting-legacy/) pertains to a specific aspect of the life, namely, evangelism. Specifically, once the authors provide a definition of a healthy family in chapter one, the remainder of the book focuses on evangelism. For example, chapter two focuses on a mission statement that presumes a mission of evangelism, chapter three focuses on evangelizing children, chapter four focuses on family evangelism, chapter five focuses on the integration of family evangelism with the local church, and the final chapter supplies a number methods to evangelize. Without question, evangelism is important, and granted, evangelism is able to encompass an entire life perspective. However, it seems that attempting to fulfill the book’s broad theme and purpose regarding family meaning, significance, and spiritual mentoring in a short work confined almost exclusively to evangelism may not be possible. In other words, it is not the content that needs revised, but the theme and purpose. If the theme and purpose aligned more closely to the importance of evangelism within the context of the family, then the work may find more clarity and alignment and enhance the reader experience. A second related weakness pertains to the overarching concept of significance. Within the subtitle and the theme of the work, the authors specifically highlight the importance of true significance. Furthermore, Pipes and Lee appropriately identify that individuals can find true significance only in Christ (Pipes and Lee 1999, 12). However, confusion arises when the remainder the book focuses primarily on evangelism, which may lead the reader to believe that evangelism is what provides significance, rather than an identity found in Christ. In other words, an unintended risk exists that a reader may conclude that significance depends on parents sharing their faith with their children and families sharing their faith with the rest of the world. To be clear, the relationship between evangelism and identity live in close cooperation, but evangelism is the *means* of significance and a believer’s life in Christ *is* his or her significance. Pipes and Lee do not confuse the two, but due to the misalignment of theme and content, the risk remains to the reader. The third weakness is a compendium of minor defects. First, due to the natural growth process of children, discussions regarding faith are significantly different depending on the child’s age. Although the authors recognize the issue and attempt to address different age groups, the fact remains that the subject matter is difficult to apply to a broad spectrum of ages. Second, the evangelism ideas provided by the authors seem to lean toward the interests of women and children. For example, the ideas suggested for business associates and neighbors primarily, but not exclusively, focus on baking and activities for small children (Pipes and Lee 1999, 76-79). Accordingly, additional men-oriented activities regarding sports and outdoor evangelism may benefit the work. Finally, small inconsistencies occur. For instance, the authors appropriately emphasize the importance of relationships when witnessing, but simultaneously suggest the use of witnessing booklets or tracts, which may de-emphasize the relational aspects of evangelism. Although the weaknesses are somewhat of a distraction, the strengths certainly triumph. The content of evangelism within the framework of family provides a unique contribution that must not be underestimated. Pipes and Lee offer an important resource to any Christian family who want to share their faith to and from their family. The integration and teaching of *Family to Family* would be appropriate in numerous settings including small groups, family meetings, and one-on-one discipleship settings. The authors’ vision and encouragement for families to live lifestyles of evangelism on purpose are critical for current and future generations of Christians. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Fay, William, and Linda Evans Shepherd. *Share Jesus Without Fear*. Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999. - Pipes, Jerry, and Victor Lee. *Family to Family: Leaving a Lasting Legacy*. Lawrenceville, GA: Jerry Pipes Productions, 1999. - Luther Rice University & Seminary. Doctrinal Statement. http://www.lru.edu/Content.aspx?page=doctrinal\_statement&tool=quicklinks (accessed May 25, 2013). - Moore, Jared. Family to Family: Making a Difference by Victor Lee and Jerry Pipes: A Review. http://voices.yahoo.com/family-family-families-making-difference-victor-2369911.html?cat=9 (accessed May 25, 2013). - Pipes, Jerry. Meet Jerry Pipes. http://jerrypipesproductions.com/meet-jerry/ (accessed May 25, 2013). - Pipes, Jerry, and Victor Lee. *Family to Family: Leaving a Lasting Legacy*. Lawrenceville, GA: Jerry Pipes Productions, 1999. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [The Believer's Church Article Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-believers-church-article-review/) **Published:** February 15, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Believer’s Church Article Review ## **Summary** The following review of Jason Duesing’s work, “The Believers Church: A ‘Natural Resource’ Worth Conserving,” summarizes the article’s contents along with a survey of its major strengths and weaknesses. The author’s intent is to persuade the reader that the believers’ church is the “vehicle to protect and deliver the Gospel,” but is a wasted resource in the current environment of “ecclesiological relativism” (1). Duesing presents three primary arguments to support his polemic, and then utilizes the Anabaptists as exemplary protectors of the Gospel. Duesing begins by comparing the depletion of natural resource in the United States in the early twentieth-century to the current state of the believers’ church. The author then provides three major thematic arguments. First, Duesing argues that the current evangelical environment lacks emphasis on the doctrine of the church, which results in churches that often self-destruct (2). Second, the author argues that a primary cause of the ecclesiological relativism is a “modified ecumenism that relegates doctrines such as the believers’ church to the realm of ‘non-essentials'” (2). Third, Duesing argues that the Anabaptists provide a good example of the type of ecclesiological conservatism necessary to preserve the doctrine of the believers’ church (4). With respect to the Anabaptist example, the author highlights a brief history of the movement, which includes their resistance to ecclesiological intolerance by the state Church, the opposition to the status quo of infant baptism, and complete separation from the existing institutions to accomplish biblical purity (3-4). The author concludes that Anabaptist history provides a strong backdrop by which modern evangelicals can move away from indifference, and toward a strong doctrine of the believers’ church (5). ## **Critical Evaluation** The strengths of Duesing’s article are fourfold. First, the author highlights the connection between the gospel message and the ministry of the church (2). Without the gospel, there is no message for the church to proclaim, and without the believers’ church there is no vehicle to proclaim the message. Second, Duesing correctly correlates ecumenism with the risk of a deterioration of the doctrine of the church (2). Specifically, if the unity of believers necessarily requires undermining the biblical purity of the New Testament church, the cost of ecumenism is too high. Third, the author provides a strong illustration of courage in the form of the Anabaptist movement, which often risked lives to hold tightly to an interpretation of the biblical text even when it meant institutional separation (3-5). Finally, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of Duesing’s reminder to believers regarding the future of Christianity: “The preservation and right articulation of the Gospel can only be accomplished through the preservation and right articulation of the church” (5). [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 50 182x300 - The Believer's Church Article Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-50-182x300.jpg "The Believer - Lives Transforming's Church Article Review")](https://amzn.to/3WhcBlj)Becoming Conversant with the Emerging Church: Understanding a Movement and Its Implications The weaknesses of Duesing’s article are threefold. First, the author assumes that indifference to the doctrine of the church is at the root of many Christian difficulties, but he provides little evidence to support the assertion (1). Although significant difficulties do exist in modern Christianity, the difficulties are not defined.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Furthermore, it is difficult to imagine that “indifference” to the doctrine of the church is the culprit in a generation that continues to actively wrestle with ecclesiology. From [the church growth](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-church/) movement to seeker churches that support mega-church outcomes, and from prosperity gospel television initiatives to the emerging church movement, modern Christians continue to grapple with defining and redefining ἐκκλησία.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Second, the author asserts that the current evangelical environment “disregards the biblically-designed vehicle for protecting and carrying out the Gospel” (2). Other than criticizing the current evangelical environment and holding high the courage of the Anabaptists, Duesing provides little explicit guidance regarding how to deploy the necessary “new movement of a different kind of conservationism” (1). Granted, an exploration of Anabaptist history indicates a call to biblical purity and a separation from existing institutions may be in order, but the author refuses to explain exactly what this would entail for modern believers. Finally, Duesing suggests that the current indifference to the doctrine of the church is the result of “modified ecumenism” (2). Although it is not unreasonable to conclude that ecumenism would cause indifference, the author provides no specific evidence proving how ecumenism has created indifference in the modern evangelical environment. ## **Conclusion** Without question, Protestant denominations face significant difficulties in the twenty-first century. The article’s value in its larger academic context is that it raises the critical issue of defining and deploying a doctrine of the believers’ church that preserves and articulates the gospel. However, the article lacks evidence to support the assertions that the difficulties rest with indifference and ecumenism. Furthermore, the article lacks specific guidance regarding how to modify the doctrine of the church to accomplish the mission of preserving and articulating the gospel for future generations. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) See Dave Earley and David Wheeler, *Evangelism Is: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010), 29. Early and Wheeler explain that from 2000-2010 membership of all Protestants denominations declined by 9.5 percent, while the national population increased. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) See D. A. Carson, *Becoming Conversant with the Emerging Church: Understanding a Movement and Its Implications* (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005), 9–36. ## **Bibliography** - Carson, D. A. *Becoming Conversant with the Emerging Church: Understanding a Movement and Its Implications*. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005. - Duesing, Jason G. “The Believers’ Church: A “Natural Resource” Worth Conserving.” *A White Paper from the Center for Theological Research* (March 2006): 1–5. - Earley, Dave, and David Wheeler. *Evangelism Is: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Theology of Missions](https://www.livestransforming.com/theology-of-missions/) **Published:** February 15, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Theology of Missions ## **Introduction** The twentieth-century explosion of the advancement of global mission is unprecedented. However, an important question to consider is the specific basis for global mission for today’s Christians. The purpose of this paper is to articulate a biblical and theological basis for global mission. This paper will prove that the Bible, nature of God, and mission theology provide a basis for global mission. The research provides support for the assertion that the Bible is a mission document, God is a missionary God, and several theological concepts, motifs, and practices support the basis for global mission. ## **Biblical Perspective** The Bible is a mission document. To support this bold claim, Christopher Wright asserts, “We could as meaningfully talk of the missional basis of the Bible as of the biblical basis of mission.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Two important Old Testament texts that relate to mission are Genesis 12:1-3 and Psalm 67:1-2. First, the author of Genesis states: Now the Lord said to Abram, “Go from your country and your kindred and your father’s house to the land that I will show you. And I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and him who dishonors you I will curse, and in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed (Genesis 12:1-3).”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Scott Moreau, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee identify three blessings of God in the passage, which include God blessing Abraham by making him a great nation, making his name great, and blessing all the people on the earth through him.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Importantly, Wright highlights the global context of Genesis 12 by observing that its literary context counters the Babel experience, where all the nations of the earth in Genesis 10 were scattered in Genesis 11.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Michael Heiser then concludes that the remainder of the Old Testament is the story of God and Israel’s missional partnership to reclaim the scattered and “disinherited nations.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Psalm 67:1-2 also highlights the missional aspect of reaching all nations stating, “May God be gracious to us and bless usand make his face to shine upon us, that your way may be known on earth, your saving power among all nations.” Wright explains that the Psalmist is referencing a priestly blessing from Numbers 6, which conveys Israel’s missional role as a priest among all the nations.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Importantly, it is God’s mission of redemption that is accomplished through man. Two important New Testament texts that relate to mission are Matthew 28:19-20 and Acts 1:8. It is difficult to overestimate the missional importance of Matthew 28:19-20, which states, “Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you.” Moreau, Corwin, and McGee highlight the word *all* that is used four times and the phrase “all nations,” which coincide well with the Old Testament verses identified above.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The missional nature and corresponding directives of verses 28-29 are quite clear; followers of Christ are to make disciples by going, baptizing, and teaching all nations.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Additionally, Acts 1:8, which powerfully unifies the Old Testament passages with Matthew 28, states, “But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes on you; and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth.” Acts 1:8 provides both the power Source behind the directives of the Great Commission and the resolution to the Babel experience. Through the death and resurrection of Christ, the Spirit was released to provide the power to make disciple of all nations. Furthermore, Heiser explains that the literary context of Acts 1:8 hearkens back to the Table of Nations as the language of verse 8, “to the ends of the earth,” reflects the nations in Acts 2:5-12, whereby the dispersed disinherited nations of Babel “would again be His.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) God’s mission begins in Genesis, partially culminates in the New Testament, and will fully reveal itself in Revelation, which clearly supports the claim that the Bible is a mission document. Thus, regarding Scripture, Wright can appropriately assert that mission is “what it’s all about.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) ## **Nature of God** A biblical perspective of mission attests to the nature or attributes of God as a sending and caring God, which integrally connects God’s nature with mission. First, God’s sending activity is clearly seen in the Gospel of John where God sent John the Baptist (John 1:6-8), sent Jesus (John 4:34), sent the Holy Spirit (John 15:26), and sent the disciples (John 17:18). Accordingly, Moreau, Corwin, and McGee explain that the term *missio Dei*, the sending of God, has gained traction as scholars recognize that “mission originates in God, not in the church or in people.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Second, the relationship of God’s nature to mission extends beyond the attribute of sending. God is also a caring God. God is love (1 John 4:8), God is light (1 John 1:5), and God is life (John 14:6). George Peters connects God’s nature to mission by recognizing that, because of these qualities, God “wills the benevolence of mankind and ever seeks to impart Himself to man.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Without question, God’s nature as a sending, loving, light and life-giving God supports the fact that God is a missionary God, who not only originates, but also consummates the advancement of mission. ## **Mission Theology: Trinity and Ecclesiology** The nature of God also links mission to two other aspects of theology: Trinity and ecclesiology. Regarding the Trinity, all three Persons of the Godhead contribute to mission. First, Craig Ott, Stephen Strauss, and Timothy Tennent explain that throughout Israel’s history, God *sent* messengers to further His initiatives.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) For example, according to Jeremiah, the God of Israel stated, “From the day that your fathers came out of the land of Egypt to this day, I have persistently sent all my servants the prophets to them, day after day” (Jeremiah 25:7). Second, Ott, Strauss, and Tennent note that God *sent* Jesus as His representative on earth to further His initiatives.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Matthew records Jesus’s words to highlight His representative status stating, “Whoever receives you receives me, and whoever receives me receives him who sent me” (Matt 10:40). Finally, God *sent* the Holy Spirit (John 14:25). Peters observes the unique role of the Holy Spirit’s relationship to mission as the One who preserves, prepares, and prompts the world, which creates the potential for high-impact mission advancement.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) The Gospel of John supports George’s assertion by explaining that when the Spirit comes, “He will convict the world concerning sin and righteousness, and judgment” (John 16:7-8). Accordingly, Lesslie Newbigin correctly asserts, “The mission of the church is to be understood, can only be rightly understood, in terms of the trinitarian model.”[\[16\]](#_ftn16) [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 44 182x300 - Theology of Missions](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-44-182x300.jpg "Theology of Missions - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40y0amL)The Missionary Nature Of The Church A Survey Of The Biblical Theology Of Mission Ultimately, the triune God sends the apostle Paul (Acts 26:1-18) to propel God’s initiatives forward through the mechanism of the church. Mission theology relates to ecclesiology in three specific ways. First, as Johannes Blauw points out, the interrelationship between a theology of mission and ecclesiology is unmistakable in salvation history, for God repeatedly calls people *out* of the world, places them back *in* the world, and then sends them *to* the world (Gen 12:3; Exod 19:4-6; Mark 3:14-15; 1 Pet 2:9-10).[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Second, Ott, Strauss, and Tennent rightly assert that the church is the agent God chose to further His mission in the current age.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) As God’s agent of mission, the church is the “pillar and buttress of the truth” (1 Tim 3:15), and a royal priesthood to “proclaim the excellencies” of God to those in the dark (1 Pet 2:9). Third, Blauw asserts that the church manifests and proclaims the mission of Christ’s Lordship.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) In other words, the church manifests the kingdom of God as it broke into human history through Jesus. Based on salvation history, agency relationship, and kingdom establishment, J. Andrew Kirk appropriately concludes, “The Church is by nature missionary to the extent that, if it ceases to be missionary, it has not just failed in one of its tasks, it has ceased to be the Church.”[\[20\]](#_ftn20) ## **Mission Theology Motifs** The intersection of ecclesiology and mission theology that propels God’s kingdom forward provides the impetus to explore the first of two key motifs of mission theology. Ott, Strauss, and Tennent explain that the kingdom of God motif broadly encompasses God’s divine rule over all thing by reconciling and restoring humanity to Himself by overthrowing the enemy.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Peters elaborates on the definition by suggesting that the kingdom of God qualitatively includes the rule of God in the heart of man, the church, and in the world, and quantitatively implies a universalistic objective reality that includes all nations.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) [The Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/) attests to the kingdom of God by specifically referencing God as the King of Israel, and more generally as the King of all nations.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) However, the kingdom of God motif does not end with the Old Testament. Ott, Strauss, and Tennent explain that the kingdom of God is uniquely inaugurated into the world through the coming of Christ where God’s kingdom is established within believers through faith.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Moreau, Corwin, and McGee assert that mission and kingdom are “inextricably intertwined” as the kingdom of God is both now and not yet, the current center of gravity and the goal of mission, the location of all Christian participation and enemy attacks (Eph 6:12-13).[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Certainly, the kingdom of God motif resides at the very core of mission theology. The kingdom of God motif sets the stage for the second key motif of mission theology. If the kingdom of God pertains the rule of God, *shalom* pertains to how God’s people live under His Lordship. Glasser et al. note that the Old Testament term, *shalom* (שָׁלוֹם), refers to a gift of Yahweh, which means victory in war or “harmony within the community.”[\[26\]](#_ftn26) The term is recontextualized in the New Testament where the word, *shalom* or peace (εἰρήνη), pertains to God’s gift of reconciling believers with God through Christ.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) However, Moreau, Corwin, and McGee recognize that the *shalom* motif extends beyond personal salvation to the rest of the world.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Specifically, Christians have been freed from the bondage of Satan and are now called to “participate in the kingdom conflict of setting others free by calling them to bond to Christ.”[\[29\]](#_ftn29) Finally, Ott, Strauss, and Tennent suggest that *shalom* extends holistically to the practical outworking of God, which includes caring for the sick, poor, and oppressed.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Believers living life under God’s rule by extending *shalom* to the rest of the world through salvific and physical means also provide a central motif of mission theology. ## **Mission Praxis** Mission theology provides several practical implications for all participants involved in mission activity, which including missionaries, church, leaders, and lay people. First and foremost, the concept of *missio Dei* highlights the fact that God is a sending God, thus all mission activity originates from God. Mission participants are invited to join the triune God in His activity of reconciling all people to Himself through the Son’s obedience to the Father by the power of the Spirit. Second, when participants recognize the interrelationship between ecclesiology and mission, a practical dialogue regarding exactly how each local body will participate in joining God in His activity can ensue. Third, if the kingdom of God pertains broadly to God’s rule, then mission participants must lead the way in submitting to the Lordship of Jesus Christ in their own lives, as well as extending God’s rule in their churches and into all parts of the world. Finally, the method to extend the kingdom of God and His rule is not through coercion or force, but through *shalom*. The concept of *shalom* aligns well with Augusto Rodríguez’s observation that the ecclesiology of the mission-oriented New Apostolic Paradigm supports a relational, rather than a positional approach to authority, where leaders lead by serving rather than by coercion.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) As peacemakers, mission participants must not only proclaim the gospel, but also live the gospel of reconciliation by defending the poor, exploited, and oppressed with the heart of a servant. Whether mission participants are full-time missionaries, church leaders, or lay people, all are called to join God in His mission activity of reconciling humanity to Himself through the local church by extending His kingdom to all nations via *shalom*. ## **Conclusion** The limited scope of this paper precludes a comprehensive basis for global mission. However, based on the biblical evidence, the nature of God’s mission activity, as well as the numerous interrelationships between mission and the theological concepts of the trinity, the church, the kingdom of God, and *shalom*, it appears that a theological basis for global mission clearly exists. Furthermore, the result of mission theology has several practical implications, which include the participation in God’s ongoing mission activity, the extension of church activity beyond the Sunday morning walls, and the direct involvement in kingdom expansion to all people through proclamation and service. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Christopher J. H. Wright, *The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible’s Grand Narrative* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2006), 29. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2001)*.* [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) A. Scott Moreau, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee, *Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015), 32–33. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Wright, *The Mission of God*, 202–3. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Michael S. Heiser, *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible* (Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015), 113–15. Heiser’s perspective is based on a Deuteronomy 32:8-9 worldview whereby the nations in Genesis 10 were disinherited by God [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Wright, *The Mission of God*, 477. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Moreau, Corwin, and McGee, *Introducing World Missions*, 43–44. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 45. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Heiser, *The Unseen Realm*, 298–302. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Christopher J. H. Wright, “Truth with a Mission: Reading All Scripture Missiologically,” *The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology* 15, no. 2 (Summer 2011): 6. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Moreau, Corwin, and McGee, *Introducing World Missions*, 71. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) George W. Peters, *A Biblical Theology of Missions* (Chicago: Moody Press, 1972), 60. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Craig Ott, Stephen J. Strauss, and Timothy C. Tennent, *Encountering Theology of Mission: Biblical Foundations, Historical Developments, and Contemporary Issues*, ed. A. Scott Moreau (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010), 66. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid., 68. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Peters, *A Biblical Theology*, 81. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Lesslie Newbigin, *The Gospel in a Pluralist Society* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989), 118. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Johannes Blauw, *The Missionary Nature of the Church: A Survey of Biblical Theology of Mission* (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962), 194. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Ott, Strauss, and Tennent, *Encountering Theology of Mission*, 195. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Blauw, *The Missionary Nature*, 84. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) J. Andrew Kirk, *What Is Mission?: Theological Exploration* (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2000), 30. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Ott, Strauss, and Tennent, *Encountering Theology of Mission*, 86. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Peters, *A Biblical Theology*, 40–42. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Ibid., 40. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Ott, Strauss, and Tennent, *Encountering Theology of Mission*, 87. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Moreau, Corwin, and McGee, *Introducing World Missions*, 77–78. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Arthur F. Glasser et al., *Announcing the Kingdom: The Story of God’s Mission in the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 130. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Ibid. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28)Moreau, Corwin, and McGee, *Introducing World Missions*, 80–81. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Ibid., 81. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Ott, Strauss, and Tennent, *Encountering Theology of Mission*, 131–32. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Augusto Rodríguez, *Paradigms of the Church in Mission: A Historical Survey of the Church’s Self-Understanding of Being the Church and of Mission* (Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2012), 59–60. ## **Bibliography** - Blauw, Johannes. *The Missionary Nature of the Church: A Survey of Biblical Theology of Mission*. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962. - Glasser, Arthur F., Charles E. Van Engen, Dean S. Gilliland, Shawn B. Redford, and Paul Hiebert. *Announcing the Kingdom: The Story of God’s Mission in the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003. - Heiser, Michael S. *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015. - Kirk, J. Andrew. *What Is Mission?: Theological Exploration*. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2000. - Moreau, A. Scott, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee. *Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015. - Newbigin, Lesslie. *The Gospel in a Pluralist Society*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989. - Ott, Craig, Stephen J. Strauss, and Timothy C. Tennent. *Encountering Theology of Mission: Biblical Foundations, Historical Developments, and Contemporary Issues*. Edited by A. Scott Moreau. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010. - Peters, George W. *A Biblical Theology of Missions*. Chicago: Moody Press, 1972. - Rodríguez, Augusto. *Paradigms of the Church in Mission: A Historical Survey of the Church’s Self-Understanding of Being the Church and of Mission*. Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2012. - Wright, Christopher J. H. *The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible’s Grand Narrative*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2006. - ———. “Truth with a Mission: Reading All Scripture Missiologically.” *The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology* 15, no. 2 (Summer 2011): 4–15.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Unreached People Group of Yemen](https://www.livestransforming.com/unreached-people-group-of-yemen/) **Published:** February 15, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Unreached People Group of Yemen ## **Introduction** The Bible testifies to the necessity of taking the message of the gospel to all the nations. Writing to the churches in Galatia, the Apostle Paul reminds his readers in Galatians 3:8 that “Scripture, foreseeing that God would justify the Gentiles by faith, preached the gospel beforehand to Abraham, saying, ‘In you shall all the nations be blessed.'”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Since the time of the Patriarchs, believers have been called to take the gospel to all nations. Unfortunately, thousands of people groups have yet to be reached with the gospel. An unreached people groups is defined as a cultural group that is less than 2 percent evangelical. The following research addresses the people of Yemen, of an unreached people group. According to Jason Mandryk, the population of Yemen exceeds 24 million and consists of 99.92 percent Muslim, and only .08 percent Christian.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, the following paper provides a plan to reach the people of Yemen for Christ to reach the people of Yemen. First, a brief background of the people of Yemen is provided, which includes their history, language, culture, economy, and religion. Next, a survey of missions’ work is provided, which summarizes the history of missions, status of the church, known believers, current challenges, and present mission strategies in Yemen. Finally, a strategy to reach the people Yemen completes the trilogy, and it includes both a proposed organizational structure and evangelization strategy. By exploring the background information, surveying the history of missions’ work, and proposing a valid mission strategy, this paper will show that it is possible to reach with the Gospel one of the most resistant people groups in one of the most dangerous places on earth – Yemen. ## **Background Information** **History** The history of Yemen may be summarized in one word: conflict. The Library of Congress Federal Research Division provides a several insights into Yemen’s long and storied history. Prior to AD 630, the area known as modern-day Yemen, Arabia Felix, was ruled by various family dynasties.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) During the seventh century, Yemen’s governor converted to Islam, which led to centuries of Arab caliphate rule followed by the rule of the Ottoman Empire in northern Yemen from the sixteenth century into the twentieth century.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In 1918, the Ottoman Empire relinquished control to the Zaydi dynasty leader, Imam Yahya, who was assassinated in 1948 and succeeded by his son until 1962, at which time Colonel Abdallah al Sallal took control of the north and founded the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR).[\[5\]](#_ftn5) In southern Yemen, the British took power in 1839 and relinquished control in 1967, which culminated in the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY).[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Conflict between the two parties led to continued unrest until Yemen’s reunification in 1990 into the Republic of Yemen, led by President Salih of the YAR.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) According to “The World Factbook,” a brief civil war broke out in 1994 followed by intermittent uprisings from 2004 through 2010.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) President Salih’s popularity began to wane in 2011 due to disintegrating economic conditions and corruption, which led to the opposition calling for Salih’s resignation.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Salih eventually transferred power to Vice President Abd Rabuh Mansur Hadi in 2012, who took a number of democratic initiatives such as national elections.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) However, the Huthis, a Muslim religious-political-armed movement that supported the ousted President Salih, overran the capital of Yemen in September of 2014 causing Hadi to flee to Saudi Arabia.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Hadi successfully convinced Saudi Arabia to launch airstrikes against the Huthis resulting in the Huthis announcing their own party as the legitimate power, the Supreme Political Council.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Finally, in an ironic twist, the Huthi forces murdered Salih in late 2017.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The centuries of unrest and conflict in Yemen appear to have no end in sight. **Language** According to Mandryk, the official language of Yemen is Arabic, but thirteen additional Semitic languages are spoken.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) “Ethnologue” notes that standard Arabic is widespread in Yemen spoken by over 17 million people.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Other prevalent forms of Arabic include Gulf, Hadrami, Judeo-Yemeni, Sanaani, and Ta’izzi-Adeni.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) More regional languages include Hobyót in the eastern corner of Yemen, Mehri in eastern Yemen, Rāziḥī in the northwest corner of Yemen, and Soqotri, which is primarily used on Socotra island southeast of Yemen.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) **Culture** The following analysis of Yemen’s culture summarizes four topics: population, demographics, education, and health. First, “The World Factbook” asserts that the population of Yemen surpassed 28 million in 2017, which consisted predominantly of Arabians, and it had a strong population growth rate of 2.3 percent.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) The urban population is approximately 36 percent of the population, with the majority residing in the Asir Mountains in western Yemen.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Second, Yemen has a young demographic. Mandryk states that 44 percent of the population is under fifteen-years-old with a life expectancy of approximately sixty-two years.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Third, the education system in Yemen is lacking. “The World Factbook” claims the literary rate is approximately 70 percent, but only 55 percent of the females were literate as of 2015.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Yemen has laws that require compulsory, free education through the age of fifteen, but the laws are not enforced; thus only 75 and 35 percent of children are enrolled in primary and secondary schools, respectively.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Finally, Yemen’s health system is significantly underdeveloped with only three doctors per 10,000 people.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Healthcare is particularly scarce in rural areas where only 25 percent of the people have access to healthcare.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Sadly, most childhood deaths are preventable with vaccinations, but are not available to much of the Yemeni population.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) **Economy** Yemen’s economy can be summarized in one word: poor. In fact, Mandryk states that Yemen is the “poorest country in the Arab world.”[\[26\]](#_ftn26) The turmoil, unrest, and wars have taken a significant toll on Yemen’s economy. The Library of Congress contends that the world community has provided financial support over the last number of decades, but water crisis, population growth, and the lack of economic expansion has kept more than 45 percent of the population in poverty.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) More recently, “The World Factbook” claims that the continued conflict with the Huthi regime has damaged infrastructure, caused inflation, limited food supply, and created a significant humanitarian crisis, which included a large outbreak of cholera that left 80 percent of the population in need of assistance.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) The Library of Congress points out that agriculture, forestry, and fishing remain the primary industries supporting Yemen’s economy.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) The most prevalent agricultural crop is qat, which accounts for more than 6 percent of GDP.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Qat is a controlled substance in most developed countries due the risk of psychological dependence, and Shelagh Weir notes that a significant portion of individual earnings often end up being used to purchase the drug.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) Although Yemen borders Saudi Arabia, it is a small oil producer and not a member of OPEC, but oil still provides 75 percent of government’s revenue through production-sharing agreements.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) Mandryk summarizes the most significant economic issues as “dwindling oil and water supplies…in a country with rapid population growth.”[\[33\]](#_ftn33) **Religion** The third part of this paper explores Yemen’s religion in greater detail. Accordingly, this section provides only a very brief analysis. “The World Factbook” states that over 99 percent of Yemen is Muslim with 65 percent following the Sunni school and 35 percent following the Shia school of Islam.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) The Library of Congress explains that Yemen’s constitution declares Islam as the state religion, thus it prohibits Muslim proselytization.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) Accordingly, A. Scott Moreau, Gary Corwin, and Gary McGee note that religious persecution often exists within Islamic contexts.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) **Family** Due to the strong Islamic presence in Yemen, the family reflects Sharia law, a legal system based on the Islamic faith. According to the *World Culture Encyclopedia*, many marriages have a family arrangement between the groom’s relatives and potential brides.[\[37\]](#_ftn37) Under Sharia law, a man can consummate marriage with up to four brides as long as he keeps the relationships equitable, but even within the guidelines of the law, polygamy is not prevalent.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) About half of the population is married, and divorce is legal, but the divorce rate is at a stunningly low 1 percent.[\[39\]](#_ftn39) The low divorce rate is likely due to the subordination of women, not a high moral regard for monogamous marriage. “The World Factbook” estimates the fertility rate in 2017 at 3.63 children per woman, and the contraceptive prevalence rate was 33.5 percent.[\[40\]](#_ftn40) Vijayan Pillai and T. S. Sunil explain that fertility rates have fallen in other Arab country’s faster than Yemen.[\[41\]](#_ftn41) The reason for the high fertility rate in such a poor country is due to religious values that dissuade contraception and a lack of economic opportunities for women.[\[42\]](#_ftn42) Finally, it is difficult to ignore the impact of the unrest on the family. A *New York Times* article suggests the family carnage is due to the fighting between the Huthis and Yemen government that “has displaced a million people, destroyed cultural heritage sites, and terrorized the population.”[\[43\]](#_ftn43) **Map** The map of Yemen places the country on the southern border of Saudi Arabia and the western border of Oman. To the east and south of Yemen, the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden separate the country from the African countries of Ethiopia and Somalia, respectively.[\[44\]](#_ftn44) ## **A Survey of Mission Work** **History of Missions** The history of missions in Yemen may have started shortly after the time of Christ. In [the Apostle Paul’s](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-apostle-pauls-perspective-on-jewish-law/) letter to the Galatians he writes that God had called him to preach to the Gentiles, but instead of asking for advice from others or going to Jerusalem he “went away into Arabia, and returned again to Damascus” (Gal 1:17). Although the details of Paul’s trip to Arabia are uncertain, Samuel Zwemer suggests that the journey to Arabia may have been Yemen’s first Christian missionary effort.[\[45\]](#_ftn45) During the third and fourth centuries, Christians settled in different parts of Arabia Felix, modern-day Yemen.[\[46\]](#_ftn46) Andrea Sterk documents an unlikely missionary effort from a fifth century woman, Theognosta, who was taken captive from a convent and presented to the king of Yemen as a gift, and “through her agency” the king and the people became Christians.[\[47\]](#_ftn47) During the sixth century, Arab caravans entered Arabia Felix, and soon thereafter “the last sparks of Christianity were extinguished.”[\[48\]](#_ftn48) David Grafton has identified three important missionaries to the Muslim world from the thirteenth to the early nineteenth century: Raymund Lull, Henry Martyn, and Karl Pfander. [\[49\]](#_ftn49) These men were precursors to the modern missionary work in Yemen by Ion Keith-Falconer (1856-87) and Samuel Zwemer (1867-1952).[\[50\]](#_ftn50) The impact of Keith-Falconer’s short but powerful missionary effort in Yemen is a story of courage. After studying at Cambridge, Keith-Falconer’s passion for missions led him to start the Aden Mission in southwest Yemen, which quickly moved inland to Sheikh Othman to minister to the indigenous Arab population.[\[51\]](#_ftn51) Keith-Falconer’s efforts focused on medicine and education, and was considered the “first Protestant missionary to intentionally focus upon Arabian Muslims.”[\[52\]](#_ftn52) The missionary’s legacy continues as positive model for the necessity of indigenous Arab churches.[\[53\]](#_ftn53) Although Keith-Falconer succumbed to sickness within a year after founding the mission, the Aden Mission lasted from 1886-1963.[\[54\]](#_ftn54) Under the influence of Keith-Falconer, Samuel Zwemer, often called the “Apostle to Islam,” left America for Arabia in 1890.[\[55\]](#_ftn55) After a brief visit to Cairo, Zwemer landed in Aden, Yemen, where he fought off malaria while moving through various parts of the country.[\[56\]](#_ftn56) In 1891, Zwemer traveled to Sanaa, Yemen, which had been closed to foreigners, but surprisingly, officials allowed him to witness to the Arabian people.[\[57\]](#_ftn57) During 1894, Zwemer returned to Sanaa in an effort to distribute New Testament Bibles translated into Hebrew.[\[58\]](#_ftn58) Although Yemen’s missionary history is limited due to religious freedom restrictions, the courage of the missionaries God has called to Yemen is an inspiration to all who have followed in their footsteps. **Status of Church** Since Islam is the state religion and enforces Sharia law, non-Muslim institutional churches are a practical impossibility. The United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor explains that Yemen’s constitution provides for “freedom of thought and expression ‘within the limits of the law,’ but omits mention of freedom of religion,” and the “criminal code states ‘deliberate’ and ‘insistent’ denunciation of Islam or conversion from Islam to another religion is apostasy, which is a capital offense.”[\[59\]](#_ftn59) Accordingly, Raymond Ibrahim explains that under Sharia law the Yemen government does not allow the building of private churches or the open gathering of local Christians.[\[60\]](#_ftn60) One study identified five churches in Aden, Yemen, but three were dilapidated, one was owned by the government, and the remaining church was converted into a health facility.[\[61\]](#_ftn61) Accordingly, sources explain that the only churches that exist are underground where Christians pray “in the members’ houses on a rotational basis – not unlike the days of Roman persecution of Christians, when the latter worshipped in underground catacombs.”[\[62\]](#_ftn62) Unfortunately, the recent outbreak of violence by the Huthi rebels has only served to increase the persecution of non-Muslim religions.[\[63\]](#_ftn63) **Known Believers** Considering the significant risk of persecution, it is not surprising that the number of known believers is negligible. Recent estimates suggest that approximately 2,500 indigenous Christians live in a clandestine culture in Yemen.[\[64\]](#_ftn64) In addition to the indigenous Christians, an estimated 15,000 to 25,000 refugees from countries such as Somalia, Eritrea, and Ethiopia currently live in Yemen because the persecution in those countries is even worse.[\[65\]](#_ftn65) However, these estimates are quite speculative as no official statistics regarding non-Muslim people currently exist.[\[66\]](#_ftn66) **Challenges** The challenges of mission work in Yemen are vast, and many have been alluded to previously. Economically, two of the most profound challenges are the lack of clean water and the extreme poverty. Culturally, continued strong population growth, alongside a society that devalues education and women’s rights, pose additional challenges to mission work. Third, the Arabic language barrier is an additional challenge to the training of missionaries. Fourth, the continued civil unrest between the Huthi forces and the Yemen government create an unstable and dangerous society for missionary work, even if Islamic law was not a constitutional mandate. Finally, and likely most challenging, the government denies freedom of religion and prohibits Muslim proselytization, which leads to persecution from both civil authorities and the public at large. For example, in 2002 three United States medical missionaries were gunned down by a man named Abed Abdel Razzak Kamel, who was a member of a Yemeni Islamic group.[\[67\]](#_ftn67) The assassin claimed that he shot the missionaries because “they were preaching Christianity.”[\[68\]](#_ftn68) The murdered individuals were missionaries working at an American Baptist hospital that provides free medicine for tens of thousands of patients per year.[\[69\]](#_ftn69) Unfortunately, civil authorities also persecute Christians in Yemen. In 2008, Yemeni police arrested a “missionary cell” consisting of seven individuals who were charged with “promoting Christianity and distributing the Bible.”[\[70\]](#_ftn70) The arrests could lead to torture and capital punishment.[\[71\]](#_ftn71) **Present Strategies** Due to the significant religious persecution in the Islamic state of Yemen, most missionary work has taken the form of humanitarian relief efforts. One prominent example is the work of Scottish medical missionaries. According to J. H. Proctor, Keith-Falconer believed an effective method of opening the Yemen people to the message of the Gospel would be to supply medical services. [\[72\]](#_ftn72) Accordingly, Keith-Falconer recruited a doctor named Stewart Cowen, who was followed by 24 physicians over 92 years of medical mission service in Yemen.[\[73\]](#_ftn73) Unfortunately, the mission efforts were terminated in 1979 by local authorities, and beyond a few converts, the only real evidence of success was a decrease in the negative perceptions of Christians.[\[74\]](#_ftn74) Similarly, since the late 1960s, Southern Baptists have administered a small 45-bed hospital in Jibla, Yemen located just south of Yemen’s capital, which provided medical missionary initiatives.[\[75\]](#_ftn75) In 2002, after the murdered missionary event at the hospital, the Yemeni government increased cooperation with the Southern Baptists to serve the Yemeni people by agreeing to work more closely together if the term Baptist was removed from the name of the hospital.[\[76\]](#_ftn76) The Scottish medical mission and efforts of Southern Baptists are indicative of present missionary strategies deployed by other Christian organizations as well. To this point, very little evangelistic success has occurred from any form of Christian missionary effort. Furthermore, the recent political unrest in Yemen has strained even the small amount of government cooperation with humanitarian mission efforts. **Proposed Strategy** The following proposed mission strategy is from the perspective of a missionary going to the people of Yemen. The background information provided above suggests that the strategy must be sustainable in a country where Sharia law is enforced under the Islamic state religion. Furthermore, the strategy must take into consideration that non-Muslim institutional churches are a practical impossibility. Finally, it is necessary to recognize that the brief survey of past and present missions’ work, which has centered around humanitarian efforts to build trust, has had limited success regarding evangelization. The following analysis proposes a strategy that considers the state religion and the limited evangelistic success by applying a C5 organizational structure found in the book, *Perspectives*, with a personal evangelization strategy of reinterpretation found in Fouad Elias Accad’s book, *Building Bridges*. **Organizational Structure** Before providing the details of an organizational structure to support a missionary in Yemen, it is acknowledged that certain inherent risks of syncretism exist with any contextualization initiative. Accordingly, the following structure is not without potential controversy. However, one must also consider the possibility that the risk associated with an un-evangelized Yemen may outweigh the risk associated with a controversial strategy that increases the risk of syncretism. It is within this framework of risk, that the following analysis is presented. Contextualization is the process of adapting the message of the gospel to the culture of the recipients. John Travis offers six types of “Christ-Centered Communities” within a Muslim context by using the nomenclature C1 through C6, which identify categories of contextualization.[\[77\]](#_ftn77) The C1 and C2 communities are visible forms of the traditional church, C3 communities are more culturally sensitive, but still considered Christian, all of which would be practical impossibilities in the legal environment of Yemen.[\[78\]](#_ftn78) At the opposite extreme are C6 communities where believers live in secret with no visible form of evangelization or community.[\[79\]](#_ftn79) C4 communities maintain many Islamic practices, do not meet in church buildings, and are viewed as a “kind of Christian.”[\[80\]](#_ftn80) C4 communities are a viable option for missionaries in Yemen, but the risk of real or perceived violations of the law not only make C4 communities too dangerous, but also put potential Muslim believers at risk unnecessarily. Alternatively, C5 communities consist of believers that “remain legally and socially within the community of Islam.”[\[81\]](#_ftn81) Certain risks are associated with C5 communities. Phil Parshall asserts that C5 communities risk being labeled as both “unethical and sub-Christian.”[\[82\]](#_ftn82) First, C5 communities may be considered unethical because they convey they are Muslims when, in fact, they are something other than Muslim. Second, C5 communities may be considered sub-Christian because, if they align solely with traditional Muslim beliefs, then they cannot quite be considered Christian. However, Travis asserts that the biggest challenge for Muslims believing in Christ is not theology, but their “cultural and religious identity,” since leaving their religious identity means disassociation with friends, family, and community, while, simultaneously, risking their lives.[\[83\]](#_ftn83) Accordingly, a possible solution is to encourage Muslims to maintain their cultural and religious identity, while aligning their beliefs with the Bible through a proper reinterpretation of the Qur’an.[\[84\]](#_ftn84) [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 45 182x300 - Unreached People Group of Yemen](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-45-182x300.jpg "Unreached People Group of Yemen - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3C0FD1P)Building Bridges: Christianity and Islam **Evangelization Strategy** The key to a missionary successfully deploying an evangelization strategy within a C5 community context is a proper reinterpretation and application of the Qur’an. Fouad Elias Accad provides an approach to personal evangelism to Muslims that consists of first consciously building trust through a lifestyle that gains respect, then properly understanding Muhammad and the Qur’an, followed by explaining the relationship between the Bible and the Qur’an as well as shrewdly sharing seven Muslim-Christian principles of reinterpretation.[\[85\]](#_ftn85) Building trust with individuals is not a new concept to missiology, and the importance of trust certainly applies to mission efforts with the Muslim community. The recent history of mission work, which focused on humanitarian efforts, began paving the way for trust building. Certainly, service is one way to build trust. However, Muslims are skeptical of the motives of even humanitarian efforts, thus another important aspect of trust building is time. Accad explains that any potential conversation regarding faith will fall on deaf ears “if the Muslim has not had time to develop a respect for that Christian friend.”[\[86\]](#_ftn86) Part of building trust and respect is not violating the individual’s high regard for Islam; thus a proper view of Muhammad and the Qur’an is critically important for evangelistic efforts with Muslims. Accad explains that many Christians believe the myth that Muhammad and the Qur’an are anti-Christian.[\[87\]](#_ftn87) The Bible had not been translated into Arabic at the time of Muhammad, so much of his knowledge about the Scriptures was taught to him orally by Jews, thus the Qur’an’s early chapters are often positive with regard to both Jews and Christians.[\[88\]](#_ftn88) For example, the Qur’an states, “The believers, as well as the Jews, the Sabeans and the Christians: all who believe in God and the Last Day and do righteous deeds, will have nothing to fear and they will not grieve” (The Feast 5:69).[\[89\]](#_ftn89) Furthermore, Accad explains that Muslims are strict monotheists, who first used the term *Allah*, meaning “The God,” during the sixth and seventh centuries. [\[90\]](#_ftn90) Thus, as an Abrahamic religion, it is not unreasonable to assert that *Allah* and *Yahweh* are referring to the same one and only God, the God of Abraham, even if Islam’s understanding of the attributes of God differ from Christians.[\[91\]](#_ftn91) Finally, a correct understanding of Muhammad is also critical. If the term “prophet” is defined as the final messenger from God, Christians do not believe the tradition that Muhammad was a prophet. However, Accad suggests that Christians can believe that Muhammad was a prophet based on the definition provided by the Qur’an, which explains that Muhammad “was a warner in a clear Arabic tongue (see Poets 26:194-195).”[\[92\]](#_ftn92) In sum, missionaries can begin finding common ground with Muslims by recognizing that Muhammad was not anti-Christian, the Qur’an often speaks positively of the Bible, Muslims are monotheists who believe in the God of Abraham, and that Muhammad was a type of prophet who warned people about God in Arabic during a time when no Bible existed. Once respect and common ground is garnered, the missionary can next explain the relationship between the Qur’an and the Bible, and then he or she can move toward sharing the seven Muslim-Christian principles of reinterpretation. The Qur’an actually teaches Muslims to use the Bible, as exemplified in the following verse: “People of the Book \[the Qur’an\], you have no valid ground for your beliefs, unless you (truly) observe the Torah and the Gospel, and all that has been sent down to you from your Lord” (The Feast 5:68). With the Bible’s relationship to the Qur’an established, each of the principles shared by the missionary can use both the Bible and the Qur’an as supporting evidence for the principles of reinterpretation. Accad’s first principle states, “God has a wonderful purpose for our lives.”[\[93\]](#_ftn93) Sharing the following verses supports principle one: Deuteronomy 7:9; Luke 1:50; and the verse from the Qur’an, which states, “If the people of those communities had believed and been mindful of Us, We \[God\] would have showered them with grace out of heaven and earth” (The Heights 7:96). The Qur’an shows that God wants to further the purposes of the believer. Accad’s second principle states, “Sin separates us from the pleasure of God’s company and all the resulting benefits.”[\[94\]](#_ftn94) Sharing the following verse in the Qur’an supports principle two, which states, “Truly, those who do evil and are caught in their sins will be in Hell eternally” (The Cow 2:81). Clearly, the Qur’an shows that sin separates people from God. Accad’s third principle states, “We are helpless to save ourselves.”[\[95\]](#_ftn95) Sharing Psalms 125:5 and Titus 3:4-5 supports principle three, along with a verse in the Qur’an, which states, “Lest a soul be damned for what it has earned. It will have no one to protect it from God, and no one to intercede besides Him” (Livestock 6:70). In this verse, the Qur’an admits that it is God who intercedes, not something “earned.” Accad’s fourth principle states, “God has provided a solution to our dilemma.”[\[96\]](#_ftn96) Sharing Isaiah 19:20 and Psalms 49:7-8 supports the fourth principle and so does a verse in the Qur’an, which states, “We \[God\] ransomed him \[Abraham’s son\] with a great sacrifice” (The Ranks 37:107). This verse in the Qur’an makes the cross more logical to a Muslim. Accad’s fifth principle states, “The solution is not just the Cross but a divine Person, Jesus Christ.”[\[97\]](#_ftn97) Sharing Isaiah 61:1 and John 1:1-14 supports principle five along with the verse in the Qur’an, which states, “The angels said, ‘God gives you good news of a world from Him, whose name will be the Messiah, Jesus (Esa) son of Mary, He will be highly distinguished in this world and the Hereafter, and brought near to God'” (The Family of Imran 3:45). Accad’s sixth principle states, “We must invite Christ, our substitute, to live in our hearts and be the master of our lives.”[\[98\]](#_ftn98) Sharing Isaiah 61:1 and John 1:1-14 support principle six along with the verse in the Qur’an, which states, “God said, ‘Jesus, I will cause you to die and raise you up to me…and I will exalt your followers over those who deny you until the Resurrection Day'” (The Family of Imran 3:55). This verse in the Qur’an opens the story of Christ’s death and resurrection to the Muslim. Accad’s seventh principle states, “When we accept Christ, we receive forgiveness for our sins.”[\[99\]](#_ftn99) Sharing Ezekiel 36:26-27 and John 1:12-13 supports principle seven along with the verse in the Qur’an, which states, “God, the Almighty, the All-Knowing. Forgiver of sin, Acceptor of repentance, Severe in punishment and Infinite in favor” (The Forgiver 40:2-3). These seven principles provide the potential for a missionary to share the gospel with a Muslim through a proper reinterpretation of the Qur’an. ## **Conclusion** Although Scripture is unequivocal in its directive to share the gospel with all nations, it is hard to imagine a more difficult people group to reach than the people of Yemen. The history of unrest, Arabic language, low literacy rate, poverty-stricken economy, Sharia law, Islamic state religion, and suppression of women’s rights all contribute to significant challenges associated with any form of Christian missionary work in Yemen. Furthermore, courageous efforts have been made by individuals such as Ion Keith-Falconer and Samuel Zwemer, and significant humanitarian support have been provided by organizations such as the Scottish Medical Missionaries and the Southern Baptists. However, in the face of severe persecution, these efforts have resulted in little evangelistic success. Accordingly, the number of Christians are exceedingly low and the number of Christian churches is practically non-existent. However, by using local cultural forms and a biblically acceptable reinterpretation of the Qur’an, it is possible to remain within a Muslim community as a believer in Christ through the organizational structure of a C5 community. Furthermore, by consciously building trust through a lifestyle that gains respect, properly understands Muhammad and the Qur’an, and explains the relationship between the Bible and the Qur’an followed by shrewdly sharing the seven Muslim-Christian principles of reinterpretation, a missionary has the potential of evangelizing Muslims in Yemen. Accordingly, by considering the background, survey of missions’ work, and proposed strategy for missions, this paper has shown that it is possible to reach one of the most resistant people groups in one of the most dangerous places on earth. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008)*.* [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Jason Mandryk, *Operation World: The Definitive Prayer Guide to Every Nation*, 7th ed. (Downers Grove: IVP Books, 2010), 889. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Library of Congress – Federal Research Division, “Country Profile: Yemen,” (August 2008): 1, accessed May 25, 2018, http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Yemen-new.pdf. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 1-2. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 2. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) “The World Factbook,” Central Intelligence Agency, accessed May 20, 2018, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ym.html. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) “The World Factbook.” [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Mandryk, *Operation World, 889.* [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ethnologue: Languages of the World, accessed May 21, 2018, https://www.ethnologue.com/country/YE /languages. Also see language map at https://www.ethnologue.com/map/YE. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Ibid. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) “The World Factbook.” [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Mandryk, *Operation World, 889.* [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) “The World Factbook.” [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Yemen,” 7. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Ibid., 10. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) “The World Factbook.” [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Ibid. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Mandryk, *Operation World, 889.* [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Yemen,” 8. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) “The World Factbook.” [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Yemen,” 10. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Ibid. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Shelagh Weir, “Economic Aspects of the Qat Industry in North-West Yemen,” in *Economy, Society, & Culture in Contemporary Yemen*, ed. B. R. Pridham (London: Croom Helm, 1985), 64. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Yemen,” 10-11. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Mandryk, *Operation World, 889.* [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) “The World Factbook.” [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Yemen,” 6. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) A. Scott Moreau, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee, *Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015), 292. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) *World Culture Encyclopedia*, s.v. “Yemen,” accessed May 24, 2018, http://www.everyculture.com/ To-Z/Yemen.html. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Ibid. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) *World Culture Encyclopedia*, s.v. “Yemen.” [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) “The World Factbook.” [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) Vijayan K. Pillai and T. S. Sunil, “Toward Smaller Family Size in Yemen,” *Asian Population Studies* 2, no. 3 (November 2006): 257. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Ibid., 267. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Hanna Ingber, “The Many Miseries of Yemeni Families,” *New York Times*, June 24, 2015, accessed May 24, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/25/world/middleeast/yemen-families-humanitarian-crisis.html. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Yemen (map), accessed May 20, 2018, http://www.businessinsider.com/these-maps-show-where-yemens-conflict-could-be-heading-2015-3. Google Maps. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Samuel M. Zwemer, *Arabia: The Cradle of Islam*, 2nd ed. (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1900), 300–1. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) Ibid., 307. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) Andrea Sterk, “Representing Mission from Below: Historians as Interpreters and Agents of Christianization,” *Church History* 79, no. 2 (June 2010): 297–98. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48) Zwemer, *Arabia: The Cradle*, 313*.* [\[49\]](#_ftnref49) David D. Grafton, “The Legacy of Ion Keith-Falconer,” *International Bulletin of Missionary Research* 31, no. 3 (July 2007): 148. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50) Ibid. [\[51\]](#_ftnref51) Grafton, “The Legacy,” 148. [\[52\]](#_ftnref52) Ibid., 150–51. [\[53\]](#_ftnref53) Ibid., 152. [\[54\]](#_ftnref54) Ibid., 148–50. [\[55\]](#_ftnref55) Christy J. Wilson Jr., “The Legacy of Samuel M. Zwemer,” *International Bulletin of Missionary Research* 10, no. 3 (July 1986): 117–18. [\[56\]](#_ftnref56) Ibid., 118. [\[57\]](#_ftnref57) Ibid. [\[58\]](#_ftnref58) Zwemer, *Arabia: The Cradle*, 363. [\[59\]](#_ftnref59) Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, “Yemen 2015 International Religious Freedom Report,” U. S. Department of State: 1, accessed May 26, 2018, http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/ 256509.pdf. [\[60\]](#_ftnref60) Raymond Ibrahim, “Yemen’s Forgotten Christians,” Gatestone Institute International Policy Council, January 29, 2013, accessed May 26, 2018, http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/3563/yemen-christians. [\[61\]](#_ftnref61) Ibid. [\[62\]](#_ftnref62) Ibid. [\[63\]](#_ftnref63) Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, “Yemen 2015,” 4. [\[64\]](#_ftnref64) “The Christians of Yemen: A Minority Pray Invisibly,” Egyptian Today, January 6, 2013, accessed May 26, 2018, http://www.linga.org/international-news/NDY2NA. [\[65\]](#_ftnref65) Ibid. [\[66\]](#_ftnref66) Ibid. [\[67\]](#_ftnref67) Mark Husband, “Three US Missionaries Killed in Yemen,” FT.com, December 30, 2002, accessed May 26, 2018, http://ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/docview/228676568?accountid=12085. [\[68\]](#_ftnref68) David N. Dixon, “Aid Workers or Evangelists, Charity, or Conspiracy: Framing of Missionary Activity as a Function of International Political Alliances,” *Journal of Media and Religion* 4, no. 1 (2005): 18. [\[69\]](#_ftnref69) Alan Philps, “Missionaries Vow to Stay in Yemen after Killings,” The Telegraph, December 31, 2002, accessed May 26, 2018, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/yemen/1417549/Missionaries-vow-to-stay-in-Yemen-after-killings.html. [\[70\]](#_ftnref70) “Yemen: Christians Arrested for Missionary Work and Apostasy,” EA Foundation, accessed May 26, 2018, http://www.ea.org.au/ea-family/Religious-Liberty/YEMEN–CHRISTIANS-ARRESTED-FOR-MISSIONARY-WORK-AND-APOSTASY. [\[71\]](#_ftnref71) Ibid. [\[72\]](#_ftnref72)J. H. Proctor, “Scottish Medical Missionaries in South Arabia, 1886-1979,” *Middle Eastern Studies* 42, no. 1 (January 2006): 103. [\[73\]](#_ftnref73) Proctor, “Scottish Medical Missionaries,” 103. [\[74\]](#_ftnref74) Ibid. [\[75\]](#_ftnref75) George Whitten, “Yemeni Gets Death Sentence for Killing U.S. Missionaries,” Worthy News, May 12, 2002, accessed May 26, 2018, https://www.worthynews.com/572-yemeni-gets-death-sentence-for-killing-u-s-missionaries. [\[76\]](#_ftnref76) Ibid. [\[77\]](#_ftnref77) John J. Travis, “The C-Spectrum: A Practical Tool for Defining Six Types of ‘Christ-Centered Communities’ Found in Muslim Contexts,” in *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement*, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 4th ed. (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 664. [\[78\]](#_ftnref78) Ibid. [\[79\]](#_ftnref79) Travis, “The C-Spectrum,” 664. [\[80\]](#_ftnref80) Ibid., 664–65. [\[81\]](#_ftnref81) Ibid., 665. [\[82\]](#_ftnref82) Phil Parshall, “Going Too Far?,” in *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement*, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 4th ed. (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 666. [\[83\]](#_ftnref83) John J. Travis, “Must All Muslims Leave ‘Islam’ to Follow Jesus?,” in *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement*, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 4th ed. (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 672. [\[84\]](#_ftnref84) Ibid., 670–71. [\[85\]](#_ftnref85) Fouad Elias Accad, *Building Bridges: Christianity and Islam* (Colorado Springs: NavPress, 1997), 30–77. [\[86\]](#_ftnref86) Ibid., 31. [\[87\]](#_ftnref87) Ibid., 39. [\[88\]](#_ftnref88) Accad, *Building Bridges*, 40. [\[89\]](#_ftnref89) Unless otherwise noted, all Qur’an passages referenced are in *The Qur’an with References to the Bible: A Contemporary Understanding* (Fairfax, VA: Bridges of Reconciliation, 2016). Brackets are explanatory. [\[90\]](#_ftnref90) Accad, *Building Bridges*, 40. [\[91\]](#_ftnref91) Ibid. [\[92\]](#_ftnref92) Ibid., 39, 40. [\[93\]](#_ftnref93) Accad, *Building Bridges,* 77. [\[94\]](#_ftnref94) Ibid., 83. [\[95\]](#_ftnref95) Ibid., 91. [\[96\]](#_ftnref96) Accad, *Building Bridges,* 97. [\[97\]](#_ftnref97) Ibid., 110. [\[98\]](#_ftnref98) Ibid., 124. [\[99\]](#_ftnref99) Ibid., 130. ## **Bibliography** - Accad, Fouad Elias. *Building Bridges: Christianity and Islam*. Colorado Springs: NavPress, 1997. - Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. “Yemen 2015 International Religious Freedom Report.” U. S. Department of State. Accessed May 26, 2018. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/256509.pdf. - Dixon, David N. “Aid Workers or Evangelists, Charity, or Conspiracy: Framing of Missionary Activity as a Function of International Political Alliances.” *Journal of Media and Religion* 4, no. 1 (2005): 13–25. - Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Accessed May 21, 2018. https://www.ethnologue.com/ country/YE/languages. - Grafton, David D. “The Legacy of Ion Keith-Falconer.” *International Bulletin of Missionary Research* 31, no. 3 (July 2007): 148–52. - Husband, Mark. “Three US Missionaries Killed in Yemen.” FT.com. December 30, 2002. Accessed May 26, 2018. http://ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/docview/228676568?accountid=12085. - Ibrahim, Raymond. “Yemen’s Forgotten Christians.” Gatestone Institute International Policy Council. January 29, 2013. Accessed May 26, 2018. http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org /3563/yemen-christians. - Library of Congress – Federal Research Division. “Country Profile: Yemen.” (August 2008): 1–26. Accessed May 25, 2018. http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Yemen-new.pdf. - Mandryk, Jason. *Operation World: The Definitive Prayer Guide to Every Nation*. 7th ed. Downers Grove: IVP Books, 2010. - Moreau, A. Scott, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee. *Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015. - Parshall, Phil. “Going Too Far?” In *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement*, edited by Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne. 4th ed., 663–67. 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Accessed May 20, 2018. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ym.html. - Travis, John J. “Must All Muslims Leave ‘Islam’ to Follow Jesus?” In *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement*, edited by Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne. 4th ed., 668–72. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009. - ———. “The C-Spectrum: A Practical Tool for Defining Six Types of ‘Christ-Centered Communities’ Found in Muslim Contexts.” In *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement*, edited by Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne. 4th ed., 664–65. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009. - Weir, Shelagh. “Economic Aspects of the Qat Industry in North-West Yemen.” In *Economy, Society, & Culture in Contemporary Yemen*, edited by B. R. Pridham. London: Croom Helm, 1985. - Wilson, Christy J. Jr. “The Legacy of Samuel M. Zwemer.” *International Bulletin of Missionary Research* 10, no. 3 (July 1986): 117–21. - “Yemen: Christians Arrested for Missionary Work and Apostasy.” EA Foundation. Accessed May 26, 2018. http://www.ea.org.au/ea-family/Religious-Liberty/YEMEN–CHRISTIANS-ARRESTED-FOR-MISSIONARY-WORK-AND-APOSTASY. - Whitten, George. “Yemeni Gets Death Sentence for Killing U.S. Missionaries.” Worthy News. May 12, 2002. Accessed May 26, 2018. https://www.worthynews.com/572-yemeni-gets-death-sentence-for-killing-u-s-missionaries. - Zwemer, Samuel M. *Arabia: The Cradle of Islam*. 2nd ed. New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1900.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [John the Baptist: Character Study](https://www.livestransforming.com/john-the-baptist-character-study/) **Published:** February 15, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # John the Baptist: Character Study # **Character Study: John the Baptist** ## **Lesson One: Birth and Death** ## **Introduction:** (Slide 1-4) Tonight we are going to begin a study of an important, but less prominent character in Scripture. I want to welcome you to the study. In the next three lessons, we will explore John the Baptist. (Slide 5) Although the stereotypes of John the Baptist may be numerous, we will attempt to answer various questions about John. What kind of life did John lead, and how did he die? Who did John think he was, and who did others, including Christ, think John the Baptist was while ministering on earth? In addition, how did John minister and what was his message? (Slide 5) During our three lessons, we will investigate three aspects of John the Baptist. First, we will look at the bookends of John’s life, which include his infancy and the tragic circumstances surrounding his death. Second, we will explore John’s identity. Some have identified John as an ascetic; others suggest he was part of the Qumran community, while Jesus referred to John as a prophet. Third, we will discuss John’s powerful preaching ministry and, of course, his ministry of baptizing many individuals including the baptism of Jesus. Finally, and possibly most importantly, over the course of three lessons, we will learn the power of purpose, identity, and humility from John’s life and ministry. However, tonight we begin our journey by examining John’s miraculous infancy. ### **Infancy:** (Slide 6-7) The story of John the Baptist’s infancy is quite miraculous, but when paralleled with Christ’s infancy, it is beyond miraculous. The Gospel of Luke provides a number of unique parallels between the birth of [John the Baptist](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-life-of-john-the-baptist/) and the birth of Christ. Mark Powell identifies seven parallels between John and Jesus.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) (Slide 8) The first parallel is Luke’s introduction of the children’s parents.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Luke introduces John’s parents, Zacharias and Elizabeth, as righteous and blameless, but because Elizabeth was barren, and the couple was aging, they had no children (Luke 1:5-7).[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Likewise, later in chapter one, Luke introduces Mary and Joseph (Luke 1:26-27). (Slide 9) The second parallel is the announcement of both births by an angel.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In the case of John the Baptist, the angel Gabriel appeared to his father, Zacharias, and told him that he would have a son named John that would “go as a forerunner before Him in the spirit and power of Elijah” (Luke 1:8-17). Unfortunately, Zacharias did not believe Gabriel, and accordingly, became mute (Luke 1:19-22). Similarly, an angel also appeared to Mary and told her that even though she was a virgin, she would soon have a child (Luke 1:28-35). (Slide 10) The third parallel was a response by both of the mothers to the angel’s announcements.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) John’s mother, Elizabeth, responded to her pregnancy by hiding and thanking God that she could finally have a child (Luke 1:24-25). Mary responded by visiting Elizabeth, and when Elizabeth heard her voice, John leaped inside her womb; and “Elizabeth was filled with the Holy Spirit” (Luke 1:39-45). (Slide 11) The fourth parallel was the birth of the two boys.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) (Slide 12) The fifth parallel was the circumcision and naming of the boys.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The circumcision of both John and Jesus occurred when they were eight days old (Luke 1:59 2:21). In addition, when the angels appeared, they communicated the names the boys should be given. Accordingly, Mary named her son Jesus, and once Zacharias, still a mute, wrote the name of the child provided by the angel on a tablet, “his tongue loosed, and he began to speak in praise of God” (Luke 1:63-64, 2:21). (Slide 13) The sixth parallel is the prophecy offered regarding each child.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) John’s father, Zacharias, prophesied that John would “be called prophet of the Most High,” and “go on before the Lord to prepare His ways; to give to his people the knowledge of salvation, by the forgiveness of their sins” (Luke 1:76-77). Likewise, Simeon prophesied over Jesus’s future purpose (Luke 2:25-38). (Slide 14) The seventh and final parallel is that both John and Jesus grew and matured, but the Gospels record very little about either boy’s childhood.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) (Slide 15) John the Baptist’s connection with Jesus as an infant is nothing short of miraculous and sets the tone for a relationship that continues into adulthood. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 22 182x300 - John the Baptist: Character Study](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-22-182x300.jpg "John the Baptist: Character Study - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4hal5D0)Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament ### **Death**: (Slide 16) Although we will explore the adult life and ministry of John the Baptist in the next two lessons, providing the bookends to John’s life illuminates the center. John’s death is as inexplicably tragic as his birth was inexplicably miraculous. (Slide 17) A confrontation between John the Baptist and Herod Antipas, a son of Herod the Great, initiated the demise of John. Herod Antipas married his half brother’s wife, Herodias, against Jewish law.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) As a result, John the Baptist confronted Herod and stated, “It is not lawful for you to have your brother’s wife” (Mark 6:18). (Slide 18) Accordingly, Herod imprisoned John in the castle of Machaerus in Peraea.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The Jewish historian, Josephus, recounts that Herod actually feared John because of his influence over the people, believing that John’s followers may “raise a rebellion.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) (Slide 19) While in prison, John sent his disciples to Jesus and had them ask, “Are You the Expected One…?” (Matthew 11:3). Jesus told John’s disciples to report back to John what they had observed including the witnessing of miracles as proof of His Messiahship” (Matthew 11:4-5). (Slide 20) Although Herod planned to keep John safe, the enchanting dance of his wife’s daughter, Salome, at his birthday party, prompted him to promise the girl that he would give her whatever she asked (Mark 6:20-23). Unfortunately, Salome, upon the advice of her mother, requested the head of John the Baptist on a platter (Mark 6:24-25). ### **Application**: (Slide 21) One can only imagine what John might have been thinking in prison knowing his death was imminent. As he was looking back over his life, I wonder if he was questioning whether he had accomplished his purpose. (Slide 22) I have often questioned my purpose in life. Although 2,000 years later it is easy to see the sovereign purpose of John’s life, it is almost unfathomable to imagine what John may have been thinking sitting in prison. John did not yet know of the Christ’s crucifixion, resurrection, or the filling of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost. John, like many of us, did not know the end of the story and asked for reassurance. John’s story is a potent reminder that God is in our lives from conception to death and beyond, living out His purpose in us, even when the end of the story is absent from our human eyes. ## **Conclusion**: (Slide 23) This week, document a circumstance in your past where you were questioning God and then write down how God ultimately revealed Himself. Finally, reflect on what God may be doing right now in an area of life that the end of the story is unclear and then bring your story back to share with the group next week. (Slide 24) Now that we have explored the birth and death of John the Baptist’s life, we will begin filling in the blanks. Who exactly was John the Baptist? What was John’s identity? Was he a recluse, a prophet, or both? Our next lesson will include an assessment of John’s ascetic lifestyle and an investigation into the possibility that he was somehow part of the Qumran community. Finally, we will explore the possibility that John the Baptist was a prophet. # **Character Study: John the Baptist** ## **Lesson Two: Identity** ## **Introduction:** (Slide 25-26) A few weeks ago while preparing for this study, I curiously asked my wife what she thought of when I mentioned the name, John the Baptist. She told me that what came to her mind was that John was weird. When I pressed her for an explanation, she described John as an eccentric character who dressed oddly and ate insects. John reminded my wife of a hippy. (Slide 27) In the last lesson, we discussed the miraculous infancy and tragic death of John the Baptist. However, in today’s lesson, we will be looking between John the Baptist’s infancy and death by exploring his identity. We will first discuss John’s “odd” lifestyle and potential connection with the Qumran community. In addition, we will investigate who John thought he was and who Jesus claimed John was to the people during New Testament times. Finally, we will use the exploration of John’s identity to see what we can learn about finding our own. ### **Ascetic:** (Slide 28-30) The Gospel of Mark begins with an appearance of John the Baptist “in the wilderness preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Mark 1:4). David Carlson points out the impressive connection between the Old Testament and John’s affiliation with the wilderness.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) For example, God revealed himself to Moses in the wilderness when proposing the covenant to the Israelites (Exodus 19). Furthermore, the wilderness was the site where David took refuge (1 Samuel 23:13-14). It is also the place that Elijah took refuge (1 Kings 19:1-6). Additionally, the wilderness became the place of restoration for Israel (Hosea 2:14-15). Finally, Mark correlates John the Baptist to the messenger in the wilderness that Isaiah referenced who would prepare the way for the Messiah (Mark 1:2-3). (Slide 31) The wilderness seems to be a perfect location for John’s calling. When announcing John’s birth, Luke explains that John “will drink no wine or liquor” (Luke 1:15). Accordingly, Walvoord and Zuck suggest that John was a Nazarite from birth.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) A Nazarite vowed to abstain from alcohol, refrain from cutting his hair, and separate himself for the service of the Lord (Numbers 6:1-8). The Gospels do not specifically say that John observed all facets of the vow.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) However, the separatist nature of John’s lifestyle was critical to his ministry in order to provide appropriate distance from the defects of the first century religious system. Accordingly, the wilderness appears to be the ideal headquarters for John’s ministry. (Slide 32) John’s clothing and diet supported the separatist nature of his ministry in the wilderness. The Gospel of Mark states, “John was clothed with camel’s hair and wore a leather belt around his waist, and his diet was locusts and wild honey (Mark 1:6). Bob Deffinbaugh believes John’s unique attire signified separation and he suggests John “stuck out like a sore thumb.”[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Deffinbaugh also identifies two other purposes for John’s appearance. First, John’s clothing had the purpose of connecting him with the prophet Elijah.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Elijah’s description in the Old Testament was that of “a hairy man with a leather girdle bound about his loins” (2 Kings 1:8). Second, the simplicity of John’s clothing and diet supported his message of repentance that naturally should lead to a compassion for the poor.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) ### **Qumran:** (Slide 33-35) John’s simple lifestyle has led some scholars to question its origin and hypothesize a relationship between John the Baptist and the Qumran community. Qumran is a site where archeologists discovered a number of ancient scrolls in 1947 that scholars subsequently named the Dead Sea Scrolls.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Accordingly, the Qumran community is the name given to the people that hid their scrolls in the caves. The most extensive material discovered pertained to the “life, thought, and expectations of the Qumran group.”[\[20\]](#_ftn20) (Slide 36) Carlson explains that certain scholars hypothesize that the Qumran community adopted John the Baptist and provides three reasons for the potential connection.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) John the Baptist and the Qumran community exercised a form of asceticism, practiced baptism associated with repentance, and maintained an eschatological perspective.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) However, the evidence is sparse, and F. F. Bruce goes so far as to suggest that John may have actually avoided a connection with the Qumran community’s practices.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) ### **Prophet:** (Slide 37-38) Without a doubt, the relationship of John the Baptist to the Qumran community remains a mystery. Likewise, John the Baptist’s biblical identity is also in some ways shrouded in mystery. (Slide 39) The Gospel of John records that the Jews sent priests and Levites to ask John, “Who are you?” (John 1:19). John replied by stating that he was not the Christ, not Elijah, and not the Prophet, and then John references Isaiah 40:3 and explains that he is a “voice of one crying the wilderness” (John 1:20-23). All three of the Synoptic Gospels also reference Isaiah 40:3 and associate Isaiah’s prophecy with John (Matthew 3:3; Mark 1:3; Luke 3:4). Regardless of John’s humble assessment of himself, Bruce suggests that John was the “last and greatest member of the prophetic succession.”[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Bruce supports his assertion by referring to the Gospel of Luke, which states, “The Law and the Prophets were proclaimed until John” (Luke 16:16). (Slide 40) Although John was clearly a prophet, a special prophetic connection existed between John and Elijah in three ways. First, the Gospel of Luke states that John will “go as a forerunner before Him in the spirit and power of Elijah” and fulfills the prophecy of Malachi 4:6 “to turn the hearts of the fathers back to the children” (Luke 1:17). Second, A. R. Meyer recognizes that John baptized people east of the Jordon, the same location as Elijah’s activity took place.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Third, as mentioned earlier, Meyer also suggests that John’s lifestyle descriptions of clothing, food, and calling set John “in the tradition of Elijah.”[\[26\]](#_ftn26) ### **Application:** (Slide 41) John’s lifestyle, which exemplified a strong detachment from the world, prepared him for his purpose as the forerunner to Christ. (Slide 42) Bob Deffinbaugh appropriately points out that John the Baptist completely rejected three locations the world places its identity. John was free from the bondage of people’s opinions, free from the performance mentality of the ancient Jews, and free from needing a position of power in which to place his identity.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) John the Baptist experienced the freedom that comes from understanding that his identity was detached from popularity, prosperity, and position and paves the way, not just for Jesus, but also for modern readers to follow his lead in detaching from the world. ## **Conclusion:** (Slide 43) Before we meet next week, take time to document an area of life that, if taken away, would cause significant distress. This exercise helps identify areas of your life where attachment to the world exists. Be prepared to share with the group next week what freedom may look like if you detached from this area of life. (Slide 44) Now that we have explored John the Baptist’s identity, we will investigate his ministry. What was John the Baptist’s message? Our next lesson will explore concepts very dear to John’s heart including repentance and, of course, baptism. We will also learn some valuable lessons from John regarding humility. # **Character Study: John the Baptist** ## **Lesson Three: Ministry** ## **Introduction:** (Slide 45-47) In the last lesson we spent time focusing on who John the Baptist was, in other words, John’s identity; however, in today’s lesson, we will explore what John did, that is, John’s ministry. First, we will discuss John’s ministry of preaching. John’s primary focus in preaching was the topic of repentance. Accordingly, we will discuss six aspects of his message followed by a brief look at John’s effectiveness. Second, we will investigate various aspects of John’s ministry of baptism. Finally, we will spend a few minutes exploring what we can learn from the solid character of this incredible man. ### **Preaching:** (Slide 48) The Gospel of Matthew summarizes John’s message in one brief sentence, “Repent for the kingdom of heaven is at hand” (Matthew 3:2). Bob Deffinbaugh provides six significant aspects of John’s message. (Slide 49) First, John communicated a prophetic message.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Prophecy appeared to be outdated during New Testament times. Even Zechariah proclaimed that there would come a day where the Lord will “remove the prophets and the unclean spirit from the land” (Zechariah 13:2). In fact, the Lord did remove prophecy from the land. The last prophecy had occurred almost four centuries before John, but the Jews expected prophecy to reappear before the messianic kingdom and John fulfilled these expectations.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) (Slide 50) Second, John communicated a messianic message.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) The expectations of a Messiah were quite diverse during the intertestamental period and entailed a focus on both a national restoration of Israel as well as a potential person to fulfill the role.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) Accordingly, it was clear to many Jews what John meant when he announced that the “kingdom of heaven is at hand” (Matthew 3:2). (Slide 51) Third, John communicated a preparatory message.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) As discussed earlier, the angel Gabriel made it clear that John would “go as a forerunner” (Luke 1:17). Deffinbaugh observes that John pointed to Jesus in a similar manner as the Old Testament prophets designated Israel’s King, and that John’s task “was to prepare the people spiritually for \[the\] Messiah’s appearance.”[\[33\]](#_ftn33) (Slide 52) Fourth, John communicated a negative message.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) Carlson notes that John’s message warned of judgment and demanded an ethical response not only from Gentiles, but also from the Jews.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) (Slide 53) Fifth, John communicated a partial message.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) In other words, at the time of John’s message, Christ had not died, resurrected, or ascended. Furthermore, the Holy Spirit had not descended upon the disciples. Accordingly, John’s preliminary message knew more about the bad news of sin than the good news of Christ’s sacrifice.[\[37\]](#_ftn37) (Slide 54) Finally, John communicated a message of repentance.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) C. G. Kromminga explains that the Greek word for repentance is *metanoia* and means to change one’s “mind, affections, convictions, and commitment,” which “results in an outward turning from sin to God.”[\[39\]](#_ftn39) Furthermore, John preached that trusting in religious ancestry was futile (Luke 3:8). In other words, John’s message of repentance focused on an inward change that affects outward behavior, rather than relying of the Old Testament covenant for salvation. (Slide 55) Three pieces of evidence point to the effectiveness of John’s message. First, the Gospel of John claims that John had his own disciples (John 1:35). Second, even the non-Christian Jewish historian, Josephus, acknowledges that the crowds were “greatly moved by hearing his words.”[\[40\]](#_ftn40) Finally, years later there were individuals who still only knew “the baptism of John” (Acts 1:25). In addition, John’s humility further enhanced his message. Even when John’s disciples became envious of Christ, John modeled humility by stating, “He must increase, but I must decrease” (John 3:26-30). ### **Baptism:** (Slide 56) Although John’s preaching ministry was incredibly effective, his legacy is his baptism ministry. (Slide 57-58) First, we will explore the background of intertestamental baptisms, followed by answering why Jesus sought baptism, and finally, summarizing the overall purpose of John’s ministry. Meyer observes that the Greek word for the act of baptizing is *baptizo*, which can refer to ritual cleansing or forgiveness.[\[41\]](#_ftn41) Additionally, Carlson suggests there was an eschatological anticipation of the prophets of God to cleanse the Jews prior to the Day of Judgment.[\[42\]](#_ftn42) However, John advanced the intertestamental definition of baptism by focusing on the forgiveness component stating, “As for me, I baptize you with water for repentance” (Matthew 3:11). (Slide 59) The question naturally arises that if John’s perspective on baptism was based on forgiveness, then why would a sinless God incarnate need baptized? John poses this same question to Jesus, to which Jesus replies, “It is fitting for us to fulfill all righteousness” (Matthew 3:15). Carlson clarifies Jesus’s response by suggesting that Jesus felt baptism was an act of obedience, a validation of John’s ministry, a way to identify with sinners, and an inauguration of his ministry.[\[43\]](#_ftn43) The inauguration interestingly occurred through the joint activity of the Trinity, which included Jesus’s baptism, God’s voice of approval, and the Spirit’s descent as a dove (Luke 3:21-22). (Slide 60) In light of the diverse nature of John’s activity, it may now be helpful to summarize the overall purposes of his ministry. Thomas D. Lea and David Alan Black propose that John achieved three purposes. First, John prepared the masses for the arrival of Christ with a message of repentance.[\[44\]](#_ftn44) Second, John communicated the purpose of Christ, and third, he inaugurated the ministry of Christ through the process of baptism.[\[45\]](#_ftn45) ### **Application:** (Slide 61) Although John’s baptisms were certainly the most prominent aspect of his ministry, his humility may have been the most prominent aspect of his character. (Slide 62) John provides a model of servanthood surpassed only by Christ. C. S. Lewis once stated, “A proud man is always looking down on things and people; and, of course, as long as you are looking down, you cannot see something that is above you.”[\[46\]](#_ftn46) In our self-centered society, it is difficult to find people who have the humility to point to someone other than himself. John the Baptist exemplified a humility we all can learn from in a religious culture that in some ways is similar to ours. Specifically, it spent enormous effort on making itself look good. However, John lived a life of humility that looked away from self and pointed to the perpetuation of the message. ## **Conclusion:** (Slide 63) Next week, take a few minutes to write down the people you have looked down on during the previous week. This exercise helps identify areas of pride. After identifying the individuals, document what may change in you and in your relationship with them, if humility replaced pride. (Slide 64) During the past three weeks, we have learned an enormous amount of information about John the Baptist. First, we spent time looking at his birth and death, then attempted to discover John’s identity, and finally, investigated his ministry. However, what we have learned from John may be more important than what we have learned about John. Specifically, we have learned the power of purpose, identity, and humility. These three lessons from John the Baptist are not only powerful, but also transformational. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Mark A. Powell, “John the Baptist,” in *The Harper Collins Bible Dictionary* (New York: Harper Collins, 2011). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Unless otherwise noted, all Bible references are taken from the New American Standard Version (1995 update), Lockman Foundation. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Powell, *The Harper Collins Bible Dictionary*. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Powell, *The Harper Collins Bible Dictionary*. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) J. Julius Scott, *Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament* (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1995), 97. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) M. G. Easton, “John the Baptist,” in *Easton’s Bible Dictionary* (Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, 1996). [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Josephus Flavius, *The Works of Josephus*, trans. William Whiston (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987), 484. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) David C. Carlson, “John the Baptist,” in *Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible* (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988). [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck, eds., *The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty*, New Testament ed. (Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983), 204. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Walvoord and Zuck, *The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty*, 204. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Bob Deffinbaugh, John the Baptist, http://bible.org/seriespage/john-baptist (accessed November 17, 2012). [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Ibid. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Deffinbaugh, *John the Baptist*. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Scott, *Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament*, 218-19. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Ibid., 219. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Carlson, *Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible*. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22). Ibid. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) F. F. Bruce, “John the Baptist,” in *New Bible Dictionary*, 3rd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996). [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Bruce, *New Bible Dictionary*. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) A. R. Meyer, “John the Baptist,” in *The Lexham Bible Dictionary* (Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software, 2012). [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Ibid. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Deffinbaugh, *John the Baptist*. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Deffinbaugh, *John the Baptist*. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Carlson, *Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible*. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Deffinbaugh, *John the Baptist*. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Scott, *Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament*, 307-8. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Deffinbaugh, *John the Baptist*. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Ibid. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Ibid. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Carlson, *Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible*. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Deffinbaugh, *John the Baptist*. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Ibid. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Ibid. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) C. G. Kromminga, “Repentance,” in *Evangelical Dictionary of Theology*, ed. Walter A. Elwell, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001). [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Flavius, *The Works of Josephus*, 484. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) Meyer, *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Carlson, *Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible*. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Carlson, *Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible*.. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Thomas D. Lea and David Alan Black, *The New Testament Its Background and Message*, 2nd ed. (Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman amp; Holman Publishers, 2003), 180. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Ibid. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) C. S. Lewis, *Mere Christianity* (New York: Harper Collins, 2001), 124. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Barry, John D., and Lazarus Wentz. *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*. Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software, 2012. - Deffinbaugh, Bob. “John the Baptist.” Bible.org. http://bible.org/seriespage/john-baptist (accessed November 17, 2012). - Easton, M. G. *Easton’s Bible Dictionary*. Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1996. - Elwell, Walter A. *Evangelical Dictionary of Theology: Second Edition*. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001. - Elwell, Walter A., and Barry J. Beitzel. *Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible*. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988. - Flavius, Josephus. *The Works of Josephus*. Translated by William Whiston. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987. - Lea, Thomas D., and David Alan Black. *The New Testament Its Background and Message*. 2nd ed. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003. - Lewis, C. S. *Mere Christianity*. New York: Harper Collins, 2001. - Powell, Mark Allan. *The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary (Revised and Updated).* 3rd ed. New York: HarperCollins, 2011. - Scott, J. Julius. *Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament*. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1995. - Walvoord, John F., and Roy B. Zuck, eds. *The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty*. New Testament ed. Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983. - Wood, D. R. W. and I. Howard Marshall. *New Bible Dictionary*. 3rd ed. Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Foundational Doctrines for Pastoral Counselors](https://www.livestransforming.com/foundational-doctrines-for-pastoral-counselors/) **Published:** February 15, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Foundational Doctrines for Pastoral Counselors ## **Introduction** Since the writings of Paul, the doctrine of justification has likely caused more controversy than all other doctrines combined. From Augustine’s influence upon Luther’s breakthrough interpretation of Roman 1:17 that led to the Protestant Reformation, to the twentieth century implications of E. P. Sanders’s covenantal nomism and the New Perspectives that followed, the doctrine of justification has taken center stage. Unfortunately, the doctrine has often taken a backseat in pastoral counseling, thus the question remains as to how the doctrine of justification impacts the practice of pastoral counseling. Without a clear understanding of the connection between the two topics, pastoral counseling risks removing the most powerful change agent known to man – the Gospel of Jesus Christ. This paper will prove that the doctrine of justification is a foundational doctrine that underpins the efficacy of pastoral counseling. The research provides a biblical analysis of the doctrine of justification and an exploration of its relationship to a believer’s union with Christ and ongoing transformation followed by the theological implications for pastoral counseling. ## **Biblical Studies of the Doctrine of Justification** ### **Righteousness** The Greek lemma for the verb justification is *δικαιόω*, which, according to William Arndt, Frederick Danker, Walter Bauer, and F. Wilbur Gingrich (BDAG) has a relatively limited semantic range and means to take up a legal case, render a favorable verdict, release from a claim, or to prove morally right.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The lemma for the related noun, righteousness, is *δικαιοσύνη*, which BDAG explains means the practice of judicial responsibility, quality or state of juridical correctness, or the quality of upright behavior.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, Scripture often speaks of the verbal action of justifying (*δικαιόω*), which declares or makes an individual righteous (*δικαιοσύνη*). The judicial nature of the definition impels theologians to commonly refer to the forensic nature of the word. The focus of this paper is on the quality or state of righteousness, rather than on the behavioral definition. A traditional view of justification is assumed, which aligns with John Piper, who asserts that God’s justification (1) imputes an external righteousness to believers (2) by faith (3) as a gift of grace.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) First, regarding imputation, the Apostle Paul references Genesis 15:6 in his letter to the Romans stating, “Abraham believed God, and it was credited to him as righteousness” (Rom 4:3).[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Piper explains that the Hebrew word for credited, וַיַּחְשְׁבֶה*ָ,* in Genesis 15:6 means to credit, reckon, count, or impute.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Douglas Moo explains that God renders to Abraham a “righteousness that does not inherently belong to him.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Paul then provides the connection to New Testament believers in Christ by stating, “And to the one who does not work but believes in him who justifies the ungodly, his faith is counted as righteousness” (Rom 4:5). Moo explains that here Paul reapplies the original Old Testament declaration and views a new status given freely to believers in a divinely generated creative act.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Next, regarding justification by faith, Paul states, “But now apart from the Law the righteousness of God has been manifested…even the righteousness of God through faith in Jesus Christ for all those who believe” (Rom 3:21-22). Moo asserts the reasonableness of the traditional objective genitive view of the phrase, through faith *in* Jesus Christ, which affirms that faith is the means of God’s justification, as opposed to the subjective genitive view, through the faith *of* Jesus Christ, which contends that the means of justification is the faithfulness of Christ. In the same chapter, Paul again reiterates the means of justification by stating, “For we maintain that a man is justified by faith apart from the works of the Law” (Rom 3:28). Paul’s assertion prompted Luther’s insistence that justification is by faith alone, *sola fide*.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Finally, regarding justification as a gift of grace, Paul states, “For if by the transgression of the one (Adam), death reigned through the one, much more those who receive the abundance grace and the gift of righteousness” (Rom 5:17). Although the means of justification is by faith, Paul now makes it clear that the righteousness imputed to believers is not due to a work of faith, but due to God’s gracious gift. Significantly, James Dunn suggests the grace Paul refers to highlights the relational nature of righteousness, not a righteousness received as an object apart from God, but instead, a gift retained through a relationship of grace.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) ### **Union with Christ** An examination of the relationship between justification and a believer’s union with Christ is necessary to solidify an understanding of a believer’s identity. Tom Peters reinforces Dunn’s relational nature of righteousness by linking faith and justification by stating, “Faith justifies the sinner *because* \[emphasis added\] Jesus Christ becomes present in the soul of the believer.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) John Calvin adds further clarity by asserting that the indwelling of the Holy Spirit effectively unites believers to the presence of Jesus Christ in their souls.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) If the imputation of righteousness occurs because of Christ’s presence, and the Holy Spirit’s indwelling is the force that unites the believer with Christ’s presence, then, as Lane Tipton explains, a believer’s justification cannot be chronologically prior to a believer’s union with Christ.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Instead, justification is effectuated by the simultaneous union with Christ through the indwelling of the Holy Spirit. Due to the forensic nature of the traditional view of justification, Moo explains that a tendency exists to contend that justification means to *make* righteous in an ethical sense, which is incoherent, or means to *treat as* righteous, as though a believer is not really righteous.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Instead, justification means to *declare* righteous as imputed righteousness is “no legal fiction,” but a “legal *reality*.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Furthermore, William Evans explains that Calvin’s understanding of the “forensic benefits of salvation” through a believer’s union with Christ makes not only a legal statement, but also an ontological statement.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) In other words, Paul’s understanding of justification goes beyond a declaration of a legal reality to an ontological reality due to the concurrent role of the indwelt Holy Spirit, who unites believers with Christ. To suggest that the ontological reality is an absorption into the divinity of God or that believers experience a form of Eastern Orthodox *theosis* misses the point. Instead, Oswald Bayer suggests the ontological reality of justification aligns with the doctrine of creation, whereby Paul asserts that “if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creature” (2 Cor 5:17).[\[16\]](#_ftn16) A justified believer’s union with Christ is a new ontological being whereby the old self has been “crucified with Christ” (Gal 2:20) and a new life is “raised up with Christ” (Col 3:1). In sum, God’s creative activity of justification deploys the Spirit to unite believers to Christ forging a new ontological reality – a new identity in Christ. Accordingly, Bayer contends that “justifying faith is to be perceived according to its ontological significance.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) ### **Transformation** Finally, an exploration of the relationship between justification and transformation is necessary to understand the maturation process of a believer. Andrew Snider notes that the relationship between the “indicative” of declared righteousness and the “imperative” of behavioral righteousness is wrapped in the theological construct of progressive sanctification.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Regarding causation, sanctification is not the cause of justification, lest behavior becomes the basis for the declaration of righteousness, and neither is justification the cause of sanctification, lest the resultant righteous behavior caused by justification becomes the basis for salvation.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Nevertheless, a traditional view of the relationship between justification and sanctification supports an order of salvation, *ordo salutis*, supported by Paul’s words, “These whom He predestined, He also called; and these whom he called, he also justified; and these whom He justified, He also glorified” (Rom 8:30). J. V. Fesko suggests that Paul’s language in Romans 8 supports the historic understanding that justification precedes sanctification.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Fesko acknowledges that a connection between *ordo salutis* and a believer’s union with Christ is the unmistakable link between justification and sanctification.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Paul asserts, “It is God who is at work *in you* \[emphasis added\], both to will and to work His good pleasure” (Phil. 2:13). In other words, sanctification is powered by the Holy Spirit, who unites believers *in Christ* to effectuate justification, in a “cooperative work between God and the believer.”[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Although cooperative in nature, Peter Toon highlights that because self-sanctification is a logical absurdity, the Spirit’s involvement is always prior to human effort.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Accordingly, Paul states that believers are progressively sanctified “by the sanctifying work of the Spirit, to obey Jesus Christ” (1 Pet 1:2), which results in the “fruit of the Spirit” (Gal 5:22). In sum, the Spirit’s work of uniting believers with Christ creates not only a legal reality in God’s justifying act, but also forges a new ontological reality that results in the Spirit empowering progressive sanctification in cooperation with the believer. ## **Theological Implications of Justification for Pastoral Counseling** ### **Righteousness** The doctrine of justification by faith has several profound implications for pastoral counseling. Larry Crabb contends that at the core of humanity is the need for personal worth or value that requires two inputs: significance and security.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) The absence of personal worth expressed in a lack of significance or security is the basis for psychological disorders and maladaptive behavior. Crabb explains that the gift of Christ’s righteousness imputed to the believer undermines the incessant need for finding acceptability in one’s performance or other people’s opinions, which causes significant problems and pain.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Since acceptability is an already established fact, the need to find significance and security outside of Christ is eradicated. Accordingly, Crabb asserts, “The foundation of the entire Christian life is a proper understanding of justification.”[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Not only is the attempt to find security and significance in performance and other people ineffectual, finding personal worth in the self is also an effort in futility. With overtones of Luther’s *Anfechtung*, Robert Kolb and Charles Arand maintain that finding personal worth in oneself results in anxiety and self-accusations that lead to endless personal audits and comparison games that leave the individual exhausted and confused.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Alternatively, living based on Christ’s righteousness frees believers from judging the self, and instead, empowers them to live in the reality of Paul’s words, “Therefore there is now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus” (Rom. 8:1). Furthermore, if believers lack the core need of personal worth, all extended acts of love become suspect as possible techniques of reciprocity to fill unmet needs. Alternatively, Timothy George claims that “justification by faith alone frees me to love my neighbor disinterestedly, for his or her own sake…not as the calculated means to my own desired ends.”[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Accordingly, both the counselee’s emotional and relational health depend on the doctrine of justification. ### **Union with Christ** Although the declaration of the righteousness creates a legal reality of acceptability, without the coexistent ontological reality of a believer’s union with Christ, the doctrine of justification may fade into the background of dry rationalism. Kevin Vanhoozer explains, “The human person is both irreducibly individual and constitutionally interrelated…I am a child in relation to my parents, a husband in relation to my wife…a creature in relation to God, and a disciple in relation to Christ.”[\[29\]](#_ftn29) A believer’s union with Christ cements the ongoing relational aspect of personal identity. Brian Rosner asserts that a believer’s identity is wrapped up in *being* a child of God that images Christ, which occurs through the Spirit uniting believers with Christ.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Accordingly, Paul insists, “The Spirit Himself testifies with our spirit that we are children of God” (Rom. 8:16) and nothing “will be able to separate us from the love God, which is *in Christ Jesus* \[emphasis added\] our Lord” (Rom. 8:31). [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 47 182x300 - Foundational Doctrines for Pastoral Counselors](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-47-182x300.jpg "Foundational Doctrines for Pastoral Counselors - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fRshmh)Christ-Centered Therapy Understanding the ontological reality of being in Christ provides two important implications for pastoral counseling. First, Neil Anderson, Terry Zuehlke, and Julianne Zuehlke explain that secular recovery programs that reinforce sitting in a circle and repeating an identity of failure are ineffective. [\[31\]](#_ftn31) For example, “Hello, my name is Bob and I *am* an alcoholic,” undermines the reality of a life in Christ because committing a sin is significantly different than being sin; the former is resolved by appropriating one’s identity, the latter is ultimately unresolvable in a secular context without Christ. Second, Anderson, Zuehlke, and Zuehlke also note that without the ontological reality of Christ’s relational union with believers, the best possible outcome afforded secular psychology is an effort in behavior modification to cope with sin.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) Alternatively, when a believer’s identity exists “in Christ,” the relational needs are met in an infinite supply of the Father’s love that renders the sin, which attempts to meet the relational needs or cope with unmet relational needs, impotent and unnecessary. ### **Transformation** The Holy Spirit that unites believers with Christ also empowers progressive sanctification, but the process requires cooperation between the Spirit and the believer, which has significant implications for [pastoral counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/pastoral-counseling-faith-and-reason/). Paul provides insight into the cooperative effort by stating, “Do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind, so that you may prove what the will of God is, that which is good and acceptable and perfect” (Rom. 12:2). Craig Keener notes that the language of “renewing” in Romans 12:2 “undoubtedly alludes to the ‘new’ life obtained by the union with the risen Christ and by the Spirit.”[\[33\]](#_ftn33) The ontological union creates the environment where the Spirit empowers transformation through the willing participation of the believer, not in actively transforming the self, but by passively being transformed by God’s truth. Regarding pastoral counseling, the implication is clear. Crabb explains that the ultimate problem counselees face is a crisis of wrong beliefs, wrong beliefs about personal worth, significance, security, relational identity, and love the God to name a few.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) Accordingly, when the believer’s beliefs align with the legal reality of Christ’s righteousness, the ontological reality of his or her union with Christ, and the truths of God’s Word, pastoral counseling provides an experience of transformation completely unavailable to any other form of counseling. ## **Conclusion** The doctrine of justification asserts that through a declarative act God imputes an external righteousness to believer as a gift of grace. Furthermore, justification has ontological significance as Christ’s presence is effectuated through a creative act whereby the Spirit unites the believer with Christ into a new creation. Finally, the legal and ontological realities of justification provide the environment for progressive sanctification in cooperation with the believer. The implications of the doctrine of justification for pastoral counseling are that counselees’ individual needs of significance and security are met, relational needs of identity are met, and transformation is available to the counselee through willing cooperation. Without question, the doctrine of justification is a foundational doctrine that underpins the efficacy of pastoral counseling. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) William Arndt, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer, *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature* (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 249. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 247–48. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) John Piper, *Counted Righteous in Christ: Should We Abandon the Imputation of Christ’s Righteousness?* (Wheaton: Crossway Books, 2002), 54. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *New American Standard Bible* (La Habra, CA: Lockman Foundation, 1995). [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Piper, *Counted Righteous in Christ*, 54. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Douglass J. Moo, *The Epistle to the Romans*, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996), 262. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 264. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Timothy George, *Theology of the Reformers* (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1988), 70–71. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) James D. G. Dunn, *Romans 1-8*, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 38a. (Dallas: Word, 1998), 281–82. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ted Peters, *Sin Boldy! Justifying Faith for Fragile and Broken Souls* (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2015), 317. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) John Calvin, *Institutes of Christian Religion*, ed. John T. McNeill, trans. Ford Lewis Battles (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2011), 1:538. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Lane G. Tipton, “Biblical Theology and the Westminster Standards Revisited: Union with Christ and Justification Sola Fide,” *The Westminster Theological Journal* 75, no. 1 (Spring 2013): 11–12. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Moo, *The Epistle*, 227. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) William B. Evans, “Three Current Reformed Models of Union with Christ,” *Presbyterion* 41, no. 1-2 (Fall 2015): 13. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Oswald Bayer, “The Doctrine of Justification and Ontology,” *Neue Zeitschrift Für Systematische Theologie Und Religionsphilosophie* 43, no. 1 (2001): 44–45. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Ibid., 46. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Andrew V. Snider, “Sanctification and Justification: A Unity of Distinctions,” *The Master’s Seminary Journal* 21, no. 2 (Fall 2010): 171–72. Positional sanctification is God’s act of setting apart His people, which is comparable to justification; however, all references to sanctification for the remainder of the paper refer to progressive sanctification. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid., 173–75. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) J. V. Fesko, “Romans 8.29-30 and the Question of the *Ordo Salutis*,” *Journal of Reformed Theology* 8, no. 1 (2014): 44–45. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Ibid., 38, 41, 44. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Snider, “Sanctification and Justification,” 172. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23)Peter Toon, *Justification and Sanctification* (Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 1983), 40. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Larry Crabb, *Effective Biblical Counseling: A Model for Helping Caring Christians Become Capable Counselors* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 62–63. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Ibid., 26. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Ibid. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Robert Kolb and Charles P. Arand, *The Genius of Luther’s Theology: A Wittenberg Way of Thinking for the Contemporary Church* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008), 50. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) George, *Theology of the Reformers*, 73. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Kevin Vanhoozer, “Human Being, Individual, and Social,” in *The Cambridge Companion to Christian Doctrine*, ed. Colin E. Gunton (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1997), 180. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Brian S. Rosner, *Known by God: A Biblical Theology of Personal Identity*, ed. Jonathan Lunde (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2017), 84. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Neil T. Anderson, Terry E. Zuehlke, and Julianne Zuehlke, *Christ Centered Therapy: The Practical Integration of Theology and Psychology* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 92. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Ibid., 93. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Craig S. Keener, *The Mind of the Spirit: Paul’s Approach to Transformed Thinking* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016), 154. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Crabb, *Effective Biblical Counseling*, 64. ## ## **Bibliography** - Anderson, Neil T., Terry E. Zuehlke, and Julianne Zuehlke. *Christ Centered Therapy: The Practical Integration of Theology and Psychology*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000. - Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. - Bayer, Oswald. “The Doctrine of Justification and Ontology.” *Neue Zeitschrift Für Systematische Theologie Und Religionsphilosophie* 43, no. 1 (2001): 44–53. - Calvin, John. *Institutes of Christian Religion*. Edited by John T. McNeill. Translated by Ford Lewis Battles. Vol. 1. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2011. - Crabb, Larry. *Effective Biblical Counseling: A Model for Helping Caring Christians Become Capable Counselors*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013. - Dunn, James D. G. *Romans 1-8*. Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 38A. Dallas: Word, 1998. - Evans, William B. “Three Current Reformed Models of Union with Christ.” *Presbyterion* 41, no. 1-2 (Fall 2015): 12–30. - Fesko, J. V. “Romans 8.29-30 and the Question of the *Ordo Salutis*.” *Journal of Reformed Theology* 8, no. 1 (2014): 35–60. - George, Timothy. *Theology of the Reformers*. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1988. - Keener, Craig S. *The Mind of the Spirit: Paul’s Approach to Transformed Thinking*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016. - Kolb, Robert, and Charles P. Arand. *The Genius of Luther’s Theology: A Wittenberg Way of Thinking for the Contemporary Church*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008. - Luther, Martin. *The Freedom of a Christian*. Edited by Mark D. Tranvik. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008. - Moo, Douglass J. *The Epistle to the Romans*. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996. - Peters, Ted. *Sin Boldy! Justifying Faith for Fragile and Broken Souls*. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2015. - Piper, John. *Counted Righteous in Christ: Should We Abandon the Imputation of Christ’s Righteousness?* Wheaton: Crossway Books, 2002. - Rosner, Brian S. *Known by God: A Biblical Theology of Personal Identity*. Edited by Jonathan Lunde. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2017. - Snider, Andrew V. “Sanctification and Justification: A Unity of Distinctions.” *The Master’s Seminary Journal* 21, no. 2 (Fall 2010): 159–78. - Tipton, Lane G. “Biblical Theology and the Westminster Standards Revisited: Union with Christ and Justification Sola Fide.” *The Westminster Theological Journal* 75, no. 1 (Spring 2013): 1–12. - Toon, Peter. *Justification and Sanctification*. Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 1983. - Vanhoozer, Kevin. “Human Being, Individual, and Social.” In *The Cambridge Companion to Christian Doctrine*, edited by Colin E. Gunton, 158–88. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1997. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [John Wesley's Doctrine of Justification](https://www.livestransforming.com/john-wesleys-doctrine-of-justification/) **Published:** February 15, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # John Wesley’s Doctrine of Justification ## **INTRODUCTION** Some consider John Wesley the most influential theologian since the sixteenth century.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Alternatively, many academicians do not believe Wesley was even a “real” theologian.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Furthermore, the eclectic nature of Wesleyan thought has been coined Protestant, Catholic, Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, and even Primitivist.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) This particular research paper will attempt to contribute to the ever expanding conversation by showing that Wesley’s doctrine of justification is a conjunctive theology based on both Protestant and catholic influences. For the purpose of this paper the term Protestant has a narrow focus and pertains specifically to the Reformation period, whereas the term catholic has a much broader perspective that encompasses the early church fathers and both Western and Eastern Orthodoxy up to the end of the Reformation period. This paper first examines the critical doctrine of prevenient grace in light of Reformation and catholic influences as a pre-requisite to understanding Wesley’s doctrine of justification. Second, it provides an in depth analysis of Wesley’s doctrine of justification that includes a look at its relationship to faith and works, an evaluation of *sola fide,* and finally, an assessment of the conjunctive nature of the doctrine. The essay concludes by exploring a famous critique of Wesley’s doctrine of justification. ## **PREVENIENT GRACE** Prevenient grace provides the foundation for Wesley’s doctrine of justification. This section will show how prevenient grace inaugurates God’s work in humanity and then explain how Wesley’s view of grace broadens to the entire salvific experience. Finally, it explores the nature of Wesley’s conjunctive theology pertaining to prevenient grace in light of both Protestant and catholic influences. Wesley’s doctrine of justification begins with the concept that prevenient grace consists of two separate forms. Wesley refers to the first dimension of prevenient grace as “pardon.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The term preventing grace is actually Wesley’s preferred term and it suggests a “first dawn of light concerning his will, and the first slight transient conviction of having sinned against him,” which implies “some tendency toward life; some degree of salvation; the beginning of deliverance.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) At first, it may appear that Wesley’s view of prevenient grace aligns with a western theological perspective of original sin and total depravity as he claims that “concerning man in his natural state, unassisted by the grace of God…‘every imagination of the thoughts of his heart is’ still ‘evil, only evil,’ and that ‘continually.’”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) However, Wesley also notes that “no man living is entirely destitute of what is vulgarly called natural conscience…every man has a greater or less measure of” preventing grace.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) In other words, accordingly to Wesley, although the natural state of man is totally depraved, an actual person living in a natural state of total depravity does not exist; it is a “logical abstraction” because every man has prevenient grace.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) The unique combination of Wesley’s doctrines of original sin and prevenient grace allows him to hold that man has no ability to move toward God while simultaneously asserting that man is completely free to choose God. The distinct doctrinal synthesis makes God the source of man’s choice and the cause of man’s pardon, thus eliminating the risk of Pelagianism.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Accordingly, Outler suggests that Wesley is actually attempting to “find a third alternative to Pelagian optimism and Augustinian pessimism with respect to the human flaw and human potential.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) However, the pardoning dimension of Wesley’s prevenient grace does not provide a complete perspective, a second dimensions is also necessary. Wesley utilizes the term “power” to define a second dimension of prevenient grace that transcends the narrow application of first dimension, “pardon,” which precedes justification. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 48 182x300 - John Wesley's Doctrine of Justification](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-48-182x300.jpg "John Wesley - Lives Transforming's Doctrine of Justification")](https://amzn.to/3DUFihS)The Theology of John Wesley: Holy Love and the Shape of Grace In Wesley’s second dimension of prevenient grace, he expands its operation to “all the drawings of the Father; the desires after God, which, if we yield to them, increase more and more,” and includes “all the convictions which his Spirit, from time to time, works in every child of man.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) In other words, prevenient grace powers all human response and encompasses the entire salvific continuum including repentance, justification, regeneration, and sanctification.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) In Wesley’s words, God “worketh in you of his own good pleasure, without any merit of yours, both to will and to do; it is possible for you to fulfill all righteousness.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The breadth of prevenient grace is critically important in order to grasp the conjunctive nature of Wesley’s theology because, as will be revealed, Wesley requires a progressive human response to God’s grace in order to authenticate final justification. Accordingly, if prevenient grace is not the source of justification through the believer’s entire life, as opposed to innate human abilities, Wesley’s doctrine of justification is not only misinterpreted, but also potentially undermined by a works based religion.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) The requirement of both the pardoning and empowering aspects of Wesley’s prevenient grace supports a conjunctive theology based on both Protestant and catholic influence. The Protestant influence in Wesley’s prevenient grace is compelling. Specifically, subsequent to Luther, the forensic nature of God’s grace in Protestant theologians focused primarily on pardon – the forgiveness of sins through Christ.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) In fact, grace in Calvin’s sermons usually means pardon as opposed to sanctification.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Accordingly, to overemphasize the synergism of Wesley’s prevenient grace by ignoring the emphasis on its pardoning effect would be a mistake.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Alternatively, the catholic perspective of prevenient grace also significantly influenced Wesley. [The early church](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-church/) and Anglican sources both reinforce the concept that grace is prevenient throughout the entire salvific experience from the first dawn of light to the moment of glorification.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) More specifically, Article X of the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion that define the doctrines of the Anglican Church states: The condition of Man after the fall of Adam is such, that he cannot turn and prepare himself, by his own natural strength and good works, to faith, and calling upon God. Wherefore we have no power to do good works pleasant and acceptable to God, without the grace of God by Christ preventing us, that we many have a good will, and working with us, when we have this good will.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Furthermore, Wesley’s perspective of grace also echoes the Eastern Orthodox notion of uncreated grace, by which grace is the Holy Spirit constantly working in the lives of humanity to restore individuals to the image of God.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Many expositors have attempted to prove that Wesley gave weight to either Protestant or catholic, to either pardon or power, but Wesley’s conjunctive theology was primarily concerned with integration.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Wesley strongly conveys the conjunctive nature the doctrine of prevenient grace as follows: By ‘the grace of God’ is sometimes to be understood that free love, that unmerited mercy, by which I a sinner, through the merits of Christ, am now reconciled to God. But in this place it rather means that *power* of God the Holy Ghost, which ‘worketh in us both to will and to do of his good pleasure.’ As soon as ever the grace of God in the former sense, his *pardoning* love, is manifested to our souls, the grace of God in the latter sense, the *power* of his Spirit, takes place therein. And now we can perform, through God, what to man was impossible…a recovery of the image of God.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) The combination of grace as pardon and grace as power influences Wesley’s doctrine of justification in two distinct ways. First, man is completely corrupt and depends totally upon God, not human effort, for the pardon necessary for salvation.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) In this way, Wesley attempts to remain within a Classical Protestant structure regarding salvation by grace alone.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Second, Wesley’s prevenient grace stresses the responsibility of the individual.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Specifically, grace empowers humanity to respond, but does not overpower.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Wesley suggests, “God does not continue to act upon the soul, unless the soul re-acts upon God.”[\[27\]](#_ftn27) In other words, God’s “influences are not to supersede, but to encourage, our own efforts.”[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Accordingly, the nature of grace in the sense of power is both resistible and co-operant, which provides a more catholic tone.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) It has been shown that Wesley’s doctrine of justification is based on a prevenient grace that initiates God’s work in totally depraved humanity via the unmerited pardon of Christ. Furthermore, a broad application of prevenient grace also powers the entire process of salvation from repentance to sanctification. Finally, Wesley ascribes equal weight to both aspects of prevenient grace, pardon and power, which naturally illuminates the influence of both Protestant and catholic that is supportive of a conjunctive theology. The two-fold version of prevenient grace lays a proper framework to continue the exploration of Wesley’s view of justification. ## **JUSTIFICATION** Similar to prevenient grace, Wesley relies on two separate dimensions to support his doctrine of justification – a present justification and a final justification. This section will provide an analysis of the dual perspectives of justification, expand into an examination of the relationship between faith and works, and provide a brief inquiry into whether Wesley’s doctrine of justification is by faith alone – *sola fide*. Finally, it will explore the Protestant and catholic influences evidenced in Wesley’s doctrine of justification that support its conjunctive nature. Wesley’s binary doctrine of justification begins with present justification. Wesley’s *Dictionary* expresses the definition of justification in one word: forgiveness.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) According to one of Wesley’s sermons preached in 1740, God’s justifying grace is “free in all to whom it is given. It does not depend on any power or merit in man; no, not in any degree, neither in whole, nor in part. It does not in anywise depend either on the good works or righteousness of the receiver; not on anything he has done, or anything he is.”[\[31\]](#_ftn31) In what appears to be an attempt to add emphasis Wesley explains, “Whatsoever good is in man, or is done by man, God is the author and doer of it. Thus is this grace free in all; that is, no way depending on any power or merit in man, but on God alone.”[\[32\]](#_ftn32) Accordingly, Collins observes that Wesley makes it clear that grace is not co-operant, but is free, noting the significance of the word “alone” or *sola* that was so critically important to the Reformers.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Furthermore, Collins suggests that although one can reject free grace, in all other respects Wesley’s free grace aligns with Calvinism.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) In other words, with the exception of the doctrine of predestination, it appears Wesley’s understanding of justification is without Protestant controversy. However, an anomaly is noted in one short phrase in the essay “Predestination Calmly Considered” where Wesley explains that, “If then you say, ‘We ascribe to God alone the whole glory of our salvation,’ I answer, so do we too. If you add, ‘Nay, but we affirm, that God alone does the whole work, without man’s working at all;’ *in one sense*, we allow this also.”[\[35\]](#_ftn35) The phrase “in one sense” provides a clue that Wesley’s Protestantism may not align as strongly as one might suspect from the use of the word *sola*. Lindström illuminates Wesley’s language of *sola* and the surreptitiously consequential phrase by placing it within the context of Wesley’s career. The central object and potentially exclusive focus of Wesley’s references to justification in the early writings is present justification.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) However, similar to the dual concept of prevenient grace, which consists of both initial pardon and ongoing power, Wesley’s doctrine of justification expands into a two-fold perspective of justification comprising of both present justification and final justification.[\[37\]](#_ftn37) Wesley’s final justification is readily seen in later works, but even as early as 1744 a question was asked at the first Methodist Conference, “But must not repentance, and works meet for repentance, go before this \[justifying\] faith?”[\[38\]](#_ftn38) The answer was, “Without doubt; if by repentance you mean conviction of sin; and by works meet for repentance, obeying God as far as we can, forgiving our brother, leaving off from evil, doing good, and using his ordinances, according to the *power* we have received.”[\[39\]](#_ftn39) According to minutes of the first Methodist Conference, it appears at first that Wesley has completely usurped the alignment with Protestantism as well as the concept of grace explained just four years earlier in the sermon *Free Grace*. However, nothing could be further from the truth. In fact, the word “power” in the 1744 minutes provides the evidence necessary to reconcile the conflict. Just as “power” in prevenient grace connotes a second dimension of grace, “power” in the minutes point to a second dimension of justification – final justification. In other words, present justification does align with the Reformer’s concept of *sola fide*, but final justification depends also on works.[\[40\]](#_ftn40) Although Wesley now uses the words justification and salvation interchangeably in the treatise “A Farther Appeal to Men of Reason and Religion,” the distinction between the two justifications, present and final, is now clear: With regard to the condition of salvation, it may be remembered that I allow, *not only faith but likewise holiness* or universal obedience to be the ordinary condition of *final salvation*. And that when I say that *faith alone* is the condition of *present salvation* what I would assert is this: (1.) That without faith no man can be saved from his sins—can be either inwardly or outwardly holy. And, (2.) That at whatever time faith is given, holiness commences in the soul. For that instant the love of God (which is the source of holiness) is poured out in the heart.[\[41\]](#_ftn41) Accordingly, in regards to final justification, Wesley views the relationship between man and God in terms of both works and grace, but exactly how the relationship exists is yet to be determined.[\[42\]](#_ftn42) Although the catholic influence upon Wesley’s works-based doctrine of justification is now evident, it is necessary to add clarity to the relationship between faith and works, which Wesley provides in the sermon “The Scripture Way of Salvation”: God does undoubtedly command us both to repent, and to bring forth fruits meet for repentance; which if we willingly neglect, we cannot reasonably expect to be justified at all. Therefore both repentance, and fruits meet for repentance, are, in some sense necessary to \[final\] justification. But they are not necessary in the *same sense* with faith, nor in the *same degree*. Wesley clearly conveys that faith, repentance, and fruits meet for repentance are necessary for final justification. However, Wesley quickly clarifies that faith and works do not justify “in the *same degree*; for those fruits are only necessary *conditionally*; if there be time and opportunity for them…otherwise a man may be justified without them, as was the thief upon the cross.”[\[43\]](#_ftn43) In other words, if there is no time after present justification for the necessary works, then faith is the sole requirement of justification because one “cannot be justified without faith; this is impossible.”[\[44\]](#_ftn44) Wesley also explains that faith and works do not justify “in the same *sense*; for repentance and its fruits are only *remotely* necessary; necessary in order to faith; where faith is *immediately* and *directly* necessary to \[final\] justification.”[\[45\]](#_ftn45) The underlying logic simply suggests that faith is necessary, repentance is remotely necessary, and fruits are even more remotely necessary for final justification.[\[46\]](#_ftn46) Obviously, the potential nuances of Wesley’s definition of exactly what works or type of works qualify as “remotely necessary” for final justification are beyond the scope of this work. However, an important question remains – is it possible that Wesley’s doctrine of final justification is by faith alone? The answer emanates from the combustible nature of the Minutes of 1770. The concept of *sola fide* in regards to Wesley’s final justification came under much scrutiny because of the Minutes from the Methodist Conference of 1770, which seem to support a Wesleyan doctrine of faith and works.[\[47\]](#_ftn47) The Minutes state that, “We have received it as a maxim, that ‘a man is to do nothing in order to justification.’ Nothing can be more false. Whoever desires to find favour with God, should ‘cease from evil, and learn to do well.’ Whoever repents, should ‘do works meet for repentance.’ And if this is not in order to find favour, what does he do them for?” The language was so strong that Roman Catholic writers claimed the Minutes were a final Wesleyan rejection of Protestantism’s *sola fide*.[\[48\]](#_ftn48) Accordingly, one is tempted to conclude that Wesley’s doctrine of final justification is not by faith alone, but nothing could be further from the truth. A few months after the Methodist Conference of 1770, Wesley rejects the interpretation of the Minutes in a sermon named “On the Death of the Rev. Mr. George Whitefield” wherein Wesley states that Christ “was delivered for our offences, and was raised again for our justification. Here then is the sole *meritorious* cause of every blessing we do or can enjoy; – in particular of our pardon and acceptance with God, of our full and free justification…‘not by works, lest any man should boast,’ but by faith alone.”[\[49\]](#_ftn49) It may appear astonishing that such diametrically opposed language would appear just months removed from the Minutes. However, John Fletcher, an important eighteenth century interpreter of Wesley, sheds significant light on the apparent inconsistency by differentiating between the phrase “evidence of works” and the phrase “merit of works.”[\[50\]](#_ftn50) In other words, final justification is from the evidence of man’s works, not from the merit of man’s works – man does not earn final justification. More specifically, the second dimension of God’s prevenient grace provides the power for human works that are conditions of justification, thus, in this sense, final justification, as well as present justification, is dependent solely on Christ.[\[51\]](#_ftn51) To clarify Wesley’s allusive logic even further – since God’s prevenient grace powers the works necessary for the condition of final justification, and grace emanates from faith, Wesley can state that final justification, which includes the condition of works, is by faith alone. Accordingly, the following year the Methodist Conference Minutes of 1771 signed by Wesley and fifty-three other preachers clarifies the following: Whereas the doctrinal points in the Minutes of a Conference held in…1770 have been understood to favour ‘justification by works:’ Now the Rev. John Wesley and others, assembled in Conference, do declare, that we had no such meaning; and that we abhor the doctrine of ‘justification by works,’ as a most perilous and abominable doctrine…our works have no part in meriting or purchasing our justification, from first to last, either in whole or in part.[\[52\]](#_ftn52) Consistently, in 1783 an elderly Wesley could confidently write in a sermon “we are justified by faith alone.”[\[53\]](#_ftn53) Wesley’s doctrine of justification and its relationship to faith and works as well as *sola fide* support a conjunctive theology that is based on both Protestant and catholic influence. Generally, Protestants held that justification is by faith and not human works.[\[54\]](#_ftn54) Based on the above analysis it is clear that Wesley placed a significant emphasis on justification by faith, not works, and was a major element of Wesley’s corpus.[\[55\]](#_ftn55) The key to understanding Wesley’s apparent contradictions regarding justification is that in both present justification and final justification the power of both faith and works is always a work of God.[\[56\]](#_ftn56) Luther and Calvin both vehemently advanced the doctrine of justification by faith, thus Wesley’s connection with Protestantism is clear.[\[57\]](#_ftn57) In this regard, Wesley stayed completely within Protestant “scheme of salvation by faith through grace alone.”[\[58\]](#_ftn58) However, an exclusively Protestant reading of Wesley would prove to be insufficient.[\[59\]](#_ftn59) Alternatively, Roman Catholics contend that a connection exists between justification and works.[\[60\]](#_ftn60) In fact, the Council of Trent clearly recognized that justification requires a co-operant grace that entails both being and doing by anathematizing the following, “the free will of man…does not co-operate at all…for the acquisition of the grace of justification, nor can it refuse that grace, if it so will, but it does nothing at all…and is completely passive.”[\[61\]](#_ftn61) Without question, the co-operant nature of the Council of Trent resonates with the nature of Wesley’s theology as exemplified in his sermon “On The Wedding Garment,” which states, “when I began to declare, ‘By grace ye are saved through faith,’ I retracted that I had before maintained: ‘Without holiness no man shall see the Lord.’ But it is an entire mistake…the imagination that faith *supersedes* holiness, is the marrow of Antinomianism.”[\[62\]](#_ftn62) Furthermore, in the same sermon Wesley maintains a view of double justification and suggests that final justification is contingent upon sanctification, which reflects a catholic influence.[\[63\]](#_ftn63) Summarily, in Wesley’s perspective, holiness is a gift, not something achieved; sanctification is a condition of final justification, but not a merit of final justification.[\[64\]](#_ftn64) Accordingly, a conjunctive theology that encompasses both Protestant and catholic influences is the most proper perspective of Wesley’s doctrine of justification. Without question, Wesley’s doctrine of justification relies on two dimensions – present and final. Furthermore, the evidence supports the integration of faith and works as well as the concept of *sola fide* into Wesley’s theological framework of the doctrine. Finally, the arguments clearly support both Protestant and catholic influences on Wesley’s doctrine of justification, which confirms the conjunctive nature of Wesley’s doctrine. ## **A FAMOUS CRITIQUE** Certain individuals such as Stanley Ayling may have been correct in arguing that John Wesley was the most influential Protestant leader since the Reformation, and although Wesley’s influence was certainly vast, others have been highly critical.[\[65\]](#_ftn65) Although the most vocal critics of Wesley were likely arguing the issue of predestination, it appears the most relevant critique regarding Wesley’s doctrine of justification was the attack pertaining to the 1770 Conference Minutes.[\[66\]](#_ftn66) This section explores the famous Minutes controversy followed by a short rebuttal. It was the leader of the Calvinistic Methodists, Selina, Countess of Huntington, who ordered Wesley to reject the Minutes of 1770 or risk expulsion from the pulpits.[\[67\]](#_ftn67) The Countess charged Wesley with promoting a doctrine of salvation by works and an accusation of legalism as well as heresy.[\[68\]](#_ftn68) Lady Huntingdon took matters further by extending an invitation to all clergy in her jurisdiction to encourage Wesley to renounce the heresy of the Minutes or sign a protest.[\[69\]](#_ftn69) Unfortunately, Wesley did not help matters by writing, “If she has not profited” from the Minutes “it is her own fault, not mine; I have done my duty.”[\[70\]](#_ftn70) Based on the language utilized in the Minutes, it is difficult not to sympathize with Lady Huntingdon. The statement that “we are rewarded according to our works, yea because of our works” would likely cause any Protestant in the eighteenth century to question its intent and meaning.[\[71\]](#_ftn71) However, the Minutes also clearly state that salvation is not by “works of merit,” but “by works as a condition.”[\[72\]](#_ftn72) Accordingly, consistent with the arguments provided herein, Wesley later emphasized that the works referred to in the Minutes did not pertain to initial justification, but as a condition or result of final justification, but never as meritorious works.[\[73\]](#_ftn73) Regardless, the evidence suggests that Wesley’s response did not satisfy Lady Huntingdon.[\[74\]](#_ftn74) ## **CONCLUSION** The influence of John Wesley is difficult to overestimate in light of the millions of Methodists around the world. With prevenient grace as a foundation, Wesley’s doctrine of justification is definitely a theology of Protestantism, which supports the integration of justification by faith alone. However, a version of co-operant grace also weaves through Wesley’s doctrine of justification. Although the connection between faith and works is not meritorious, it is certainly conditional, which echoes a catholic spirit. Accordingly, the evidence clearly supports the argument that Wesley’s doctrine of justification is a conjunctive theology based on a combination of Protestant and catholic influence. Of course, the breadth of Wesley’s entire theology obviously transcends the scope of this short work, but for further study, Harald Lindström’s classic, *Wesley & Sanctification*, is an invaluable resource for the investigation of a broader scope of Wesley’s doctrine of salvation. **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1)Harald Lindstrom, *Wesley & Sanctification* (Nappanee, IN: Francis Asbury, 1980), 1. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2)Randy L. Maddox, *Responsible Grace* (Nashville: Kingswood Books, 1994), 15. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3)Randy L. Maddox, “Reading Wesley as a Theologian,” *Wesleyan Theological Journal* 30, no. 1 (1995): 8-16. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4)Maddox, *Responsible Grace*, 85. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5)John Wesley, “Sermon LXXXV: On Working Out Our Own Salvation,” 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007), 6:509. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6)John Wesley, “Sermon XLIV: Original Sin,” 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007), 6:58. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7)Wesley, “Sermon LXXXV: On Working Out Our Own Salvation,” 6:512. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8)Lee Umphrey, *John Wesley and Modern Religion* (Nashville: Cokesbury Press, 1936), 124-25. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9)Colin W. Williams, *John Wesley’s Theology Today* (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1960), 41. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10)Albert C. Outler, *Theology in the Wesleyan Spirit* (Nashville: Discipleship Resources, 1975), 35. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11)John Wesley, “Sermon XLIII: The Scripture Way of Salvation,” 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007), 6:44. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12)Kenneth J. Collins, *The Theology of John Wesley: Holy Love and the Shape of Grace* (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2007), 75. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13)Wesley, “Sermon LXXXV: On Working Out Our Own Salvation,” 6:512. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14)Maddox, *Responsible Grace*, 90. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15)Alister E. McGrath, *Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification* (New York: Cambridge University, 2005), 270-71. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16)Maddox, *Responsible Grace*, 85. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17)Collins, *The Theology of John Wesley: Holy Love and the Shape of Grace*, 76. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18)Ibid., 75. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19)Articles of Religion, http://anglicansonline.org/basics/thirty-nine\_articles.html (accessed January 22, 2012). [\[20\]](#_ftnref20)Maddox, *Responsible Grace*, 86. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21)Ibid., 85. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22)John Wesley, “Sermon XII: The Witness of Our Own Spirit,” 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007), 5:141; emphasis added. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23)Lindstrom, *Wesley & Sanctification*, 49-50. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24)Williams, *John Wesley’s Theology Today*, 46. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25)Lindstrom, *Wesley & Sanctification*, 50. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26)Maddox, *Responsible Grace*, 86. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27)John Wesley, “Sermon XIX: The Great Privilege of Those That Are Born of God,” 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007), 5:233. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28)John Wesley, Notes on St. Paul’s Epistles to the Philippians, http://wesley.nnu.edu/john-wesley/john-wesleys-notes-on-the-bible/notes-on-st-pauls-epistle-to-the-philippians#Chapter+II (accessed January 22, 2012). [\[29\]](#_ftnref29)Williams, *John Wesley’s Theology Today*, 46 [\[30\]](#_ftnref30)Maddox, *Responsible Grace*, 166. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31)John Wesley, “Sermon CXXVIII: Free Grace,” 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007), 7:373-74. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32)Ibid., 374. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33)Collins, *The Theology of John Wesley: Holy Love and the Shape of Grace*, 161. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34)Ibid., 162. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35)John Wesley, “Predestination Calmly Considered,” 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007), 10:230; emphasis added. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36)Lindstrom, *Wesley & Sanctification*, 207. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37)Ibid. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38)Collins, *The Theology of John Wesley: Holy Love and the Shape of Grace*, 159. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39)Ibid; emphasis added. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40)Lindstrom, *Wesley & Sanctification*, 208. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41)John Wesley, *The Essential Works of John Wesley*, ed. Alice Russie, kindle ed. (Uhrichsville, OH: Barbour Publishing, 2011), 983; emphasis added. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42)Lindstrom, *Wesley & Sanctification*, 208. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43)Wesley, “Sermon XLIII: The Scripture Way of Salvation,” 6:48. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44)Ibid. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45)Ibid., 48. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46)John Wesley, *The Principles of a Methodist Farther Explained*, trans. John Emory, vol. 5 of *The Works of the Reverend John Wesley* (New York: J. Emory and B. Waugh, 1831), 302. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47)Williams, *John Wesley’s Theology Today*, 61. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48)Ibid., 63. [\[49\]](#_ftnref49)John Wesley, “Sermon LIII: On the Death of the Rev. Mr. George Whitefield,” 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007), 6:178; emphasis added. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50)John Fletcher, *Checks to Antinomianism* (New York: Hunt & Eaton, 1889), 1:87. [\[51\]](#_ftnref51)Lindstrom, *Wesley & Sanctification*, 212. [\[52\]](#_ftnref52)John Wesley, “The Life of the Rev. John Wesley,” 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007), 5:30. [\[53\]](#_ftnref53)John Wesley, “Sermon LXIII: The General Spread of the Gospel,” 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007), 6:281. [\[54\]](#_ftnref54)Maddox, *Responsible Grace*, 148. [\[55\]](#_ftnref55)Maddox, “Reading Wesley as a Theologian,” 9. [\[56\]](#_ftnref56)Collins, *The Theology of John Wesley: Holy Love and the Shape of Grace*, 180. [\[57\]](#_ftnref57)Maddox, “Reading Wesley as a Theologian,” 9. [\[58\]](#_ftnref58)Williams, *John Wesley’s Theology Today*, 69. [\[59\]](#_ftnref59)Maddox, “Reading Wesley as a Theologian,” 11. [\[60\]](#_ftnref60)Maddox, *Responsible Grace*, 148. [\[61\]](#_ftnref61)*Documents of the Christian Church*, ed. Henry Bettenson and Chris Maunder, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford, 1999), 277. [\[62\]](#_ftnref62)John Wesley, “Sermon CXX: The Wedding Garment,” 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007), 7:317. [\[63\]](#_ftnref63)Williams, *John Wesley’s Theology Today*, 68. [\[64\]](#_ftnref64)Lindstrom, *Wesley & Sanctification*, 210. [\[65\]](#_ftnref65)Robert V. Rakestraw, “John Wesley as a Theologian of Grace,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 27, no. 2 (June 1984): 203. [\[66\]](#_ftnref66)Allan Coppedge, *John Wesley* (Wilmore, KY: Wesley Heritage, 1987), 41, 191. [\[67\]](#_ftnref67)Ibid., 203. [\[68\]](#_ftnref68)Ibid., 204-6. [\[69\]](#_ftnref69)A Member of the Houses of Shirley and Hastings, *The Life and Times of Selina Countess of Huntingdon* (London: William Edward Painter, 1839), 2:239. [\[70\]](#_ftnref70)Ibid., 237. [\[71\]](#_ftnref71)Williams, *John Wesley’s Theology Today*, 62. [\[72\]](#_ftnref72)Ibid. [\[73\]](#_ftnref73)Coppedge, *John Wesley*, 210. [\[74\]](#_ftnref74)Ibid., 215. ## ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Articles of Religion. http://anglicansonline.org/basics/thirty-nine\_articles.html (accessed January 22, 2012). - A Member of the Houses of Shirley and Hastings. *The Life and Times of Selina Countess of Huntingdon*. Vol. 2. London: William Edward Painter, 1839. - Collins, Kenneth J. *The Theology of John Wesley: Holy Love and the Shape of Grace*. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2007. - *Documents of the Christian Church*. Edited by Henry Bettenson and Chris Maunder. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford, 1999. - Coppedge, Allan. *John Wesley*. Wilmore, KY: Wesley Heritage, 1987. - Fletcher, John. *Checks to Antinomianism*. Vol. 1. New York: Hunt & Eaton, 1889. - Lindström, Harald. *Wesley & Sanctification*. Nappanee, IN: Francis Asbury, 1980. - Maddox, Randy L. “Reading Wesley as a Theologian.” *Wesleyan Theological Journal* 30, no. 1 (1995): 7-54. - ———. *Responsible Grace*. Nashville: Kingswood Books, 1994. - McGrath, Alister E. *Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification*. New York: Cambridge University, 2005. - Outler, Albert C. *Theology in the Wesleyan Spirit*. Nashville: Discipleship Resources, 1975. - Rakestraw, Robert V. “John Wesley as a Theologian of Grace.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 27, no. 2 (June 1984): 193-203. - Umphrey, Lee. *John Wesley and Modern Religion*. Nashville: Cokesbury Press, 1936. - Wesley, John. *The Essential Works of John Wesley*. Edited by Alice Russie. Kindle ed. Uhrichsville, OH: Barbour Publishing, 2011. - ———. *First Series of Sermons (1-39) A Life of John Wesley*. Vol. 5 of *The Works of John Wesley*. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007. - ———. *First Series of Sermons (40-53) Second Series Begun (54-86)*. Vol. 6 of *The Works of John Wesley*. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007. - ———. *Letters, Essays, Dialogs, and Addresses*. Vol. 10 of *The Works of John Wesley*. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007. - ———. Notes on St. Paul’s Epistles to the Philippians. http://wesley.nnu.edu/john-wesley/john-wesleys-notes-on-the-bible/notes-on-st-pauls-epistle-to-the-philippians#Chapter+II (accessed January 22, 2012). - ———. *The Principles of a Methodist Farther Explained*. Translated by John Emory. Vol. 5 of *The Works of the Reverend John Wesley*. New York: J. Emory and B. Waugh, 1831. - ———. *Second Series of Sermons (87-108) Third Series of Sermons (109-126) Fourth Series of Sermons (127-133) Fifth Series of Sermons (134-141)*. Vol. 7 of *The Works of John Wesley*. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007. - Williams, Colin W. *John Wesley’s Theology Today*. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1960.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Baptists and the Ecumenical Movement Article Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/baptists-and-the-ecumenical-movement-article-review/) **Published:** February 15, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Baptists and the Ecumenical Movement Article Review ## **Summary** The following review of Briggs’ work, “Baptists and the Ecumenical Movement,” will include a summary of the article’s contents along with a survey of its major strengths and weaknesses. The author’s intent is to prove that, although often unrecognized, the Baptist contributions in the area the ecumenical movement have “been sacrificial and substantial” (16). Specifically, the article accomplishes the author’s task by providing a summary of the ecumenical involvement within the context of European Baptists. The author provides three broad arguments to support his initiative. First, Briggs provides a brief enumerated summary of the formative years of Baptist ecumenical involvement by referencing the seventeenth-century Particular and General Baptist confessions, the influence of John Owen’s book, *True [Nature of a Gospel Church](https://www.livestransforming.com/a-basic-understanding-the-gospels/)*, and the contributions of Paul Bunyan and Thomas Grantham (11-12). Second, the author references certain historical developments that contributed to wider ecumenical cooperation, which include the persecution of Christians, especially in Eastern Europe, as well as the results of the Evangelical Revival (13). A few of the outcomes of the revival period included the development of itinerant preaching, overseas missionary involvement, Bible and Tract Societies, cooperative philanthropy, and even the YMCA (14). Third, Briggs moves into the twentieth-century by focusing on the origin and development of certain ecumenical organizations. Beginning with the catalyst of the World Missionary Conference (WMC) in 1910, Briggs highlights the WMC’s later outcomes, which include the Life and Work Movement, Faith and Order, and the International Missionary Council. Eventually, these three initiatives combined with the World Council of Christian Education and amalgamated into the World Council of Churches (WCC) (14-15). The author then furthers his argument by identifying numerous Baptists who played significant roles in shaping the ecumenical movement through various ecumenical organizations, such as the WCC, during the twentieth-century (15-16). Finally, the author highlights the importance of ecumenical initiatives by reminding the reader that “unity is both gift and goal,” and Christians need to celebrate the current level of unity, but continue “striving for richer and deeper relationships” (17). ## **Critical Evaluation** The strengths of Briggs’ article are threefold. First, the author provides strong evidence to support the assertion that Baptists have contributed significantly to the ecumenical movement by using historical facts. Furthermore, by summarizing four centuries of relevant ecumenical Baptist history, Briggs leaves little doubt in the reader’s mind that Baptists deserve credit for their involvement in shaping the ecumenical movement. Second, the author provides evidence of specific individuals to further his claim. Specifically, the involvement of Earnest Payne, a Baptist President of the WCC, as well as Gwynneth Hubble and Victor Hayward, Baptists serving on the staff of Mission and Evangelism, provide unquestionable evidence of Baptist support in ecumenical organizations (15-16). Third, the author insightfully provides relevant spiritual support for Baptist ecumenical involvement by rhetorically asking how unbelievers can believe a gospel of reconciliation, if believers cannot reconcile to each other (17). Finally, Briggs highlights the irrationality of division by asserting that if Christians perceive the Holy Spirit “in other Christian bodies you are bound to relate to them,” (13). [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 49 182x300 - Baptists and the Ecumenical Movement Article Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-49-182x300.jpg "Baptists and the Ecumenical Movement Article Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3PwwpNP)Baptist Identity and the Ecumenical Future: Story, Tradition, and the Recovery of Community Two weaknesses of Briggs’ article are evident. The most glaring weakness is the structure of the article. The article utilizes an enumerated list as the structure for the polemic, which is effective, but not optimal. An extended analysis of the context of the evidence, including background information and the relationship of the individual arguments to each other, would enhance the reader’s comprehension and further prove the author’s points. In fact, Briggs later provides such an article in 2013 entitled, “Baptists and Ecumenical Engagement.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The other element that may enhance the article’s effectiveness would be the further exploration of the topics introduced. For example, Briggs omits the formation of the British Council of Churches formed in the Council of Chamber of Baptist Church House that influenced the development of the WCC.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Another example of potentially illuminative content may be a juxtaposition with anti-ecumenical Baptist thought in the early twentieth-century, such as when, according to Earnest Payne, the Southern Baptist Convention completely reverses “sentiment regarding co-operation with other denominations.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) ## **Conclusion** The author provides sufficient evidence to prove that Baptist contributions in the area the ecumenical movement have been substantial. The article’s value in its larger academic context not only supports further study regarding the Baptists’ role in the development the ecumenical movement, but also provides a counter-argument to those attempting to prove that Baptists are predominately isolationists. Although the structure of the article detracts, and additional contextual support may enhance its readability, Briggs provides an important contribution to the history of Baptist ecumenical involvement. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) See John Briggs, “Baptists and Ecumenical Engagement,” *Baptistic Theologies* 5, no. 1 (2013). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Anthony R. Cross, “Service to the Ecumenical Movement: The Contribution of British Baptists,” *The Baptist Quarterly* 38, no. 3 (July 1999): 111. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ernest Alexander Payne, “Baptists and the Ecumenical Movement,” *The Baptist Quarterly* 18, no. 6 (April 1960): 261. ## ## **Bibliography** - Briggs, John. “Baptists and Ecumenical Engagement.” *Baptistic Theologies* 5, no. 1 (2013): 84–102. - Cross, Anthony R. “Service to the Ecumenical Movement: The Contribution of British Baptists.” *The Baptist Quarterly* 38, no. 3 (July 1999): 107–22. - Ernest Alexander Payne. “Baptists and the Ecumenical Movement.” *The Baptist Quarterly* 18, no. 6 (April 1960): 258–67.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Religious Freedom: Two Baptist Views](https://www.livestransforming.com/religious-freedom-two-baptist-views/) **Published:** February 15, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Religious Freedom: Two Baptist Views ## **Introduction** Since the passing of the first amendment to the United States Constitution, historians have debated the influence of Baptists upon religious liberty in America. A question remains regarding the extent of homogeneity among Baptists regarding religious freedom, and specifically the relationship between the views of Isaac Backus and John Leland regarding the separation of church and state. The purpose of this paper is to explore the potential distinctions between two important Baptists’ views of religious freedom, and specifically, the relationship between the church and state. This paper will prove that the views of church and state expressed by two influential eighteenth-century Baptists were distinct, with Isaac Backus representing evangelical separatism and John Leland representing enlightenment separatism. The research provides an analysis of John Leland’s and Isaac Backus’s background, theology, and views of church and state, followed by a brief practical application and exploration of opposing views. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 43 182x300 - Religious Freedom: Two Baptist Views](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-43-182x300.png "Religious Freedom: Two Baptist Views - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3WgbAdv)A History Of New England With Particular Reference To The Denomination Of Christians Called Baptists; Volume 2 ## **John Leland** **Background: A Political Pastor** John Leland’s life began in Colonial America, and it flowered into an influential life of ministry and politics. Leland was born in the town of Grafton in 1754 just west of Boston.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Leland’s inauspicious introduction to religion came at age four when the terrified young lad took off down a hill and tripped just before having the “blood scrubbed off” in preparation for the “baptismal water.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) However, by the age of eighteen, Mark Scarberry explains that Leland had a religious experience that led to an acceptance of Christ approximately two years later.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Leland began preaching soon after his conversion in 1775, and he unwaveringly devoted his life to ministry.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) After a preaching tour of eight months, Albert Wardin explains that Leland married and returned to Orange County, Virginia in 1778, the county of James Madison’s residence, after a bring stint in South Carolina.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) During Leland’s tenure as a preacher in Virginia, he became involved in politics. In 1786, the Baptist General Committee appointed Leland to join Reuben Ford and represent the Baptists at the next Virginia legislature session.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) At issue was that Baptists, at times, did not qualify for tax exemptions under current law, which could result in property seizures for nonpayment of taxes, that supported the established religions in Virginia, the Anglican and Episcopalian churches.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Two year later, according to Joe Coker, Virginia was in the midst of determining whether to support the ratification of the Federal Constitution, and the two candidates that emerged as potential representatives for Orange County were John Leland and James Madison.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Leland opposed the ratification of the Constitution with ten enumerated points, with the final point stating, “What is clearest of all – Religious Liberty, is not sufficiently secured.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Madison feared he may lose the election due to his support of the Constitution’s ratification.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Many historians believe that the disagreement between Leland and Madison led to a meeting that would eventually solidify religious liberty in America. Although no first-hand accounts remain of the meeting between the two men, L. H. Butterfield claims “there can be no question” that it was an “actual occurrence.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) After the meeting, Leland withdrew from the race and Madison became an influential defender of the Bill of Rights, which guaranteed religious freedom.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Accordingly, Leland’s legacy was sealed as an integral player in America’s journey to [religious freedom](https://www.livestransforming.com/religious-freedom-a-study-of-two-distinct-baptist-views/). Leland continued his involvement in ministry and politics after his tenure in Virginia. Leland moved back to his birth place of New England in 1791, where he remained until his death in 1841.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) In New England, Leland preached thousands of sermons, wrote essays, and baptized over a thousand new believers.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Politically, Leland helped frame Connecticut’s state constitution, led an initiative to end Massachusetts’s support of state religion, became a member of Massachusetts’s state representatives, and famously gifted a 1,235-pound block of cheese to President Jefferson.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) The intersection of ministry and politics stretches beyond the practical outworking of Leland’s influence, and as will be explored next, his theology significantly informed his politics, and specifically, his views of religious liberty. **Theology: Jeffersonian Influence** Leland’s approach to religious liberty emerged from his theology of soul liberty. Brandon O’Brien explains that the original Colonists perceived freedom through the lens of certain privileges, such as the freedom to hunt, but eventually through Puritan influence, a “freedom of conscience” emerged that broadened the concept of liberty.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Leland addresses this newly formed concept of freedom or “soul liberty” by asking the following question: “Does a man, upon entering into social compact, surrender his conscience to that society, to be controlled by the laws thereof; or can he, in justice, assist in making law to bind his children’s consciences before they are born?”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Leland replies to both questions with an unequivocal “no” and provides a number of reasons for his conclusion. Leland claims that the government cannot answer for man on the day of judgement, but man must answer directly to God.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Furthermore, a man’s mind must be open to the Spirit’s conviction, thus binding a child’s mind prior to birth is evil because the “rights of conscience are considered inalienable,” and “religion is a matter between God and individuals.”[\[19\]](#_ftn19) The concept of soul liberty applied not only to Christians, but also to non-Christians. Leland asserted that a government that required citizens to follow Christ is unbiblical, because nowhere in the New Testament did Jesus Christ or his followers suggest that civil powers had the authority to force individuals to embrace the gospel.”[\[20\]](#_ftn20) At this point, the distinction between Leland and Isaac Backus begins to emerge. Coker observes that Leland’s theology appears to diverge from the eighteenth-century Edwardsian Calvinism espoused by Backus.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) O’Brien notes that Leland clearly understood his depravity and need for salvation, but epistemologically, Leland was more Cartesian than Calvinistic.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) In other words, Leland avoids Calvinistic determinism, and instead, asserts a more optimistic epistemology where the conscience of individuals will believe what is right when rightly informed.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) It is this divergence from a strict Calvinism that underpins Leland’s understanding of ecclesiological reach. Leland’s understanding of epistemology and freedom combined to inform his ecclesiology. According to Coker, Leland’s soul liberty and optimistic epistemology de-emphasized the role of organized churches, creeds, confessions, inter-church associations and missionary societies.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) For example, according to O’Brien, Leland rejected infant baptism, not on grounds of belief, but on the grounds that it usurped the child’s conscience or soul liberty, and furthermore, Leland believed communion was optional due to the individual’s same freedom to choose.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Importantly, Leland’s soul liberty did not usurp the word of God, but trumped the control of human institutions, thus Leland asserts, “Conscience is not the rule of life, but the word of God. Though the conscience should be free from human control.”[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Accordingly, Edwin Gaustad compares Leland’s ecclesiology with a Jeffersonian democracy by stating, “Government is best which governs least, Jefferson had argued, and Leland seems to have had similar sentiments with regard to ecclesiastical organization.”[\[27\]](#_ftn27) It is within this Jeffersonian framework of organizational theory that Leland’s perspective of church and state materializes. **Church and State: Enlightenment Separatism** Leland’s soul liberty, epistemological optimism, and low ecclesiology sets the stage for a strict separatist view of church and state. Leland’s opponents asserted that Christianity was necessary to the formation of a civil society, thus the intermingling of church and state was deemed appropriate. However, Rosalie Beck explains that, according to Leland, an individual could be a good citizen without being a Christian, thus a civil society does not require the influence of Christianity.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) This does not suggest that Leland believed a civil government was not necessary. According to Leland, a civil government is “a necessary curse, in this fallen state, to prevent greater evils.”[\[29\]](#_ftn29) However, for Leland, the necessity of government to prevent greater evils neither suggests that government is necessary to create a good citizen, nor that government should control a man’s “indefensible right to believe what is not true,” or “perform worship that is hypocritical or delusive.”[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Accordingly, since Christianity is not necessary to the formation of a civil society, and the purpose of civil government is to prevent greater evils, the intermingling of church and state does more harm than good by undermining the rights of the conscience. Based on Leland’s belief that civil society does not rest on the integration of church and state, he can now logically move into a strict separatist position. Leland confirms this position by stating, “Government has no more to do with the religious opinions of men, than it has with the principles of mathematics.”[\[31\]](#_ftn31) An important Leland distinctive is the extent by which he pushed the separation between church and state. Coker explains that Leland’s views opposed the deeply held European convictions of the church and state, which continued to exist within the Christian community of his contemporaries.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) John Witte illuminates Leland’s distinctiveness by recognizing two forms of church and state separatists – the evangelical separatists and the enlightenment separatists.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Evangelical separatists did not desire a strict separation between church and state, but continued to urge the state to respond to the initiatives of the church, whereas enlightenment separatists or two-sided separatists insisted that neither the church nor the state could aid each other.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) Accordingly, Leland’s background, theology of soul liberty, epistemological optimism, low ecclesiology, understanding of citizenship, and strict separation of church and state lands Leland squarely in the camp of the enlightenment separatists. Next, an exploration of Isaac Backus’s contrasting view of religious liberty will further highlight the distinct nature of Leland’s views. ## **Isaac Backus** **Background: A Pastor in Politics** Although older than John Leland, Isaac Backus and Leland were contemporaries in the eighteenth century, who both fought for religious liberty. Like Leland, Backus’s background set the stage for his influential life of ministry and politics. According to Backus’s biographer, Alvah Hovey, Backus was born in Norwich, Connecticut in 1724 and educated in both the Christian doctrines and civil liberty.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) Under the influence of Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield during the Great Awakening, the revival reached Norwich in 1741, and Backus had the opportunity to repent and accept Christ as his Savior.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) The following year Backus joined the Congregational Church in Norwich.[\[37\]](#_ftn37) Within a few years, Backus moved into ministerial work. Albert Wardin explains that three years after joining the Congregational Church, Backus began meeting with a group of Separatist individuals who limited participation to the regenerate.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) In 1748, Backus began serving as the pastor for a Separatist church in Massachusetts, and he began publicly opposing religious taxation.[\[39\]](#_ftn39) During the same year, William Sprague records that Backus spent a short time in prison due to his tax protest .[\[40\]](#_ftn40) In 1751, Backus was immersed in baptism, and he established a Baptist church in Middleborough, Massachusetts in 1756, where he finished his career.[\[41\]](#_ftn41) Backus’s ministerial efforts were significant, but his contribution to religious liberty was his legacy. W. Morgan Patterson explains that in 1773 Backus began fighting certificate laws, laws that required Baptist churches to file certificates with the government to qualify as tax exempt.[\[42\]](#_ftn42) In response to the certificate laws, Backus argued, “Because the very nature of such a practice implies an acknowledgement that the civil power has a right to set one religious sect up above another…it is a tacit allowance that they have a right to make laws about such things which we believe in our consciences they have not.”[\[43\]](#_ftn43) Patterson reports that during the following year, Backus was appointed the leader of the Warren Association to represent Baptist views at the upcoming Continental Congress.[\[44\]](#_ftn44) During this meeting in Philadelphia, Backus influenced the legislatures to assist in furthering religious liberty, and then in 1775, Backus continues fighting for religious liberty by opposing taxation without representation.[\[45\]](#_ftn45) The impact of Backus was so far reaching that William McLoughlin claimed that Backus was one of the most effective evangelical writers in support of religious liberty, and deserves to be recognized with such figures as Roger Williams and Thomas Jefferson.[\[46\]](#_ftn46) **Theology: Lockean Influence** Like Leland, Backus’s background influenced his theology, which formed his views of church and state. Stanley Grenz suggests that Backus’s theology was an amalgamation of the philosophies of John Locke and Jonathan Edwards, and he summarizes Backus’s perspective with three key doctrines.[\[47\]](#_ftn47) First, emerging from the influence of Edwards was the doctrine of the sovereignty of God, which was absolute and to whom all governments must appeal.[\[48\]](#_ftn48) In Backus’s words, “No government could ever be established among themselves without appeals to Him for the truth of what was asserted.”[\[49\]](#_ftn49) Second, Backus’s anthropology emerges from the influence of Locke. According to Grenz, unlike the pietistic tradition, which bifurcated the will and intellect, Backus assumed the intellect controlled man’s faculty.[\[50\]](#_ftn50) In other words, for Backus, freedom was not a freedom to act, but a freedom to choose, where choice determines man’s will.[\[51\]](#_ftn51) Although Backus’s freedom of choice resonates with Leland’s soul liberty, it is not as optimistic. Leland asserts that for Christians and non-Christians, the conscience ultimately prevails if rightly informed. However, Backus believed a depravity exists within man that is influenced by two external forces, reason from God and evil imagination from the enemy.[\[52\]](#_ftn52) Accordingly, Backus parts company with Locke by suggesting that reason goes beyond humanity, thus reason must be mediated by divine influence through Scripture against evil imaginations.[\[53\]](#_ftn53) Ultimately, the focus remains on the individual, who chooses between the two influences, which informs Backus’s final emphasis. The third doctrinal emphasis pertains to Backus’s ecclesiology. Grenz explains that Backus agreed with the Congregational notion of a twofold church, the visible local congregation and the invisible church of all elect, but differed from the Congregationalists by affirming a believing membership, which meant the exclusion of infants from membership.[\[54\]](#_ftn54) It is here that Backus’s anthropology informs his ecclesiology; the merging of a believing membership with the freedom to choose led to the conception of church as a voluntary society, which caused Backus to contend, “Since religion is ever a matter between God and individuals, how can any man become a member of a religious society without his own consent?”[\[55\]](#_ftn55) It is from his doctrines of God’s sovereignty, freedom of choice, and voluntary ecclesiology that Backus’s perspective of church and state now emerge. **Church and State: Evangelical Separatism** Backus’s background and theology now merge seamlessly into a coherent philosophy of church and state. First, Wardin recognizes that Backus’s Puritan background led him to support the concept of a close cooperation between church and state.[\[56\]](#_ftn56) Next, Backus’s theological emphasis on the sovereignty of God meant that all of creation is subject to and agents of God, which included the government. Backus believed that God utilizes the government by allowing authorities to make and enforce laws, because society disobeys God’s law.[\[57\]](#_ftn57) However, Backus’s emphasis on the sovereignty of God does not undermine freedom of choice. Backus’s focus on the freedom of choice that solidifies the church as a voluntary society further crystallizes his understanding of the relationship between church and state. For Backus, although cooperation is necessary, the church and state are two very distinct entities.[\[58\]](#_ftn58) Forcefully, Backus addresses the risk of the state involvement in church by stating, “Those who use secular force in religious affairs, violate the divine command both ways; they obstruct discipline in the church, and invade the rights of conscience and humanity in the State.”[\[59\]](#_ftn59) In sum, Backus held firm to both the sovereignty of God, which encompassed both the church and government, while simultaneously holding firm to the freedom of choice that divided church and state. The distinction between Leland and Backus now emerges with clarity. In contrast to Leland’s two-sided enlightenment separatism, Backus asserts that “civil rulers ought to be men fearing God, and hating covetousness…and ministers ought to pray for rulers, and to teach the people to be subject to them, so there may and ought to be a sweet harmony between them.”[\[60\]](#_ftn60) Gaustad contrasts Backus with Leland’s Jeffersonian underpinnings by identifying the former’s perspective as a liberty with limits, which culminates in a Protestant state that emerges from Backus’s understanding of man’s depravity.[\[61\]](#_ftn61) Unlike Leland, who believed a democracy could survive without religion, Backus believed, “Religion is as necessary for the well-being of human society…as light is to direct our ways.”[\[62\]](#_ftn62) Witte labeled Backus’s accomodationist perspective of church and state as evangelical separatism, a one-sided separatism, where the church’s influence on the state was acceptable, but not the reverse.[\[63\]](#_ftn63) Based on Backus’s background, theological emphasis on God’s sovereignty, freedom of choice, voluntary ecclesiology, and accomodationist view of church and state, it appears that Backus lands squarely in the camp of evangelical separatism. ## **Practical Application** The practical implications of the Leland-Backus distinctives are highly significant. During the twentieth century, several Supreme Court decisions addressed religion, prayer, and Bible study in public schools. Wardin notes that a serious division remains within the Baptist community as some, such as the Baptist Joint Commission, support Leland’s perspective of enlightenment separatism by encouraging a strict separation of church and state, and thus, oppose religious engagement in public schools.[\[64\]](#_ftn64) Alternatively, the Southern Baptist Convention supports Backus’s perspective of evangelical separatism by encouraging the cooperation of church and state, thus supporting religious engagement in public schools.[\[65\]](#_ftn65) Baptist history provides support for both perspectives and may assist in providing an important backdrop for both understanding and reconciling differences. ## **Opposing Views** Scholars do not all agree that the views of Leland and Backus are distinct. While admitting some overlap, Robert Handy places both Leland and Backus into the category of dissenters or enlightenment separatists.[\[66\]](#_ftn66) Handy appropriately highlights Backus’s strong distinction between the church and state, but appears to miss the influence of Edwardsian Calvinism upon Backus that moves him into accomodationism between church and state.[\[67\]](#_ftn67) Alternatively, Witte places both Leland and Backus into the category of evangelical separatists.[\[68\]](#_ftn68) It appears that Witte may have assumed that since Leland and Backus were both Baptist ministers, they would naturally land in the evangelical separatist camp. However, Witte appears to miss Leland’s theological perspective of soul liberty that pushed against Edwardsian Calvinism. Without understanding the amalgamation of the two religious leaders’ theological and political views, scholars risk inappropriately communicating a homogenous history of Baptist thought that could undermine a diversity of views necessary to move the current debate forward in a meaningful and productive way. Finally, Coker goes too far in asserting that Grenz places Backus into the same enlightenment separatist camp as Leland.[\[69\]](#_ftn69) Although Grenz does recognize the importance of Backus’s church and state distinctives, he clearly communicates Backus’s accomodationism by noting that, for Backus, the church and state are both “God’s institution,” and “a harmonious relationship ought to exist between them.”[\[70\]](#_ftn70) ## **Conclusion** John Leland’s background, theology of soul liberty, epistemological optimism, and low ecclesiology, understanding of citizenship, and strict separation of church and state provide adequate evidence to support the assertion that Leland represents the views of an enlightenment separatist. Isaac Backus’s background, theological emphasis on God’s sovereignty, freedom of choice, voluntary ecclesiology, and accomodationist view of church and state provide adequate evidence to support the assertion that Backus represents the views of an evangelical separatist. Although opposing scholarly views exist, when the background, theology, and political perspectives of Leland and Backus are synthesized, the research has proven that the views of church and state expressed by the two influential eighteenth-century Baptist leaders were distinct. The distinctions between Backus and Leland presents a relevant example of diverse Baptist beliefs during the eighteenth century. Accordingly, from a practical perspective, the research provides an opportunity for Baptists to acknowledge different church and state perspectives within a rich Baptist history, which can encourage amicable discourse and debate on multiple fronts around the topic of religious liberty. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) John Leland, “Events in the Life of John Leland: Written by Himself,” in *The Writings of the Late Elder John Leland Including Some Events in His Life,* ed. L. F. Greene (New York: Forgotten Books, 2012), 9. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 10. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Mark S. Scarberry, “John Leland and James Madison: Religious Influence on the Ratification of the Constitution and on the Proposal of the Bill of Rights,” *Penn State Law Review* 113, no. 3 (February 2009): 745–46. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Leland, “Events in the Life”, 18. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Albert W. Wardin, “Contrasting Views of Church and State: A Study of John Leland and Isaac Backus,” *Baptist History and Heritage* 33, no. 1 (1998): 13. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Scarberry, “John Leland,” 754–55. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 748–49. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Joe L. Coker, “Sweet Harmony vs. Strict Separation: Recognizing the Distinctions between Isaac Backus and John Leland,” *American Baptist Quarterly* 16, no. 3 (September 1997): 243. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) T. Barber and John Leland, “John Leland to T. Barber, February 28, 1788,” The James Madison Papers at the Library of Congress, accessed November 12, 2017, http://www.loc.gov/item/mjm023243. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Coker, “Sweet Harmony,” 243. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) L. H. Butterfield, “Elder John Leland, Jeffersonian Itinerant,” *Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society* 62 (1952): 188. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Coker, “Sweet Harmony,” 243–44. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Wardin, “Contrasting Views,” 13. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Rosalie Beck, “John Leland: The Consistent Separationist,” *Baptist History and Heritage* 47, no. 3 (September 2012): 66–67. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Coker, “Sweet Harmony,” 244. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Brandon J. O’Brien, “From Soul Liberty to Self-Reliance: John Leland and the Evangelical Origins of Radical Individualism,” *American Baptist Quarterly* 27, no. 2 (2008): 139. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) John Leland, “The Rights of Conscience Inalienable,” in *The Writings of the Late Elder John Leland Including Some Events in His Life* (New York: Forgotten Books, 2012), 181. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Ibid. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid., 181. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Ibid., 187. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Coker, “Sweet Harmony,” 244. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) O’Brien, “From Soul Liberty,” 142. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Leland, “The Rights of Conscience,” 180–81. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Coker, “Sweet Harmony,” 244–45. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) O’Brien, “From Soul Liberty,” 143–44. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) John Leland, “The Virginia Chronicle,” in *The Writings of the Late John Leland Including Some Events in His Life* (New York: Forgotten Books, 2012), 122. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Edwin S. Gaustad, “The Backus-Leland Tradition,” *Foundations* 2, no. 2 (April 1959): 144. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Beck, “John Leland,” 72. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Leland, “The Virginia Chronicle,” 103. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) John Leland, “Short Sayings,” in *The Writings of the Late John Leland Including Some Events in His Life* (New York: Forgotten Books, 2012), 580. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Leland, “The Rights of Conscience,” 184. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Coker, “Sweet Harmony,” 247. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) John Witte Jr., “Theology and Politics of the First Amendment Religion Clauses: A Bicentennial Essay,” *The Emory Law Journal* 40, no. 2 (1991): 494–95. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Ibid. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Alvah Hovey, *A Memoir of the Life and Times of the Rev. Isaac Backus* (Cincinnati: Gould and Lincoln, 1858), 31. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Ibid., 33–37. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Ibid., 42. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Wardin, “Contrasting Views,” 15. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) Ibid. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) William Buell Sprague, *Annals of the American Pulpit: Baptist. 1860* (New York: Robert Carter and Brothers, 1860), 55. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) Wardin, “Contrasting Views,” 15. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) W. Morgan Patterson, “Contributions of Baptists to Religious Freedom in America,” *Review & Expositor* 73, no. 1 (1976): 27. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Isaac Backus, “An Appeal to the Public for Religious Liberty. Boston, 1773,” in *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, ed. William G. McLoughlin (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968), 333. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Patterson, “Contributions of Baptists,” 28. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Ibid. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) William McLoughlin, “Introduction,” in *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism* (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968), 1. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) Stanley J. Grenz, “Church and State: The Legacy of Isaac Backus,” *Center Journal* 2, no. 2 (1983): 75. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48) Ibid. [\[49\]](#_ftnref49) Isaac Backus, “Truth is Great and Will Prevail. Boston, 1783,” in *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, ed. William G. McLoughlin (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968), 402. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50) Grenz, “Church and State,” 76. [\[51\]](#_ftnref51) Isaac Backus, “The Sovereign Decrees of God. Boston, 1773,” in *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, ed. William G. McLoughlin (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968), 297. [\[52\]](#_ftnref52) Backus, “An Appeal,” 310–11. [\[53\]](#_ftnref53) Isaac Backus, “The Doctrine of Particular Election and Final Perseverance. Boston, 1789,” in *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, ed. William G. McLoughlin (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968), 451. [\[54\]](#_ftnref54) Grenz, “Church and State,” 78. [\[55\]](#_ftnref55) Isaac Backus, “A Door Opened for Christian Liberty. Boston, 1783,” in *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, ed. William G. McLoughlin (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968), 432. [\[56\]](#_ftnref56) Wardin, “Contrasting Views,” 17. [\[57\]](#_ftnref57) Isaac Backus and David Weston, *A History of New England with Particular Reference to the Denomination of Christians Called Baptists*, 2nd ed., vol. II (Newton, MA: Backus Historical Society, 1871), 321. [\[58\]](#_ftnref58) Backus, “The Doctrine of Particular”, 468. [\[59\]](#_ftnref59) Backus and Weston, *A History*, 74. [\[60\]](#_ftnref60) Isaac Backus, “A Fish Caught in His Own Net. Boston, 1768,” in *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, ed. William G. McLoughlin (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968), 190–91. [\[61\]](#_ftnref61) Edwin S. Gaustad, “Religious Liberty: Baptists and Some Fine Distinctions,” *American Baptists Quarterly* 6, no. 4 (December 1987): 220. [\[62\]](#_ftnref62) Isaac Backus, “Policy as Well as Honesty. Boston, 1779,” in *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, ed. William G. McLoughlin (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968), 371. [\[63\]](#_ftnref63) Witte, “Theology and Politics,” 494–95. [\[64\]](#_ftnref64) Wardin, “Contrasting Views,” 18–19. [\[65\]](#_ftnref65) Ibid., 19. [\[66\]](#_ftnref66) Robert T. Handy, “The Magna Charta of Religious Freedom in America,” *Union Seminary Quarterly Review* 38, no. 3-4 (1984): 306–8. [\[67\]](#_ftnref67) Ibid. [\[68\]](#_ftnref68) Witte, “Theology and Politics,” 492, note 9. [\[69\]](#_ftnref69) Coker, “Sweet Harmony vs Strict Separation: Recognizing the Distinctions Between Isaac Backus and John Leland,” 248. [\[70\]](#_ftnref70) Grenz, “Church and State: The Legacy of Isaac Backus,” 82. ## **Bibliography** - Backus, Isaac. “A Door Opened for Christian Liberty. Boston, 1783.” In *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, edited by William G. McLoughlin. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968. - ———. “A Fish Caught in His Own Net. Boston, 1768.” In *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, edited by William G. McLoughlin. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968. - ———. “An Appeal to the Public for Religious Liberty. Boston, 1773.” In *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, edited by William G. McLoughlin. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968. - ———. “Policy as Well as Honesty. Boston, 1779.” In *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, edited by William G. McLoughlin. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968. - ———. “The Doctrine of Particular Election and Final Perseverance. Boston, 1789.” In *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, edited by William G. McLoughlin. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968. - ———. “The Sovereign Decrees of God. Boston, 1773.” In *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, edited by William G. McLoughlin. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968. - ———. “Truth Is Great and Will Prevail. Boston, 1783.” In *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism: Pamphlets, 1754-1789*, edited by William G. McLoughlin. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968. - Backus, Isaac, and David Weston. *A History of New England with Particular Reference to the Denomination of Christians Called Baptists*. 2nd ed. Vol. II. Newton, MA: Backus Historical Society, 1871. - Barber, T., and John Leland. “John Leland to T. Barber, February 28, 1788.” The James Madison Papers at the Library of Congress. Manuscript/Mixed Material. Accessed November 12, 2017. http://www.loc.gov/item/mjm023243. - Beck, Rosalie. “John Leland: The Consistent Separationist.” *Baptist History and Heritage* 47, no. 3 (September 2012): 65–75. - Butterfield, L. H. “Elder John Leland, Jeffersonian Itinerant.” *Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society* 62 (1952): 155–242. - Coker, Joe L. “Sweet Harmony vs. Strict Separation: Recognizing the Distinctions between Isaac Backus and John Leland.” *American Baptist Quarterly* 16, no. 3 (September 1997): 241–50. - Gaustad, Edwin S. “The Backus-Leland Tradition.” *Foundations* 2, no. 2 (April 1959): 131–52. - ———. “Religious Liberty: Baptists and Some Fine Distinctions.” *American Baptists Quarterly* 6, no. 4 (December 1987): 215–25. - Grenz, Stanley J. “Church and State: The Legacy of Isaac Backus.” *Center Journal* 2, no. 2 (1983): 73–94. - Handy, Robert T. “The Magna Charta of Religious Freedom in America.” *Union Seminary Quarterly Review* 38, no. 3-4 (1984): 301–17. - Hovey, Alvah. *A Memoir of the Life and Times of the Rev. Isaac Backus*. Cincinnati: Gould and Lincoln, 1858. - Leland, John. “Events in the Life of John Leland: Written by Himself.” In *The Writings of the Late Elder John Leland Including Some Events in His Life*, 9–40. Edited by L. F. Greene. New York: Forgotten Books, 2012. - ———. “Short Sayings.” In *The Writings of the Late Elder John Leland Including Some Events in His Life*, 572–82. New York: Forgotten Books, 2012. - ———. “The Rights of Conscience Inalienable.” In *The Writings of the Late Elder John Leland Including Some Events in His Life*, 179–92. New York: Forgotten Books, 2012. - ———. “The Virginia Chronicle.” In *The Writings of the Late John Leland Including Some Events in His Life*, 92–124. New York: Forgotten Books, 2012. - McLoughlin, William G. “Introduction.” In *Isaac Backus on Church, State, and Calvinism*. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1968. - O’Brien, Brandon J. “From Soul Liberty to Self-Reliance: John Leland and the Evangelical Origins of Radical Individualism.” *American Baptist Quarterly* 27, no. 2 (2008): 136–50. - Patterson, W. Morgan. “Contributions of Baptists to Religious Freedom in America.” *Review & Expositor* 73, no. 1 (1976): 23–31. - Scarberry, Mark S. “John Leland and James Madison: Religious Influence on the Ratification of the Constitution and on the Proposal of the Bill of Rights.” *Penn State Law Review* 113, no. 3 (February 2009): 733–800. - Sprague, William Buell. *Annals of the American Pulpit: Baptist. 1860*. New York: Robert Carter and Brothers, 1860. - Wardin, Albert W. “Contrasting Views of Church and State: A Study of John Leland and Isaac Backus.” *Baptist History and Heritage* 33, no. 1 (1998): 12–20. - Witte, John Jr. “Theology and Politics of the First Amendment Religion Clauses: A Bicentennial Essay.” *The Emory Law Journal* 40, no. 2 (1991): 489–508. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Biblical Interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-interpretation/) **Published:** December 24, 2024 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Biblical Interpretation ## [](#_ftn1)**Introduction** Invitation to Biblical Interpretation: Exploring the Hermeneutical Triad of History, Literature, and Theology (Invitation to Theological Studies) From the Antiochene and Alexandrian schools of biblical interpretation to the modern historical-critical and narrative hermeneutics, methodologies for biblical interpretation continue to evolve. Which hermeneutical method best illuminates the meaning of Scripture continues to confound interpreters. Unfortunately, if the methodology is deficient, then the interpretation will also lack integrity. Andreas Köstenberger and Richard Patterson’s hermeneutical triad provides an effective framework for biblical interpretation. This analysis examines the six interpretive and communicative competencies necessary to deploy Köstenberger and Patterson’s hermeneutical method. ## Historical-Cultural Awareness in Biblical Interpretation [![biblical interpretation 182x300 - Biblical Interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/biblical-interpretation-182x300.jpg "Biblical Interpretation - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40oRJLH)Invitation to Biblical Interpretation: Exploring the Hermeneutical Triad of History, Literature, and Theology (Invitation to Theological Studies) The usefulness of historical and cultural awareness is that it provides the setting and background necessary for the proper interpretation of a passage. Richard Fuhr and Andreas Köstenberger assert that historical-cultural awareness entails three aspects: the geopolitical context, the cultural context, and the situational context. [\[1\]](#_ftn1) The geopolitical context focuses on the historical, political, and geographical environments. [\[2\]](#_ftn2) The parable of the Good Samaritan illustrates the importance of historical context. Samaria was the capital of Israel, which was conquered by Assyria in 722 BC. Foreigners mixed with the remaining population of Israelites and infiltrated the culture with their foreign gods. Accordingly, the post-exilic population of Samaritans were despised by Jews. Jesus’s message of grace becomes even more poignant considering the historical backdrop. The geopolitical context also includes an awareness of the political environment. For instance, Jeremiah lived in a turbulent political atmosphere. Babylon and Egypt rose in power during the demise of the Assyrian Empire. Babylon then trounced Egypt at Carchemish, which led to the fall of Judah to Babylon. The political backdrop of Jeremiah provides the impetus for understanding his message of restoration. Geography is the final element of geopolitical context. Jeremiah prophecies that a voice from Mount Ephraim, a region just north of Jerusalem, warns Judah to repent from wickedness (Jer 4:15-16). John Walton explains that the prophet uses this geographical location “to demonstrate that the message of danger is traveling fast across the land.” [\[3\]](#_ftn3) Historical-cultural awareness also entails cultural context, which includes understanding the customs and mores of ancient societies. Luke 7:36-50 tells the story of a Pharisee named Simon inviting Jesus to dinner. Luke notes that Simon and Jesus were reclining, a custom suggesting the meal was a banquet in honor of Jesus. A sinful woman entered and wiped Jesus’ feet with her tears and hair. According to Clinton Arnold, unbinding a woman’s long hair in the cultural milieu of Jesus’s day was disgraceful, which enhances the story’s impact; the authentic love of a promiscuous sinner honors God more than the activities of the pious, religious elite. [\[4\]](#_ftn4) The final aspect of historical-cultural awareness is situational context, the circumstances surrounding the events addressed by the author. Paul’s letter to the Galatians illustrates the necessity of situational awareness. Sometime after Paul and Barnabas left the province of Galatia, a group of Jewish Christians entered the area asserting that believers must adhere to the Torah. The Jewish agitators provide the situational backdrop to Paul’s letter. Understanding the Galatian situation facilitates proper interpretation. From the parable of the Good Samaritan to the Jewish agitators in Galatia, the significance of historical-cultural awareness is that it enhances the knowledge of the circumstances that shaped the lives of the ancient people. The impact of historical-cultural awareness is its ability to enhance the meaning of Scripture. Accordingly, [biblical interpreters](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-history-of-biblical-interpretation/) must firmly grasp the chronology of the historical events, the archaeology that reveals the customs of the ancient world, and the relevant primary and secondary sources that illuminate the culture of the Ancient Near East and the Second Temple period. ## Canonical Consciousness in Biblical Interpretation As a subset of literary context, canonical context acknowledges the unity of the Bible. Although each book of the Bible is a coherent unit, each book simultaneously lives in an interdependent relationship with the entire canon. The utility of canonical consciousness is that it expands the scope of literary context beyond the passage’s immediate surroundings and considers the passage based on its placement within the entire canon. Canonical consciousness acknowledges that the original authors understood they were writing within a broader context. Accordingly, canonical consciousness also entails recognizing the major themes that unify Scripture and locating the passage within its canonical context. A powerful theme that spans the entire canon is God’s covenantal relationship with humanity. Accordingly, the interpreter must recognize the relationship of the passage under investigation to the applicable covenants. Abner Chou suggests that the Davidic covenant not only incorporates other covenants but also is incorporated into other Old Testament Scripture. [\[5\]](#_ftn5) For example, regarding the Davidic covenant’s incorporation of other covenants, Genesis 12:2 states that God will make Abraham’s name great, and simultaneously, in 2 Samuel 7:9 God promises David that “I will make you a great name.” [\[6\]](#_ftn6) Regarding the Davidic covenant’s incorporation into other Scripture, the book of Amos not only alludes to 2 Samuel with reference to the collapse of David’s dynasty, but also affirms God’s promises to David when stating, “I will raise up the booth of David that is fallen” (Amos 9:11). Without recognizing the canonical consciousness of the authors, the exegete risks misinterpreting the related covenantal passages. Another theme that encompasses the entire canon is the Exodus event. Whether interpreting the Old or New Testament, the redemptive nature of the Exodus event must remain within the purview of the interpreter. R. E. Nixon explains that the Exodus event informs the writing and theology of many of the later authors of Scripture. [\[7\]](#_ftn7) Four examples illustrate the point. First, the Exodus event bridged the Abrahamic covenant with the reign of David through the formation of the nation of Israel. Second, Psalm 66 celebrates the deliverance of God’s people from Egypt within the Psalter. Third, Amos incorporates the Exodus event into his writings by reminding his readers of God’s deliverance from Egypt, while pleading with them to obey (Amos 2:10). Finally, Paul’s reference to Christ as the Passover lamb directly integrates the Exodus event into New Testament theology (1 Cor 5:17). In sum, Scripture must be interpreted in light of the overarching themes that underpin the entire canon. The significance of canonical consciousness is highlighted by the difficulty of an interpreter to exegete Scripture properly without placing the passage within the context of the whole canon. Recognizing the correlation between passages of Scripture within the placement of the canon enhances the interpreter’s understanding of the author’s original intent. The impact of canonical consciousness rests on the fact that unless the interpreter first properly understands the passage within its canonical context, the risk of misapplication into a contemporary context escalates. ## Sensitivity to Genre in Biblical Interpretation Another aspect of literary context is genre and subgenre. The usefulness of genre sensitivity is that it allows the interpreter to play the interpretive game by the correct rules. Two important guidelines must be followed when engaging in an analysis of genres and subgenres. First, the interpreter must correctly identify which genre is in play by understanding the characteristics of the different genres and realizing when shifts occur between genres within a literary unit. Second, Köstenberger and Patterson provide a plethora of interpretive rules that the interpreter must apply to the applicable genres and subgenres for proper interpretation. [\[8\]](#_ftn8) One example of genre is Old Testament historical narrative. Historical narrative may include subgenres such as stories, accounts, and reports. Common characteristics of historical narrative that assist in identification include the presence of discourses, episodes, and scenes. A famous example of Old Testament historical narrative is the story of David and Goliath in 1 Samuel 17. The rules for proper interpretation require the interpreter to consider the external elements of the historical narrative, which include the author, whether real or implied; narrator, whether omniscient or integrated; and the reader. Furthermore, an analysis of the internal elements of the story, such as setting, plot, and characterization, also needs performed. General guidelines for interpretation include identifying the narrative type, the function and boundaries, the roles of the participants, the historical and theological context, and the universal principles that apply to a contemporary context. Importantly, the meaning of historical narrative is ultimately found in understanding the story as a whole by assimilating the constituent parts. Another example of genre is Old Testament poetry. Certain books, such as the Psalter, are primarily poetic books, although poetry periodically occurs throughout the entire canon. Common characteristics of poetry, which assist in identifying the genre, include parallelism, terseness, concreteness, and imagery. The most well-known example of poetry in the Old Testament may be the book of Proverbs. The interpretive rules of poetry for a book such as Proverbs include an analysis of both structure and style. First, the interpreter needs to identify certain structural indicators such as stitching and chiasms, which use repetition to emphasize the author’s concerns. The interpreter should also identify the use of stylistic devices such as assonance, alliteration, and irregular word order that the authors often used to accentuate certain concepts. General guidelines for interpretation include building upon the structural and stylistic observations to identify a unifying theme for contemporary contextualization. The significance of genre sensitivity is that the proper interpretation of Scripture requires an understanding of the rules to the game for interpreting various types of literature. The impact of genre sensitivity might include both negative and positive aspects. Negatively, misapplying the rules of figurative language to historical narrative could undermine the historicity and inerrancy of Scripture. Positively, understanding and appropriately applying the relevant rules to each specific genre and subgenre may open the interpreter to a deeper understanding of Scripture and God. ## Literary and Linguistic Competence in Biblical Interpretation Literary and linguistic competence is the final aspect of literary context. Köstenberger and Patterson expand upon three distinct categories: discourse context, word meanings, and figurative language. [\[9\]](#_ftn9) Although grammar and syntax apply, the primary focus of discourse analysis is to focus interpretation of the entire literary unit. Furthermore, modern word studies emphasize a word’s semantic field and its context. Finally, the ability to identify and interpret figures of speech also fall under literary and linguistic competency. Regarding grammar and syntax, a well-known example pertains to the flexibility of the genitive case in Greek. Romans 3:22 states, “the righteousness of God through faith in Jesus Christ.” The phrase, Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, could be translated as an objective genitive, “faith in Christ,” or translated as a subjective genitive, “Christ’s faith.” No consensus exists. Discourse analysis includes identifying literary boundaries, cohesion, sentence relations, prominence, and the setting of the passage. A brief example from the first two chapters of Philippians illustrates boundary features at the macro-level: introduction (1:1-11), Paul’s situation (1:12-26), the Philippian’s situation (1:27-2:18), and Paul’s future (2:19-30). Paul’s situation can then be delineated into Paul’s suffering (1:12-20) and selflessness (1:21-26). A final microstructure suggests that God uses suffering to advance the gospel (1:12-13), increase confidence (1:14), overcome opposition (1:15-17), and proclaim Christ (1:18-20). Also, examples of discourse features are recognizable in verse 12, “I want you to know (desire), brothers, that what has happened to me has really served (purpose) to advance the gospel (action).” Regarding semantics, Philippians 4:13 states, “πάντα ἰσχύω ἐν τῷ ἐνδυναμοῦντί με,” which woodenly translated states, “all I am able by the one who strengthens me.” The word ἰσχύω is often rendered “I can do,” which implies performance. A semantic field analysis using the Louw-Nida Lexicon suggests that ἰσχύω means the ability to “experience something.” [\[10\]](#_ftn10) Furthermore, the context suggests that Paul is finding peace in the face of suffering. Thus, within context, a better translation is “I can experience (peace in) all things through the one who strengthens me.” The ability to identify and interpret figures of speech is the final literary and linguistic competency. Examples abound. Proverbs 25:22 states, “For you will heap burning coals on his head.” Burning coals are, by metonymy, the things God intends for an enemy. Proverbs 16:27 provides an example of simile, “A worthless man plots evil, and his speech is like a scorching fire.” Scorching fire means cruel words. A final example is Genesis 42:38, “You would bring down my gray hairs.” You will bring down my gray hairs is a euphemism for you will kill me. The significance of literary and linguistic competence is palpable. Discourse analysis prevents pulling sentences out of the broader literary context. Proper grammar and syntax decrease the risk of misinterpretation due to a lack of original language competence. Word studies that consider context and use semantic field analysis increase the possibility of attaching correct meaning to the text. A proper understanding of figures of speech decreases the risk of applying a literal meaning to figurative language. Without question, the impact of literary and linguistic competence on biblical interpretation is significant. ## Grasp of Biblical Theology in Biblical Interpretation Biblical theology is derived from Scripture inductively. The utility of biblical theology is that it encourages the interpreter to focus first on what the text meant to the original authors prior to synthesizing motifs into themes and then themes into theology. Biblical theology entails the use of a hermeneutical method. Köstenberger and Patterson contend that employing the hermeneutic triad, which balances the historical, literary, and theological context, provides the most effective method for performing biblical theology. [\[11\]](#_ftn11) Biblical theology also entails the utilization of intertextuality to inform interpretation, which uses Scripture to interpret Scripture. Guidelines for doing biblical theology begin with identifying a theme and its relevant passages. Analyzing the passages by using the hermeneutical triad then commences, which illuminates the historical and literary context. The interpreter then determines the author’s intended meaning to the original audience. Next, the interpreter investigates the theme in light of the entire canon before making an application to a contemporary audience. Philippians 4:13 once again provides a brief example that highlights the distinctiveness of biblical theology. A deductive, topically oriented, approach risks using Philippians 4:13 to support a systematic theology of prosperity. I can do all things might be interpreted to mean that one can make a million dollars, buy a new house, or beat cancer. Alternatively, biblical theology’s use of the hermeneutical triad would reveal that the historical and literary context suggests that Paul is able to experience peace during difficult situations, not that Paul is guaranteed to eliminate difficult situations. Once interpreted correctly, the interpreter can identify the theme, experiencing joy during suffering, and expand it to other relevant passages to form a theological system based on biblical theology. The work of intertextuality also contributes to performing biblical theology. Intertextuality not only includes interpreting the New Testament in light of the Old Testament, but also the analysis of quotes, allusions, and echoes within the Testaments. For example, Philippians 1:19 states, “For I know that through your prayers and the help of the Spirit of Jesus Christ this will turn out for my deliverance.” Although Paul does not mention the connection, the final phrase, “this will turn out for my deliverance,” is in complete agreement with Job 13:16 in the LXX. Intertextuality encourages the interpreter to consider the implications of parallels between passages. For instance, comparing the way Paul and Job handled difficult situations may provide additional interpretive insight. The significance and impact of grasping biblical theology is fourfold. First, by inductively beginning with the text, the risk of imposing meaning onto the text is mitigated. Second, by using an interpretive method based on the hermeneutical triad, the interpreter is forced to consider the context of the passage under consideration. Third, interpretive correlation allows the interpreter to integrate quotes, allusions, and echoes from other parts of Scripture into the interpretive analysis. Finally, identifying the thematic content that arises from the exercise of biblical theology allows the interpreter to inductively systematize the theology without resorting to deductive methodologies. ## Application and Proclamation from Every Genre The usefulness of properly proclaiming and applying Scripture rests on the fact that the Bible is God’s transformative, living Word, not just an informative communiqué. Unfortunately, the subjective nature of application creates a real risk for misapplication. To mitigate the risk, the application proclaimed must align with the meaning of the text in its original context. Köstenberger and Patterson provide two overarching initiatives to successfully proclaim and apply Scripture to a contemporary context: (1) carefully consider the impact of genre on the proclamation of the text and (2) carefully utilize the method of principlization to identify the universal principles that transcend cultural boundaries. [\[12\]](#_ftn12) Once the interpreter completes the exegetical process, the message needs communicated, which requires an outline. The literary context, and more specifically, discourse analysis, provides the means for creating an outline from the text. However, since genre ultimately determines the literary structure of the passage, the genre type must also be considered when framing the message. For example, when outlining Old Testament narratives, the first step is to identify and interpret the scenes of the narrative, which often take the form of problem-resolution. Identifying the scenes assists in determining the scope and structure of the outline, and interpreting the scenes assists in recognizing the main idea. By contrast, poetic literature, such as the Psalter, requires classifying the Psalm, which aids in identify the main idea, and then creating the outline of the message based on the structure of the Psalm, which often revolves around a call, cause, and conclusion. Importantly, the structure of each distinct genre must be taken into consideration when structuring an outline for communication. A valid method for application is principlization, which also depends on genre. Principlization first assumes a correct interpretation of the text, and it then attempts to contemporize the meaning by identifying the concrete, universal principles. The principles provide the impetus for application. The principle should be text-based, timeless, not bound to a specific culture, consistent with the canon, and relevant to both the original and contemporary audience. Finally, principlization must consider the impact of genre. Some genres accommodate principlization more easily than others. For example, wisdom literature, such as Proverbs, often naturally fits into timeless principles. However, Old Testament historical narratives are often more difficult. For historical narratives, the identification of theological motifs that develop through history assist in identifying the timeless principles. Regardless, the interpreter must consider the implications of each genre when identifying universal principles for application. The significance and impact of application and proclamation is directly related to the glorification of God. When a believer obeys the Word of God, or more specifically, the correct interpretation of the Word of God, God is glorified. By employing the hermeneutical triad for interpretation, taking genre into consideration when outlining for proclamation, and using principlization to apply the text for transformation, the interpreter has the opportunity to join God in His revolutionary work of changing lives. ### Conclusion The six interpretive and communicative competencies, which include historical-cultural awareness, canonical consciousness, sensitivity to genre, literary and linguistic competence, a grasp of biblical theology, and application and proclamation from every genre, provide the building blocks of Köstenberger and Patterson’s hermeneutical method. Based on an examination of the six vital skills, the hermeneutical triad provides an effective framework for biblical interpretation. By utilizing a solid hermeneutical method, the interpreter significantly enhances his or her ability to correctly interpret the meaning of Scripture. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Richard Alan Fuhr, Jr. and Andreas J. Köstenberger, Inductive Bible Study: Observation, Interpretation, and Application Through the Lenses of History, Literature, and Theology (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016), 184–94. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 187. [\[3\] ](#_ftnref3)Walton, John, Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary (Old Testament): Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009), 4:247. [\[4\] ](#_ftnref4)Clinton E. Arnold, Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Matthew, Mark, Luke (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), 1:390. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Abner Chou, The Hermeneutics of the Biblical Writers: Learning to Interpret Scripture from the Prophets and Apostles (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2018), 73–80. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the English Standard Version (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Robin Ernest Nixon, The Exodus in the New Testament (London: Tyndale, 1963), 5–23. [\[8\] ](#_ftnref8)Andreas J. Köstenberger and Richard Patterson, Literature, and Theology (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2011), 237–318. [\[9\] ](#_ftnref9)Köstenberger and Patterson, Biblical Interpretation, 575–691. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Johannes P. Louw and Eugene Albert Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Based on Semantic Domains (New York: United Bible Societies, 1996), 675. [\[11\] ](#_ftnref11)Köstenberger and Patterson, Biblical Interpretation, 693–701. [\[12\] ](#_ftnref12)Köstenberger and Patterson, Biblical Interpretation, 741–89. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ernst Käsemann, *Commentary on Romans*, ed. and trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1980), 196. # # Bibliography - Arnold, Clinton E. Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Matthew, Mark, Luke. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002. - Chou, Abner. The Hermeneutics of the Biblical Writers: Learning to Interpret Scripture from the Prophets and Apostles. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2018. - Fuhr, Richard Alan, Jr. and Andreas J. Köstenberger. Inductive Bible Study: Observation, Interpretation, and Application Through the Lenses of History, Literature, and Theology. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016. - Köstenberger, Andreas J., and Richard Patterson. Biblical Interpretation: Exploring the Hermeneutical Triad of History, Literature, and Theology. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2011. - Louw, Johannes P., and Eugene Albert Nida. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Based on Semantic Domains. New York: United Bible Societies, 1996. - Nixon, Robin Ernest. The Exodus in the New Testament, 5–32. London: Tyndale, 1963. - Walton, John. Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary (Old Testament): Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel. Vol. 4. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. [](#_ftnref14) **Categories:** Research --- ### [Ancient Near East Background of the Bible](https://www.livestransforming.com/ancient-near-east-background-of-the-bible/) **Published:** January 11, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Ancient Near East Background of the Bible The similarities between ancient Near Eastern texts and the Old Testament are palpable, which has spawned a multitude of cross-cultural and comparative studies. Based on the significant relational connections, some conclude that the Bible is one of many ancient myths, while others diminish or even eschew the notion of relevant relationships. The following essay describes the philosophical approach utilized for background studies in Old Testament exegetical and expositional contexts. Next, an analysis of how knowledge of ancient Near Eastern backstories informs a contextually cognizant reading of the Old Testament ensues, followed by an explanation of the degree to which readers should allow the ancient Near Eastern backgrounds to influence an understanding of the biblical text. Finally, based on the stated philosophy, three examples of ancient Near Eastern backstories that inform an interpretation of the Old Testament texts complete the essay. ## **Ancient Near Eastern Background: Philosophy** The philosophical approach used in this essay for background studies in Old Testament exegetical and expositional work builds upon the deployment of cognitive environment criticism that rests on certain vital presuppositions. By definition, cognitive environment criticism examines the intellectual milieu and cultural context of ancient writing to provide a deeper and more coherent understanding of the text. Four presuppositions underlie the philosophical approach. First, the philosophy presumes that the biblical writers had some access to ancient ideas and literature from other cultures. Although significantly different from today’s easy and immediate access to information, the ancient Israelites lived within a cultural river. Second, similar to the intertextual canonical connections used by Old Testament writers, the philosophy assumes these same writers utilized echoes, allusions, and, at times, quotes from ancient Near Eastern sources. Third, the philosophy presupposes dual authorship of the Old Testament through a joint effort of God and man, which provides a unity throughout the Old Testament canon. Fourth, the philosophy presumes that the Old Testament resides on a cognitive framework informed by an ancient cultural context. With the presuppositions established, two fundamental axioms support the deployment of cognitive environment criticism. The first axiom is that one would expect significant similarities between the Old Testament and other ancient texts, including the overlap of concepts, ideas, and content. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 182x300 - Ancient Near East Background of the Bible](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-182x300.jpg "Ancient Near East Background of the Bible - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40dAH2F)The Bible among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature? Next, although similarities exist, the critical difference between the Old Testament and the pagan texts of the ancient Near East dwells at the more profound, structural level of worldview, which also informs the similarities. Specifically, and most importantly, as John Oswalt explains, ancient Near Eastern religious thought is built upon a mythological intellectual framework involving continuity, while the Old Testament writers’ cognitive framework builds upon the radically different concept of transcendence.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The framework of continuity aligns with the modern notion of pantheism or, more likely, panentheism, where all of reality, including humankind, divinity, and nature, exist without distinctions or barriers. The framework of transcendence assumes God lives outside humankind and nature as a transcendent Being. Accordingly, there is no reason to avoid utilizing background studies in Old Testament exegetical and expositional contexts as long as the four essential presuppositions remain intact, and the interpreter not only acknowledges the reasonableness of the similarities but also recognizes the radical difference within the intellectual framework between the ancient Near Eastern texts and the Old Testament. ## **Ancient Near Eastern Background: Context** How knowledge of ancient Near Eastern backstories informs a contextually cognizant reading of the Old Testament is fourfold. First, the stories of the ancient Near East may inform the reading of the Old Testament as literature. Juxtaposing pagan literature with the biblical account may enhance understanding of the texts’ literary structures, rhetorical devices, and genres. Second, the knowledge of ancient Near Eastern backstories may also inform religious praxis. By comparing the similarities and differences between the cultic and ritual activities of the Israelites with the rest of the ancient Near East, the interpreter may glean insights into the meaning of certain religious practices documented within the Old Testament. Third, comparing the sociopolitical events within the ancient Near East with the Old Testament texts may inform the societal concerns of the biblical writers. Fourth, identifying the similarities and differences between the theological perspectives of ancient Near Eastern religions and the Old Testament provides opportunities to recognize thematic threads and shared motifs that may illuminate the meaning of the biblical writers. As long as the critical worldview distinction between continuity and transcendence is maintained, cultural studies can inform and enhance a literary, cultic, societal, and theological understanding of the Old Testament texts, allowing the interpreter to walk students across a principlizing bridge for modern application. ## **Ancient Near Eastern Background: Influence** Although ancient Near Eastern background studies inform a literary, cultic, societal, and theological understanding of the Old Testament, the degree to which readers should allow background studies to influence their understanding of the biblical text remains controversial. From one extreme, an interpreter could determine that since significant similarities occur with ancient Near Eastern religions, the Old Testament must be another pagan myth. Alternatively, an interpreter could decide that, since the Old Testament is the inspired Word of God, any study of other pagan cultures would be sacrilegious. In general, a balanced approach that safeguards against these extremes assists in determining the degree to which readers should allow ancient Near Eastern backgrounds to influence meaning. John Walton provides three categories of interpretive boundaries: similarities and differences, borrowing, and genre.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) First, the interpreter must avoid focusing exclusively on either similarities or differences and consider both. Second, identifying the source of borrowing is a reasonable exercise as long as the interpreter recognizes the possibility that the meaning may have substantially morphed into its final form. Third, although the content may be similar, if the genres between the ancient Near Eastern text and the Old Testament text differ, the impact of similarities needs to be minimized. In general, overemphasizing the similarities or differences increases the risk of misinterpretation of the biblical texts. Finally, without question, the priority of interpretation must land on the side of the Old Testament. In other words, if the study of ancient Near Eastern backgrounds undermines the unity of the Bible, the inspiration of the biblical text, or its overall thematic initiatives, the interpreter must reconsider the methodological approach. In sum, readers should allow ancient Near Eastern backgrounds to influence their understanding of the biblical text significantly, assuming the proper interpretive boundaries remain intact and the priority of interpretation remains with the biblical account. ### **Narrative Example: Genesis 1-2** The first example represents one of the most famous ancient Near Eastern backstories within comparative studies. The well-known Mesopotamian creation myth, the *Enuma Elish*, tells the story of a pantheon of gods birthed from watery chaos. Two gods, Apsu and Tiamat, give birth to other gods. Ultimately, the god Marduk kills Tiamat, splits the god into two separate parts and uses them to create heaven and earth. Several similarities exist between the *Enuma Elish* and the biblical creation account. John Currid observes that the order of the two creation accounts correlates; darkness pervades both accounts, and the creative process revolves around the concepts of light, dry land, man, and a period of rest.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Based on the deployment of cognitive environment criticism to the Babylonian creation story, it is unnecessary to either embrace the similarities entirely or deny the distinctions. In other words, to suggest that the Genesis account is just another ancient creation myth misses the mark, but to deny any similarities between the biblical account and the *Enuma Elish* is academically naïve. Although the two accounts have numerous similarities, the cognitive environment is vastly different. As John Oswalt explains, the *Enuma Elish* is not actually about creation at all but about the emanation of world order from already-existent material that not only exalts Marduk but also promotes the continuous defeat of chaos.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Alternatively, a transcendent God performs creation in Genesis 1-2 by divine fiat and *ex nihilo*, which contradicts the Babylonian creation account and cognitive framework. Although similarities exist, cognitive environment criticism provides essential insights into the relationship between the two accounts. ### **Wisdom Example: Job 5:6-7** Job 5:17 is a less well-known example of an ancient Near Eastern backstory that informs the interpretation of Old Testament wisdom texts. An example of a typical English translation states, “For affliction does not come from dust, nor does trouble sprout from the ground, but man is born to trouble as sparks fly upward” (Job 5:6-7, English Standard Version). A more wooden translation of the final phrase “as sparks fly upward” is the “sons of Resheph (בני־רשף) grow tall to fly” (Job 5:7b). Certain scholars recognize that Resheph was the name of a Phoenician god of plague and pestilence equated with the Mesopotamian god Nergal, whom people in the ancient Near East worshipped and feared.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) In other words, Job’s friend, Eliphaz, suggests that when Job sins or creates trouble for himself, it is like turning the ancient demons of pestilence loose to fly around the earth and attack. When deploying cognitive environment criticism to ancient Near Eastern echoes, allusions, and quotes, it is essential to neither assume that the Bible is a myth that aligns with the ancient Near Eastern understanding of Resheph nor assume that the potential allusion to Resheph cannot exist, and, accordingly, the translation must refer to sparks from fire. Instead, the interpreter needs to consider the phrase’s meaning in light of the distinctive worldviews of pagan mythology and the Old Testament. Within the larger context of the book of Job, it is understandable why Eliphaz may have alluded to Resheph, a capricious god that terrorizes humans. Eliphaz the Temanite’s worldview aligns with ancient Near Eastern thinking: the righteous must always be rewarded, and the wicked must always be punished. Accordingly, Job’s suffering must be caused by the gods’ punishment for doing wrong. The consequence of Eliphaz’s thinking is that Yahweh, like Resheph, can be controlled and manipulated by the actions of humans, which aligns with the worldview of continuity.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) By recognizing Eliphaz’s ancient Near Eastern cognitive framework, the interpreter can not only see why Eliphaz is incorrectly highlighting similarities between Resheph and Yahweh but, more importantly, how the overarching message of the book of Job highlights the differences between the two deities. Yahweh is a transcendent God who is not only in complete control of the world but cannot be manipulated by human action. Ultimately, unlike the capricious and manipulatable gods of the [ancient Near East](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-ancient-near-east-context/), such as Resheph, Yahweh asks Job to trust Him within a worldview where a transcendent God is trustworthy to control the universe. ### **Prophetic Example: Isaiah 51:9-10** An example of an ancient Near Eastern backstory that informs the interpretation of an Old Testament prophetic text can be found in Isaiah 51:9-10, which states, “Awake, awake, put on strength, o arm of the Lord; awake, as in days of old, the generations of long ago. Was it not you who cut Rahab in pieces, who pierced the dragon? Was it not you who dried up the sea, the waters of the great deep, who made the depths of the sea a way for the redeemed to pass over?” In this passage, the biblical writer utilizes ancient Near Eastern myths to form his polemic. A familiar story in the ancient Near Eastern cognitive environment was that order was brought into the world through overthrowing the chaos monster. The name of the chaos monster varied. According to John Oswalt, the monster’s name was Leviathan in Canaanite literature, Tiamat in Mesopotamian literature, and Nun in Egyptian literature.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) However, the passage in Isaiah utilizes the language of myth for literary purposes rather than mythical purposes. When deploying cognitive environment criticism to ancient Near Eastern comparisons with Scripture, it is imperative to avoid the extremes. On the one hand, Isaiah is not suggesting that the Bible is a mythological story like the Canaanite stories of the chaos monster. On the other hand, it goes too far to suggest that Isaiah was using a literary device with no reference to the ancient Near Eastern cultural milieu. Instead, unlike ancient Near Eastern thought, the chaos monster is no threat to Yahweh. Furthermore, no struggle between Yahweh and the chaos monster that would bring order to the universe is in sight. Instead, Isaiah references the famous story of the Exodus, where Yahweh parted the sea to redeem His people. In contrast to the worldview of continuity, the transcendent God, Yahweh, conquers evil at given points in history rather than through a continuous struggle with a chaos monster in the primeval realm.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Although a reference to ancient mythology occurs within the passage, the biblical writer uses the allusion to highlight the distinction between Yahweh and the ancient Near Eastern gods rather than assimilating the Israelite worldview into mythology. ## **Conclusion** The philosophical approach towards background studies in Old Testament exegetical and expositional work is built upon utilizing cognitive environment criticism. The approach expects similarities between the Old Testament and ancient Near Eastern texts due to the shared cultures of the people groups but also recognizes critical differences between the texts that occur at the more profound, structural level of worldview. Specifically, the ancient Near Eastern religions are located within a cognitive framework of panentheistic continuity, while the Israelite religion is located within a cognitive framework of transcendence. In light of this approach, cultural studies can inform and enhance a literary, cultic, societal, and theological understanding of the Old Testament texts. Furthermore, readers should allow ancient Near Eastern backgrounds to influence their understanding of the biblical text significantly, assuming proper interpretive boundaries are maintained, and the priority of interpretation remains with Scripture. Finally, in each of the biblical examples explored, the quotes, allusions, and echoes utilized by the biblical writers not only presented similarities between the Old Testament and the ancient Near Eastern texts but also provided examples that, when placed within the broader cognitive environment, highlight Israel’s unique understanding of a transcendent God. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) John N. Oswalt, *The Bible among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature?* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2009), 47–84. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) John H. Walton, “Cultural Background of the Old Testament,” in *Foundations For Biblical Interpretation*, ed. David S. Dockery, Kenneth A. Matthews, and Robert B. Sloan (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994), 256. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) John D. Currid, *Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2013), 37. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Oswalt, *The Bible among the Myths*, 101. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) See Robert Fyall, *Now My Eyes Have Seen You: Images of Creation and Evil in the Book of Job* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2002), 118 and David J. A. Clines, *Job 1-20*, ed. David Allen Hubbard, Glenn W. Barker, and John D. W. Watts, vol. 17, *Word Biblical Commentary* (Zondervan Academic, 2015), 142. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Oswalt, *The Bible among the Myths*, 48–49. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Oswalt, 93. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Oswalt, 96. ## Bibliography - Clines, David J. A. *Job 1-20*. Edited by David Allen Hubbard, Glenn W. Barker, and John D. W. Watts. Vol. 17. *Word Biblical Commentary*. Zondervan Academic, 2015. - Currid, John D. *Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament*. Wheaton: Crossway, 2013. - Fyall, Robert. *Now My Eyes Have Seen You: Images of Creation and Evil in the Book of Job*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2002. - Oswalt, John N. *The Bible among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature?* Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2009. - Walton, John H. “Cultural Background of the Old Testament.” In *Foundations For Biblical Interpretation*, edited by David S. Dockery, Kenneth A. Matthews, and Robert B. Sloan. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [The Historicity of Jesus](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-historicity-of-jesus/) **Published:** January 13, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Historicity of Jesus [![Studying the Historical Jesus 182x300 - The Historicity of Jesus](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Studying-the-Historical-Jesus-182x300.jpg "The Historicity of Jesus - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3C4HtP2)Studying the Historical Jesus: A Guide to Sources and Methods It would be difficult to address the topic of a historical Jesus without first providing a very brief synopsis of the history of scholarship often called the quests, which are the quests to identify the real Jesus of history. Darrell Bock explains that the first quest was represented by the rationalism of the Enlightenment, which undermined the supernatural and asserted that Jesus was just a moral teacher, which ultimately led to radical skepticism.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The existential approach of Rudolph Bultmann’s demythologization, according to Gary Habermas, built upon the views of the first quest and resulted in a distinction between the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith, thus rendering the quest unnecessary.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Certain scholars, such as Ernst Käsemann, pushed back against Bultmann with limited success in a second quest.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) However, more recently, a third quest originated based on recent archaeological studies and new methodologies. Ultimately, all of the quests attempted in some way to uncover the real, historical Jesus. The means of studying and evaluating Jesus from historical sources often align with the means of studying and evaluating history in general. Historical criticism, as a broad discipline, points back to the Renaissance in an attempt to study the veracity of ancient texts. A historical-critical approach includes source criticism, form criticism, and redaction criticism, which have all been applied as methods for the study and evaluation of the Gospels, and accordingly, the historical Jesus. Evaluating the preservation of tradition is another means of studying history, which, according to Bock, often involves applying criteria of authenticity such as dissimilarity, multiple attestations, coherence, divergent patterns, and Aramaic linguistic features.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The criteria for authenticity can be used in an attempt to evaluate whether a text originated from Jesus, but, as exemplified by Christopher Hansen, it can also be applied to extrabiblical texts to assist in determining whether Jesus did, in fact, exist as a historical person.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) According to Bock, historical criticism, under the long shadow of Ernst Troeltsch’s classical historicism, relativized history to the point of extreme skepticism.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) However, skepticism is not required to consider the historical merits of a text or the reality of Jesus. For example, N. T. Wright attempts to bring together history and theology through an approach he designates as “critical realism.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Although some have criticized Wright for overemphasizing history, he does attempt to see the people in the Gospels, including Jesus, as historical figures, while recognizing the divine aspect of Scripture. Ultimately, the discussion revolves around epistemology: How does one know whether the recording of history is authentic and reliable? Although the means of evaluating the historical sources has a long and storied history, a significant number of historical points of reference regarding Jesus’s life are available for examination. Bock identifies several Roman sources including Suetonius, Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, and, indirectly, Thallus and Peregrinus.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Habermas identifies several non-Christian sources including ancient historians such as Josephus, government officials such as Emperor Trajan and Emperor Hadrian, [Jewish sources](https://www.livestransforming.com/jewish-religious-thought/) such as the Talmud and Toledoth Jesu, and Gentile sources such as Lucian and Mara Bar-Serapion.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Ancient Christian sources include Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Barnabas, Justin Martyr, and, of course, the New Testament manuscripts.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Specific historical reference points worth noting include Josephus’s reference to the execution of Jesus’s brother, James (*Ant*. 20.200), and his reference to both Pilate and a wise man named Jesus condemned to a cross (*Ant*. 18.63-64). Bock also notes that in Tacitus’s final work, *Annals*, the ancient author discusses a great fire that broke out in Rome in AD 64 that Nero accused the Christians of setting.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Habermas identifies another historical reference in a letter written by Pliny the Younger, the governor of Bithynia, which references Christians who were gathering to sing hymns to Christ, a man who was like a god.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Several other specific sources could be cited, but to be clear, although extrabiblical evidence is important, it does not undermine the veracity of Scriptures as a valid source for the historical reality of Jesus. An important final point worth noting is that many scholars do not believe in the validity of the historical reference points due to their lack of independence, a criterion of authenticity. For example, Hansen contends that the references by Josephus and other sources such as Thallus, Mara bar Serapion, and Suetonius are “dependent on Christian tradition.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) In other words, the authors were simply using Christian information in the statements they made, which does not corroborate the existence of Jesus but simply repeats what other Christians believed. Interestingly, Hansen explains that most skeptics who reject the historicity of Jesus utilize an argument from silence by asserting that if a real, historical Jesus existed, then much would have been written about him in antiquity.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) From a modern perspective, the accusation seems reasonable, but the question remains as to whether one should expect a plethora of information to be written about Jesus in the first couple of centuries. Chloë Duckworth and Andrew Wilson suggest that proletarian individuals were simply not topics of ancient historians.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Hansen also notes that not only were Jewish people not generally written about, but the writers who skeptics claim should have written about Christ also do not reference Christians, who obviously were a historical reality.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Accordingly, Justin Meggitt remarks, “To deny his \[Jesus’\] existence based on the absence of such evidence, even if that were the case, has problematic implications; you may as well deny the existence of pretty much everyone in the ancient world.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) In sum, the fact that the modern world has access to a significant number of historical reference points to Jesus is quite remarkable even if the independence is not completely and perfectly attested, especially in light of the fact that one would not expect any ancient historians to reference a poor, Jewish criminal executed by the Roman government. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Darrell L. Bock, *Studying the Historical Jesus: A Guide to Sources and Methods* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012), 143–144. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Gary R. Habermas, *The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ* (Joplin, Mo: College Press, 1996), 20–21. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 22–23. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Bock, *Studying the Historical Jesus*, 199–201. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Christopher M Hansen, “Jesus’ Historicity and Sources: The Misuse of Extrabiblical Sources for Jesus and a Suggestion,” *Journal of Biblical Theology* 4, no. 3 (July 2021): 143–144. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Bock, *Studying the Historical Jesus*, 160–161. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Jonathan T. Pennington, *Reading the Gospels Wisely: A Narrative and Theological Introduction* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012), 87–89. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Bock, *Studying the Historical Jesus*, 47–52. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Habermas, *The Historical Jesus*, 187–208. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 229–238. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Bock, *Studying the Historical Jesus*, 49. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Habermas, *The Historical Jesus*, 197–198. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Hansen, “Jesus’ Historicity and Sources,” 146. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid., 141–142. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Chloë N. Duckworth and Andrew Wilson, eds., *Recycling and Reuse in the Roman Economy* (Oxford: Oxford University, 2020), 100–101. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Hansen, “Jesus’ Historicity and Sources,” 151–152. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Justin J Meggitt, “‘More Ingenious than Learned’?: Examining the Quest for the Non-Historical Jesus,” *New Testament Studies* 65, no. 4 (October 2019): 459. # Bibliography - Bock, Darrell L. *Studying the Historical Jesus: A Guide to Sources and Methods*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012. - Duckworth, Chloë N., and Andrew Wilson, eds. *Recycling and Reuse in the Roman Economy*. Oxford: Oxford University, 2020. - Habermas, Gary R. *The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ*. Joplin, Mo: College Press, 1996. - Hansen, Christopher M. “Jesus’ Historicity and Sources: The Misuse of Extrabiblical Sources for Jesus and a Suggestion.” *Journal of Biblical Theology* 4, no. 3 (July 2021): 139–161. - Meggitt, Justin J. “‘More Ingenious than Learned’?: Examining the Quest for the Non-Historical Jesus.” *New Testament Studies* 65, no. 4 (October 2019): 443–460. - Pennington, Jonathan T. *Reading the Gospels Wisely: A Narrative and Theological Introduction*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Christian Married Couples: Similarities & Differences](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-married-couples-similarities-differences/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Christian Married Couples: Similarities & Differences In the PREPARE/ENRICH training, Dr. Olson discusses couple strengths. There are a number of theories/ideas about what constitutes a couple’s strength(s). Some texts recommend that couples should be similar so that they have their likenesses to lean on in stressful times. Others contend that couple differences diminish the weaknesses of the other spouse. How do you approach this idea? Is there evidence in Scripture that supports your position? ## **Response** Consensus does not exist within the academic community regarding whether the similarity between spouses results in marital satisfaction. Ruth Gaunt contends that a “greater similarity between partners was associated with higher levels of marital satisfaction.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Alternatively, Darren George, Shanhong Luo, Jared Webb, Jennifer Pugh, Alan Martinez, and Jeremy Foulston argue that based on a sample of 641 married couples in North America, similarity “was not a strong predictor of satisfaction.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) [![03 11 182x300 - Christian Married Couples: Similarities & Differences](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-11-182x300.jpg "Christian Married Couples: Similarities & Differences - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40verS8)Dating and the Single Parent: \* Are You Ready To Date? \* Talking With The Kids \* Avoiding A Big Mistake \* Finding Lasting Love by Ron L. Deal (1-Oct-2012)… When my wife and I met with our pastor for premarital counseling, we each took a personality assessment. Our pastor reviewed the results, and he informed us that we were the most incompatible couple he had ever counseled and warned us not to marry. That was thirty years ago. Ron Deal insightfully notes that “before, marriage, opposites attract, but after marriage opposites attack.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) In my marriage, Jennie was initially attracted to my work ethic, but a few years into our marriage she attacked me for being a workaholic. I was initially attracted to Jennie’s laid-back personality, but soon began attacking her for her procrastination and lack of punctuality. At the time, I was working with an executive coach and I told him about my challenges with my marriage. My coach said, “Derek, I do not think you should put up with your wife’s weaknesses, I think you should learn to celebrate them.” I decided to ask my wife why she procrastinated in performing a few domestic chores. She explained that spending time with our young children was more important than promptly finishing chores. I decided to celebrate my wife’s parental heart rather than attack her procrastination. [The apostle Paul](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-apostle-pauls-perspective-on-jewish-law/) addresses the issue of weaknesses in his famous reference to his thorn in the flesh. In 2 Corinthians 12:9-10 Paul asks God to remove the thorn and God responds, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) It is within the limitations, weaknesses, and differences that God’s power is made perfect in a marriage. Eugene Peterson addresses the benefits of weaknesses and limitations by eloquently rendering 2 Corinthians 13:9, “We don’t just put up with our limitations; we celebrate them, and then go on to celebrate every strength, every triumph of the truth in you” (The Message). When couples learn to celebrate differences rather than attack differences, and then allow weaknesses, challenges, and limitations to stretch them to become more like Christ, the result is a transformed marriage. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Ruth Gaunt, “Couple Similarity and Marital Satisfaction: Are Similar Spouses Happier?,” *Journal of Personality* 74, no. 5 (October 2006): 1416. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Darren George et al., “Couple Similarity on Stimulus Characteristics and Marital Satisfaction,” *Personality and Individual Differences* 86 (November 2015): 130. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ron L. Deal, *Dating and the Single Parent* (Minneapolis: Bethany House, 2012), 150. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2016). ## **Bibliography** - Deal, Ron L. *Dating and the Single Parent*. Minneapolis: Bethany House, 2012. - Gaunt, Ruth. “Couple Similarity and Marital Satisfaction: Are Similar Spouses Happier?” *Journal of Personality* 74, no. 5 (October 2006): 1401–20. - George, Darren, Shanhong Luo, Jared Webb, Jennifer Pugh, Alan Martinez, and Jeremy Foulston. “Couple Similarity on Stimulus Characteristics and Marital Satisfaction.” *Personality and Individual Differences* 86, (November 2015), 126–31.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Dietrich Bonhoeffer's Religionless Christianity](https://www.livestransforming.com/bonhoeffers-religionless-christianity/) **Published:** February 10, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s Religionless Christianity PART 1 [![Letters 182x300 - Dietrich Bonhoeffer's Religionless Christianity](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Letters-182x300.jpg "Dietrich Bonhoeffer - Lives Transforming's Religionless Christianity")](https://amzn.to/42PQDtQ)Letters and Papers from Prison Welcome to another deep dive. Are you ready to get kinda philosophical? Always look for a good philosophical deep dive. So today, we’re gonna be taking a look at some of the ideas of [Dietrich Bonhoeffer](https://www.livestransforming.com/bonhoeffer-quotes/). Oh wow, Yeah, Yeah. A German theologian writing from prison during World War II is intense stuff. Yeah, intense. And we’re gonna be using excerpts from letters and papers from prison as our source material Oh wow. Fascinating stuff, And he starts to talk about this idea of religionless Christianity. Relitionless Christianity sounds like a paradox. Yeah, it’s like, what does that even mean? Can you have Christianity without religion? And this is all coming from a guy who, you know, is a theologian. A theologian? He’s a pastor. He’s, you know, a prison for his faith, essentially. Yeah, And he’s starting to question the very nature of what it means to be religious. That’s interesting, especially considering the context that he’s writing in, you know, Nazi Germany. The world kind of falling apart around him and he’s thinking about like the bigger picture of faith Yeah And you know one of the things that he starts to observe is that people don’t seem to be genuinely religious anymore even if they claim to be So it’s like this a decline in religiosity that he’s observing Yeah He actually uh refers to it as a religion less time Mhmm And he talks about how this isn’t just people abandoning religion altogether It’s like, even people who identify as religious aren’t really living it out So like a loss of the substance of faith even amongst those who would consider themselves people of faith Yeah Like they’ve lost the substance of their faith It’s become kinda hollow or superficial it’s just like going through the motions Yeah And he sees this not just on an individual level but on a societal level as well So it’s like a cultural shift that he’s noticing Yeah And he even points out that unlike previous wars where you know people would turn to religion for comfort. Or for answers In times of crisis Right Right In times of crisis World War Two, he’s observing that this isn’t happening in the same way. People aren’t turning to religion as a source of comfort or explanation in the way they might have in the past. Yeah, It’s fascinating. So… instead of freaking out about this trend of, you know, declining religiosity, Bonhoeffer actually sees it as a sign of humanity growing up Oh wow, That’s interesting, So he’s not viewing it as a negative thing necessarily No, He’s not He’s actually seeing it as a kind of a positive development Like we’re finally realizing that we don’t need religion as a crutch or a security blanket To explain away the things that we don’t understand Right To explain the unknown to deal with suffering to deal with you know the the the things in life that are hard to face So he’s seeing this coming of age as like a natural progression for humanity Yeah And and a necessary one even though it leads to some really tough questions Like, he asks how Christ can become the lord of the religionists as well Whoa. Are there religionless Christians That’s a really provocative question. He’s almost suggesting you can separate the two. You can have Christianity without the religion. Yeah, And that’s a pretty radical idea, especially coming from, you know, a theologian in the nineteen-forties, Right? That’s not something you typically hear from a pastor. Yeah, So what do you think? Is he saying we should all abandon churches and, you know, throw out the Bible? How can you have Christianity with that religion? Well, it’s not quite that simple. I think Bonhoeffer is more concerned with what he sees as the trappings of religion, all the rituals, the doctrines, the meta, and physical debates. Yeah, the show of it. He felt like that had become a barrier to actually experiencing god. Yeah, It’s like we’ve gotten so caught up in the rules and the, you know, the outward performance of religion, Right Right, That we’ve lost sight of that genuine connection with the divine. It’s become more about the performance than the actual experience. Yeah, And this critique comes up again and again in his letters. He talks about how people use god as a kind of stopgap. Like a quick fix for the things they can’t control or explain, A way to avoid responsibility. Yeah, Exactly. Like you know, when people only pray when they’re in trouble? Oh yeah, and they use god as an excuse for their own bad behavior. To justify their actions, Lahnhoeffer mentions that he felt more comfortable talking about god with nonreligious people. That’s interesting. Because they weren’t so quick to invoke God to shut down a conversation, right? They weren’t using god as a defense mechanism, Exactly, So it wasn’t about…rejecting the idea of god altogether for Bonhoeffer. It was more about challenging how we use religion to avoid facing reality. Precisely, Yeah, and he believed that we need to stop relegating god to the edges of our lives, Right To the things that we can’t explain or control, and instead find him at the center of our everyday experiences. So it’s about bringing god into the mundane, every day, and here and now. He also uses that excellent analogy of God not being at the boundary but in the middle of the village. I love that analogy. Yeah, it’s so powerful, right? It completely shifts our perspective. It does. Instead of thinking about God, this distant, all-powerful being who intervenes in our lives is a Right. Bonhoeffer suggests that god is present in the mundane, every day, and very fabric of our lives. So it’s not about god being this distant force, but instead being intimately involved in every aspect of our lives. Yeah, and that makes me think about how we often compartmentalize our lives, Right? You know, there’s work, family, friends, and then somewhere off to the side is religion. Yeah, it’s a separate category. Bonhoeffer seems to be saying we need to break down those walls. And find god in all those areas, not just, you know, on Sundays or when we’re in trouble. It’s about integrating faith into every aspect of our being. This shift in perspective has enormous implications for understanding concepts like repentance, faith, and even salvation. So he’s not just talking about a personal relationship with god but also about how this new understanding of god changes our relationship with the world around us. He argues that all these things need to be reinterpreted in light of this worldly view of god, A god who’s present and active in the here and has no Right, Not just waiting for us in some distant afterlife. It’s about living a life that matters in the present moment. So, how does he suggest we do that? Does he give concrete examples of what this reinterpretation might look like? Well, he does, And this is where things get interesting. Bonhoeffer starts to outline a book he was planning to write and it gives us a glimpse into his radical vision for a faith that’s relevant to our religion less world Okay I’m hooked What’s in this book plan Well it’s divided into three main chapters The first one is all about this idea of humanity coming of age the decline of traditional religiosity and how the church was responding to these changes And I bet he doesn’t hold back on his critique of the church Does he Not at all He was incredibly critical of the way he saw the church reacting to this new reality So what was he so essential of Well he felt that they were either clinging to outdated traditions Uh becoming too focused on institutional survival or simply failing to truly engage with the real problems of the world So like they were kinda missing the point Yeah He even says it is not the church which is to shape the world but the world which is to shape the church Wow So he’s basically flipping the script on how we usually think about the church’s role in society. He’s saying we need to adapt to the world, not the other way around. Precisely, and he doesn’t just stop at criticizing the church. He outlines how he thinks they should be responding to this religionless world. Okay, So what does Bonhoeffer’s ideal church look like? What does he think they should be doing? In his book outline, he suggests some pretty radical ideas that highlight how deeply Bonhoeffer believed the church needed to change. He felt they needed to be less concerned with power and comfort and more focused on serving those in need. So, it is less about buildings and institutions and more about action. Yeah, More about being a living embodiment of Christ’s message of love and service. It sounds like he’s challenging the whole notion of what it means to be a church. He is his calling for a radical reorientation. A shift from inward focus to outward action This is seriously mind blowing stuff It makes you rethink everything you thought you knew about faith It does It’s a real call to wake up and see the world and our place in it with fresh eyes Okay So before we get too carried away let’s take a step back and recap what we’ve covered so far Sounds good So we’ve seen how Bonhoeffer was grappling with this idea of a religion less age Right This decline in traditional religiosity that he saw as both a challenge and opportunity A chance to rediscover the true essence of faith And he critiqued the church’s response to this new reality calling for a more radical and engaged approach to living out the Christian faith A faith that’s not about retreating from the world but about diving head first into its complexities in challenges And he started to outline what this might look like in his book plan with some pretty radical ideas about the church giving away its possessions and being more focused on action than on maintaining institutions It’s a vision of the church that’s truly revolutionary. It is, and it’s just the beginning. There’s so much more to unpack and Bonhoeffer’s thought. Yeah, So be sure to join us for part two of this deep dive, where we’ll uncover his practical conclusions and explore how his ideas would go on to start a whole new movement of theological thought. I can’t wait to dive in deeper. PART 2 Welcome back You ready to keep going with [Bonhoeffer’s](https://www.livestransforming.com/radical-secular-theologians/), uh radical vision Oh yeah Totally I mean last time we left off with him like basically taking apart traditional Christianity, you know critiquing the church and redefining what faith means in a world that seems to be leaving god behind Right It was a lot to process It was but also incredibly exciting especially that whole concept of religion less Christianity Right A faith that’s grounded not in beliefs or rituals but in act Exactly like in being there for others which is like a central theme for him And remember he’s writing all this from a Nazi prison facing possible execution Yeah So it wasn’t just some intellectual exercise oh no It was like a desperate search for meaning in a world gone mad Okay So we ended last time with Bonhoeffer talking at the third chapter of his book plan conclusions where he was gonna lay out some practical steps for how to live out this religionless Christianity Yeah Like how do we actually do this Exactly. So, spill the beans…What did he suggest? For starters, Bonhoeffer believed that the church should be actively engaged with its problems, tackling issues like social justice, poverty, and inequality head-on instead of retreating from the world. He didn’t see the church as a haven separate from the world’s messiness, which is how it’s often portrayed right, like a refuge from the storm. But Bonhoeffer felt like the church had become too focused on protecting itself and its doctrines instead of following Jesus’ example of radical love and service. So basically, he’s saying we need to flip the script Exactly. It’s not about converting people or building more prominent institutions but about getting out there and making a real difference. It’s like rolling up your sleeves and getting your hands dirty. He also talks about how the church needs to rethink how it defends its beliefs; you know, the whole traditional apologetics thing, yeah, Like trying to prove the existence of god or the historical accuracy of the Bible. Yeah, He felt those arguments weren’t compelling in a religion-less age. People weren’t buying it anymore. So, what did he suggest instead? Wabong ever believed that the best way to share the Christian faith wasn’t through intellectual debates but by living it out authentically in the world. Show, don’t tell. Exactly. Action speaks louder than words, especially in a world increasingly skeptical of religious claims. So it’s not about winning arguments but about demonstrating god’s love through our actions Precisely, and this idea of living out the faith tangibly was central to Bonhoeffer’s vision of religion less Christianity. Okay, But what does that look like? For Bonhoeffer, it meant being truly present for others, putting their needs before our own. Right. Being there for others, he keeps coming back to that phrase. It’s like his mantra, But what does that mean practically? I think Bonhoeffer would say it’s less about specific actions and more about a fundamental posture towards the world, Like a way of being. Exactly. It’s about approaching every interaction and every situation…with a spirit of love, compassion, and a willingness to serve. So it’s not about following a set of rules or checking off a list of good deeds No It’s about cultivating a genuine desire to help others and make the world a better place Okay So this radical reorientation of our entire being shifting from focusing on ourselves and our own needs to concentrate on the needs of others And this is where Bonhoeffer’s ideas start to lay the groundwork for what would later become known as radical theology Wait Hold on How does Bonhoeffer writing from a prison cell in the nineteen forties connect to this whole radical theology thing that came later Well remember how Bonhoeffer was emphasizing the importance of the secular Right He felt like we need to meet people where they are In the midst of their everyday lives Not try to force them into some outdated religious mold Exactly And this idea of engaging with the secular world with all its complexities and challenges was a key theme in radical theology So these later theologians were inspired by Bonhoeffer’s call to make faith relevant to people’s lived experiences even if those experiences didn’t fit neatly into traditional religious categories Precisely and this led them to explore new ways of understanding core Christian doctrines. For example, they began to question the conventional understanding of god as a distant, powerful being who intervenes in the world from afar. Instead, they started to think about god as being present within the world within human experience. You gotta they were influenced by Bonhoeffer’s idea that god isn’t found at the boundaries of our understanding but in the middle of the village, Which changes everything right. It shifts the whole focus from worshiping a god out there somewhere Yeah To recognizing the divine presence in the here and now. This significantly impacted how these radical theologians understood concepts like sin, salvation, and even the afterlife. So they were reimagining these doctrines in more this-worldly terms and rights, Focusing on transforming human relationships and creating a more just and equitable society right here right now. So, instead of waiting for some future reward in heaven, they focused on creating a kind of heaven on earth, a world where love, justice, and compassion prevailed. This focus on the here and now also influenced how they viewed the church’s role. Bonhoeffer was super critical of the church’s tendency…to retreat from the world and focus on its survival. We wanted to see a church that was fully engaged with the world, A church that was willing to get its hands dirty addressing issues of social justice, poverty, and inequality. Radical theologians took up this challenge, pushing for a church that was less concerned with dogma and more focused on action. It’s like they were saying, Let’s stop talking about love and start living it out. This commitment to action to being there for others accurately and concretely was deeply rooted in Bonhoeffer’s ideas; even though he didn’t live to see the full development of radical theology, Bonhoeffer’s writings planted the seeds for this movement. He inspired a new generation of thinkers to reimagine what it meant to be a Christian in the modern world. And his influence didn’t stop there, did it? Not at all. Bonhoeffer’s emphasis on being there for others profoundly impacted how many people, both within and outside of academia, understood the Christian life. So, his ideas weren’t just for theologians and scholars. No, They really impacted how ordinary people lived out their faith. That’s amazing. So Bonhoeffer’s work challenged people to move beyond empty rituals and abstract beliefs…and to embrace a faith grounded in action, love, and a radical commitment to improving the world. And it’s even more impressive considering the circumstances in which he wrote these words. Right, Imagine being imprisoned, facing death, and still choosing to believe in the power of love and the possibility of a better world. It’s genuinely inspiring. It reminds us that even in the darkest times, hope can flourish, and love can prevail. Wow, So we’ve seen how Bonhoeffer’s ideas about religion, less Christianity, and being there for others significantly impacted the development of radical theology and beyond. But what about his lasting legacy? How does his writing speak to us today in the twenty-first century? That’s a great question, and that’s exactly what we’ll explore in the final part of our deep dive. Join us next time as we delve into the enduring relevance of Bonhoeffer’s work and consider how his vision might guide us as we navigate the complexities of faith and life in our own time. PART 3: Welcome back. It’s great to have you back with the final part of our deep dive into Dietra Bonhoeffer’s world. Yeah, I’m excited to see where this goes. We’ve covered a lot of ground already, You know, from his radical ideas about faith to his critique of the church and what it means to be a Christian and a world that seems to have moved on from god. Yeah, It’s been pretty intense, but also incredibly inspiring. You know, Bonhoeffer’s willingness to ask the tough questions to challenge the status quo even while he was facing, possibly even death. It’s just really something else. It is. And what strikes me is how relevant his ideas still feel today. You know, even though he was writing from this particular and extreme historical context, like Nazi Germany, Right? It’s kinda eerie how many of the issues he was wrestling with back then are still so front and center in today’s world. You know, things like the rise of secularism. The churches struggle to stay relevant. The human tendency to like to use god as a crutch Absolut,ely And that’s why I think his work still resonates with so many people because he was grappling with questions that are fundamental to the human experience, you know, questions of meaning and purpose and how to live a good life in a world that’s often chaotic and confusing. And he wasn’t afraid to offer some pretty radical answers to those questions, like the whole idea of religionless Christianity, Right A faith that’s grounded not in beliefs or rituals but in action in being there for others It’s a real challenge to the way most of us have been taught to think about religion It is It makes you rethink everything you thought you knew about faith Yeah. It raises some tough questions. For example, what would living out this faith in our everyday lives look like? How do we move beyond, you know, just empty words and good intentions and make a real difference in the world? Those are the million-dollar questions, Right? Yeah, Totally. It’s easy to get caught up in the theory, you know, to admire Bonhoeffer’s courage and the beauty of his vision. But then there’s that moment where you must look in the mirror and ask yourself, okay? Am I living this out? Am I genuinely being there for others in a meaningful way? That’s where the rubber meets the road? Exactly. So, how do we bridge that gap? How do we take Bonhoeffer’s ideas and make them real in our own lives? Where do we even begin? Well, I think one of the most essential things Bonhoeffer can teach us is to be honest about how we use religion to avoid facing the hard realities of life. Know he was always calling out this tendency to use god as a stopgap. Oh yeah, it’s Totally Like when people say things like it’s all part of god’s plan when something terrible happens Or when they use their faith to justify prejudice or discrimination. Yeah. Bonhoeffer would say we need to stop using god as a shield to protect us from the messiness of the world And instead embrace the challenge of, you know, figuring out how to live authentically and compassionately. First of all, instead of looking for easy answers or relying on a god to fix everything, we need to be willing to wrestle with the tough questions to get our hands dirty and work for justice and healing in the world. Yeah, To actually do something. It makes me think of that line in one of his letters where he talks about cheap grace. Cheap grace is grace without discipleship. Grace without the cross grace without Jesus Christ living in incarnate. Man, that’s heavy stuff. It is. He’s challenging the idea that faith is something we receive passively. Without any real effort or sacrifice on our part He’s saying that true grace demands something of us It calls us to a life of active discipleship, of falling in Jesus’ footsteps and embodying his love and compassion and in the world And that means stepping outside of our comfort zones Yeah Right Being willing to challenge injustice to speak up for the marginalized to you risk our own reputations and even our safety for the sake of others Absolutely it’s about recognizing that faith isn’t just a private matter It has real world implications It’s about taking seriously Jesus’ command to love your neighbor as yourself and letting that love guide our actions in every sphere of life So as we wrap up this deep docks I think the challenge Bonhoeffer leaves us with is to be honest with ourselves about what we really believe And then to have the courage to live out those beliefs in a way that makes a real difference in the world It’s not about escaping from the world or waiting for some future reward in heaven It’s about engaging with the world right here right now and doing what we can to bring about healing justice and reconciliation. And that’s a message that’s as relevant and urgent today as it was when he wrote those words from his prison cell all those years ago. Bonhoeffer’s work is a gift, a challenge, and a call to action. It invites us to think deeply, live courageously, and love radically. And on that note, I think it’s time for us to wrap up this deep dive. This has been the deep dive. Thanks for joining us on this journey into the mind of Dietrich Bonhoeffer. We hope his ideas have challenged you, inspired you, and maybe even left you feeling slightly uncomfortable because sometimes discomfort is a sign that we’re finally waking up to the truth. Until next time, keep seeking and keep questioning. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Christian Therapeutic Willingness](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-therapeutic-willingness/) **Published:** February 8, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Christian Therapeutic Willingness [![03 2 182x300 - Christian Therapeutic Willingness](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-2-182x300.png "Christian Therapeutic Willingness - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4acKmdq)Solution-Focused Pastoral Counseling: An Effective Short-Term Approach for Getting People Back on Track **1. How would you help a counselee in the attending position become a willing participant in the counseling process?** Important assumptions to facilitate the movement from the attending position to the willing position in the counseling process include the perspective that the counseling relationship is positional; the counselee is the expert, the counselee is always changing, and God is already active in the counselee (Kollar 2011, 63). The Ronald E. Hawkins’ “[Pastoral Counseling Scenario](https://www.livestransforming.com/pastoral-counseling-faith-and-reason/)” suggests that its first two phases, which include building rapport and collaborating well, are crucial to counselee movement (Hawkins 2012, slide 4-6). Accordingly, progressive listening via client-focused questions is crucial to trust building and positive positional movement (Petersen 2007, 101). Self-interest questions may be particularly beneficial (Kollar 2011, 118). Specifically, by asking questions that acknowledge that it may not have been the counselee’s desire to participate, and asking the counselee’s opinion of why participation may or may not be necessary can decrease tension with an individual in the attending position (Kollar 2011, 119). Furthermore, by asking the counselee what would have to change so they would not have to come back may also help in defining the problem, describing life without the problem, and moving the client from the attending to the willing position (Kollar 2011, 119). **2. In addition to applying what you have just learned to one of the four characters in the case study (Bruce, Josh, Brody, or Justin), how would you use the supportive feedback technique and small group ministry to consolidate, support, and secure change in the life of your counselee?** Building rapport through listening and asking self-interested questions may be especially important for Brody. Brody is in the attending position because he feels unnoticed and that a healthy relationship with his dad appears a hopeless proposition. Once the counselor demonstrates “fit” and deploys gentle questions, then the Supportive Feedback Technique can assist Brody (Kollar 2011, 95). Specifically, a short time-out is taken at the end of the session to allow both parties to reflect, then affirmations are given by the counselor to the counselee to encourage movement, and finally, a plan of action or movement oriented suggestions are presented to assist in consolidating, supporting, and securing change (Kollar 2011, 189-192). Systematic suggestions, such as the connection with an age-appropriate small group, may further support the life of Brody by encouraging healthy thoughts, feelings, and choices (Rice 2012, slides 1-6). **3. After considering the following verses (Romans 15:14; Ephesians 4:11-16; Hebrews 10:24, 25) and reviewing the resources in the Additional Materials folder, present a reasoned argument for connecting your counselee to responsible members in ministry (Phase 4).** A number of valid reasons support connecting the counselee with responsible members of the ministry. First, individuals are capable of guiding and advising if the counselee is in a willing position (Romans 15:14 \[MSG\]). Second, since God endows believers with diverse spiritual gift tendencies, responsible members in ministry may be able to provide customized Holy Spirit led insight and support for the counselee (Ephesians 4:11-16 \[NASB\]). Third, members of the body have the ability to come alongside the counselee for the purpose of encouragement (Hebrews 10:24-25). Finally, Dwight C. Rice suggests “systems of influence can affect” counselees in significant ways, and accordingly, surrounding the client with positive influences supports healthy movement (Rice 2012, slides 1-6). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012. *The counseling structure/strategy.* http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867903-dt-content-rid-84441962\_1/xid-84441962\_1 (accessed May 13, 2012). - Kollar, Charles Allen. 2011. *Solution-focused pastoral counseling: An effective short-term approach for getting people back on track*. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. - Petersen, James. 2007. *Why don’t we listen better? Communicating and connecting in relationships.* Portland, OR: Petersen Publications. - Rice, Dwight C. 2012. *Step 5 – Think systemically.* Adapted from *Hawkins’ pastoral assessment model.* http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867920-dt-content-rid-84442444\_1/xid-84442444\_1 (accessed May 13, 2012). **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Theology, Science, and Philosophy](https://www.livestransforming.com/theology-science-and-philosophy/) **Published:** February 2, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Theology, Science, and Philosophy What should be the relationship between theology, science, and philosophy? What does the Bible say about science and philosophy, and what role(s) should science and philosophy play in doing theology in the modern era? Base your answer on the textbook readings, lecture videos, and any other relevant sources that might aid class discussion. ## **Response** The Enlightenment initiated a controversy regarding the relationship between theology, science, and philosophy that revolutionized Christian thought. To determine the proper relationship between the three disciplines, a brief history of modern Western thought is necessary to provide a context for the answer. Regarding science, Galileo’s heliocentric universe, Newton’s laws of nature, and Darwin’s evolutionary theory struck at the heart of traditional church doctrines regarding the earth, supernatural events, and creation. [Regarding philosophy](https://www.livestransforming.com/philosophy-of-small-groups/), the obsession with certainty led to an epistemological revolution where Descartes’ rationalism doubted all but what could be proved by evidence or logic. Alternatively, Locke’s empiricism limited knowledge to sense experience, which led to Hume’s theory of causation and the conclusion that the only certain knowledge is analytic. Kant’s response used empiricism to identify synthetic knowledge and the rationalistic operation of the mind to render knowledge *a priori,* but killed metaphysics, since the ability to know anything (e.g. God) first required sense experience. Since the knowledge of God as a metaphysical reality could not meet the epistemological standards of the Enlightenment, true knowledge of God was purportedly untenable. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 42 182x300 - Theology, Science, and Philosophy](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-42-182x300.jpg "Theology, Science, and Philosophy - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40dPKZ7)The Journey of Modern Theology: From Reconstruction to Deconstruction The crisis of Modernism forced Christianity to address the relationship between theology, science, and philosophy. In response, Roger Olsen provides three potential relationships between the three disciplines: the fundamentalist, the accomodationist, and the correlationist.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The first category assumes that no relationship to theology exists unless it aligns with a traditional, orthodox Christian perspective. The second category assumes a dualistic relationship that separates theology from science and philosophy. The third category suggests an integration of the disciplines. Specifically, an integration of certain scientific facts into Christian theology without necessarily accepting the scientific conclusions. The integrationist category more closely aligns with Scripture than the first two. Luke states in Acts 17:24-25, “The God who made the world and *everything* in it, being Lord of heaven and earth…gives to all mankind life and breath and *everything*” (emphasis added). Although the integrationist approach has much to offer, if God is the creator and sustainer of everything, then theology, science, and philosophy *should* have a relationship that transcends mere correlation and exists in a symbiotic relationship. To determine the nature of the symbiotic relationship between the disciplines, it is necessary to investigate what the Bible says about science and philosophy. First, the Bible is not a science book. John Walton explains that post-Enlightenment thinkers often desire to investigate the Bible for concepts such as “material structure and natural causality.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) However, teaching science to the people of the Ancient Near East, who had a pre-scientific worldview, was not the purpose of Scripture. Accordingly, attempting to force Scripture to address scientific statements misses the point. Second, the Bible is not a philosophy book. The Apostle Paul quotes a pagan philosopher, likely the Stoic poet Aratus of Soli, in Acts 17:28. However, Paul’s use of philosophy was to address the Athenian people within a worldview they understood, not to teach philosophy. In other words, the purpose of Scripture is to reveal the truth of God, truth that transcends science and philosophy. Finally, regarding the role that science and philosophy should play in doing theology in the modern era, Cornelius Van Til suggests using these disciplines just as Solomon used the pagan Phoenician people to build the temple, “He used the Phoenicians as his servants, not as his architects.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The value of modern science and philosophy is acknowledged, but the role that science and philosophy should play in doing theology is as its servants, not its architects. In sum, within a symbiotic relationship, science and philosophy should inform theology, not interpret theology. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Roger E. Olson, *The Journey of Modern Theology* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2013), 43–44. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) John H. Walton, *The NIV Application Commentary: Genesis*, ed. Terry Muck (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001), 83. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Cornelius Van Til, *Christian-Theistic Evidences* (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1978), 82. ## **Bibliography** - Olson, Roger E. *The Journey of Modern Theology: From Reconstruction to Deconstruction*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2013. - Van Til, Cornelius. *Christian-Theistic Evidences*. Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1978. - Walton, John H. *The NIV Application Commentary: Genesis*. Edited by Terry Muck. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Radical Secular Theologians](https://www.livestransforming.com/radical-secular-theologians/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Radical Secular Theologians What were the views of radical secular theologians in the mid-twentieth century about God and religion? Base your answer on the textbook readings and any other relevant sources that might aid class discussion ## **Response** To many evangelicals, Dietrich Bonhoeffer may not be the obvious choice to launch a discussion regarding radical, secular theologians, the influence of Bonhoeffer’s writings on future theologians necessitates it. Bonhoeffer attempted to come to terms with a proper response to a secular culture that no longer sensed a need for God. According to Roger Olson, in opposition to a God of the gaps, whose purpose is narrowed to fill gaps of knowledge that currently remain inexplicable, Bonhoeffer advocated a “religionless Christianity.” [\[1\]](#_ftn1) Bonhoeffer’s religionless Christianity avoided the potential trappings of apologetics, natural theology, and religious piety. Instead, Bonhoeffer provided a starting point for religionless Christianity by stating, “Human religiosity directs people in need to the power of God in the world, God as *deus ex machina* \[God of the gaps\]. The Bible directs people toward the powerlessness and the suffering of God; only the suffering God can help.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The concept of a suffering God is key to understanding Bonhoeffer’s response to a secular world come of age, which was the message of the cross of Jesus represented by his death, weakness, and suffering. From a practical perspective, [religionless Christianity](https://www.livestransforming.com/jewish-religious-thought/) occurs when believers image Christ, and they immerse themselves into the sufferings of the world. Humanity’s immersion into suffering occurs by joining forces with a God who is beyond and simultaneously present in the world: a transcendently imminent God. The influence of Bonhoeffer’s theological reflections upon radical, secular theologians is complex and inconclusive. However, Harvey Cox exemplifies a secular theologian who opposed secularism’s anthropocentric worldview, while promoting a secularity that embraces God’s involvement in scientific advancement to solve human problems. Overtones of Bonhoeffer’s transcendently immanent, culturally relevant God are evident in Cox’s perspective of God, who is considered the force behind the pragmatically liberated, highly responsible, self-actualized individual. Cox’s theology results in a Christianity that focuses primarily on joining God with culture to change society, rather than worshipping a transcendent God. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 41 182x300 - Radical Secular Theologians](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-41-182x300.jpg "Radical Secular Theologians - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4g2mFpC)The New Gospel of Christian Atheism As God becomes more immanent within secular culture, His reality as a transcendent God becomes less visible, which ultimately results in radical, secular theologians proclaiming God’s disappearance. For example, Thomas Altizer took the concept of God’s immanence to its radical conclusion by asserting that a transcendent God no longer exists – “God is dead.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) For Altizer, the death of God occurred through an act of kenosis on the cross, where God emptied Himself, became human, and ceased to exist as an objective reality. However, God continued to extend grace as He ontologically immersed Himself in humanity. According to Altizer, the absence of a transcendent God provides the environment necessary for humans to live liberated and responsible lives. Other theologians followed Cox’s and Altizer’s theological path. Slavoj Žižek aligned with Cox’s radical immanence, and Don Cupitt extends the view of human responsibility to the concept of morality. Cupitt asserts that living a life in “passive obedience to God and tradition does not deserve to be called a moral life.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Cupitt is making a distinction between cold-hearted compliance and warm-hearted obedience. Cupitt suggests that the payoff of a dead, transcendent God is the ability for humans to live healthy, obedient lives, rather than succumb to unhealthy rule-following. Finally, Peter Rollins opposes treating God as a transcendent object because it encourages humanity to use God to further its own agendas, which is a form of idolatry. Although radical, secular theologians provide a diverse array of initiatives, they hold in common an emphasis on God’s immanence, cultural relevance, and societal needs, rather than religious customs. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Roger E. Olson, *The Journey of Modern Theology: From Reconstruction to Deconstruction* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2013), 429-430. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Dietrich Bonhoeffer, *Letters and Papers from Prison*, ed. Victoria J. Barnett, trans. Isabel Best, Lisa E. Dahill, Reinhard Krauss, Nancy Lukens, Barbara Rumscheidt, and Martin Rumcheidt, reader’s ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2015), 465. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Thomas J. J. Altizer, *The Gospel of Christian Atheism* (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966), 111, 145. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Don Cupitt, *Taking Leave of God* (St. Albans Place, London: SCM, 1980), 115, Kindle. ## **Bibliography** - Altizer, Thomas J. J. *The Gospel of Christian Atheism*. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966. - Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. *Letters and Papers from Prison*. Edited by Victoria J. Barnett. Translated by Isabel Best, Lisa E. Dahill, Reinhard Krauss, Nancy Lukens, Barbara Rumscheidt, and Martin Rumcheidt. Reader’s ed. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2015. - Cupitt, Don. *Taking Leave of God*. St. Albans Place, London: SCM, 1980. Kindle. - Olson, Roger E. *The Journey of Modern Theology: From Reconstruction to Deconstruction*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2013.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Isaac Dorner’s Divine Immutability](https://www.livestransforming.com/isaac-dorners-divine-immutability/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Isaac Dorner’s Divine Immutability ## **Introduction** The doctrine of God has a long theological history. From the Church Fathers through the Middle Ages and from the Reformation into modernity, each period, in its own way, contributes to the conversation. The pressing problem centers specifically around the extent of the doctrine of God’s immutability. If God is wholly immutable, then God’s relationality is at risk, where a non-reciprocal, static God is unable to communicate effectively with His creation. If God is wholly mutable, then God’s goodness is at risk, where humanity finds itself serving an unreliable, capricious God. It is the extent of God’s immutability that defines the problem that Isaak Dorner attempts to solve in the modern era. The answer to the question of the extent of God’s immutability has valuable soteriological implications. If God is completely immutable and all change falls on the side of the world, then the necessity of faith and the Incarnation come into question; whereas if God is completely mutable, it raises the question of God’s absolute perfection. Dorner’s essay, *Divine Immutability*, provides an alternative to classical theism’s view of immutability that overcomes the modern initiatives of deism and pantheism by asserting God’s living immutability. The research begins by providing a backdrop to Dorner’s essay, which highlights the alternative perspectives that Dorner refutes. Next, an analysis of the modern influences upon Dorner ensues, which assists in understanding the development of Dorner’s doctrine, followed by an exploration of Dorner’s solution of living immutability. ## **The Occasion** During the nineteenth century, several views of God’s immutability circulated that provided the occasion for Isaak Dorner’s essay. The classical view of God’s immutability espoused the doctrine of divine simplicity. The Kenotics also contributed to the conversation by suggesting a deactualization of Christ. Finally, deism and pantheism also provided alternatives to the classical view of immutability by completely separating or completely subsuming God and the world. Dorner counters each view on his way to developing his own doctrine of God’s immutability. ## **Classical Theism** Classical theism took God’s immutability seriously by suggesting that the self-sufficiency of God excluded any change. The suppression of God’s changeability rested on a soteriological emphasis. From a classical perspective, salvation depended on God’s perfect power and goodness. Any change in a perfect God meant a change for the worse, thus risking the efficacy of salvation. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 40 182x300 - Isaac Dorner’s Divine Immutability](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-40-182x300.jpg "Isaac Dorner’s Divine Immutability - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4acOytI)Divine Immutability: A Critical Reconsideration (Fortress Texts in Modern Theology) Classical theism’s view of immutability was directly related to the concept of God’s divine simplicity. Divine simplicity has two related aspects, which are critical to understanding Dorner’s initiative. First, according to Katherin Rogers, the doctrine of divine simplicity asserts that God is identical with His attributes, and thus, by definition, His attributes are identical with each other.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) For example, God *is* immutability, omnipotence, and love, and immutability, omnipotence, and love are the same. Dorner expands the explanation by stating that, according to divine simplicity, God has “no distinction of substance and accident.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Mutability can only occur in creatures whose identity and attributes are separate. An identified student can have an attribute of knowledge, and that knowledge can increase or decrease, thus a change occurs. However, if God’s identity *is* His attributes, then any change in God’s perfect attributes would make God less than perfect; therefore, according to divine simplicity, there can be no contingent properties in God. God’s immutability is absolute. Once God’s attributes are identically aligned with His essence and each other, the second aspect of the doctrine of divine simplicity, *actus purus*, naturally follows. Finite creatures have both potentiality and actuality. As Rogers explains, “the good for anything is the actualization of its potentials.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Simply stated, an apple tree has the potential to produce good apples in actuality. However, the perfect good, by definition, cannot actualize potential because it is already perfectly actualized; it is pure actualization, *actus purus*. In sum, since God’s essence is identical with His attributes, God is already perfectly actualized. As a result, Dorner explains that the traditional view claims that God’s “knowing is therefore also willing, as his willing is knowing, for both are objectively one; they are both God’s *essence*, which would become mutable through a separation of the knowing and willing.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) It is the lack of any real distinctions between God and His attributes and between potentiality and actuality, which eliminates the possibility of mutability, that Dorner challenges. Dorner does not oppose the concept of immutability on its face; he opposes an unbalanced view resulting from the classical doctrine of divine simplicity. According to Dorner, the lop-sided development of God’s immutability places the doctrines of Christ and creation at risk. First, Piotr Malysz explains that if God is absolute immutability, then, for Dorner, God can be defined apart from Christ’s involvement in the world, and the death and suffering of a divine Christ has no impact on God.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Second, absolute immutability undermines God’s relationship with His creation. If God is viewed through the doctrine of divine simplicity, then faith is undermined by ascribing change completely to humanity in a world where a transcendent God produces the same static results.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Robert Williams summarizes Dorner’s critique of classical theism’s doctrine of God by using a monarchial metaphor; whereby God is a like a transcendent king ruling His kingdom through a non-reciprocal, non-relational, master-slave relationship of power.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) ## **Kenosis** Classical theism emphasized God’s immutability over God’s personal involvement with humanity, but it was the mutually exclusive arrangement between the concepts of immutability and involvement that Dorner targeted. During the middle of the nineteenth century, the Kenotics stressed personal involvement over and above God’s immutability by reformulating the traditional understanding of Christology. Thus, Dorner faced an error in the opposite direction from classical theism. According to Williams, although the Kenotics lacked cohesiveness, in general, the movement attempted to reconcile divine attributes with human nature or true humanity with immutability.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) The solution came at the cost of emptying Christ of His divinity, at least in part, during His Incarnation. Gottfried Thomasius provided the most refined version of the kenotic theories. Against the liberal tendencies that denied Christ’s divinity, Thomasius provided a Christology that explained Christ’s two natures by positing that Christ “gave himself over into the form of human limitation … without on that account ceasing to be God.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) According to Williams, Thomasius accomplished the task by making a distinction between the immanent divine attributes, which refer to God, and the relative divine attributes, which only refer to God’s relation to the world but not to God Himself.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) The immanent attributes such as freedom and love continue to exist during Christ’s earthly life, but the relative attributes such as omnipotence and omniscience cease to exist, at least temporarily, and become potentiality rather than actuality. Dorner provides a sustained critique against the Kenotics in part one of his essay. First, Dorner denies the distinction between immanent and relative attributes. Per Dorner, Thomasius’s idea that relative attributes, such as omniscience, do not pertain to God, but only to God’s relation to the world, is incoherent. In reply to Thomasius, Dorner states, “omniscience does not permit him to stop halfway, for it is knowledge also of God and the world,” and if Christ relinquishes the knowledge of God, “then it would not be a merely relative but an inner-divine attribute that is surrendered.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Second, according to Williams, Dorner believes that Thomasius’s deactualization of Christ is a form of Arianism, which undermines soteriology.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) In sum, Dorner resists both classical theism’s over-actualized emphasis on God’s immutability and the Kenotics deactualized limits on God’s immutability. ## **Deism and Pantheism** Against a balanced view of immutability, Dorner identifies two other potential options: deism and pantheism, which Dorner believes are the inevitable result of classical theism’s *actus purus*. Granted, it seems odd to accuse classical theism of legitimizing pantheism, but Dorner utilizes an argument from logic to prove his point. Dorner first recognizes that reality consists of contingency and change, and then he asserts that classical theism completely excludes the world’s reality from God. Finally, he claims that theology will ultimately need to somehow ground reality in God. Accordingly, for Dorner, the inevitable consequence of “the absolute exclusion of plurality, process, and changeableness from God leads to acosmism.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The acosmism that Dorner is referring to is a “different form of pantheism” where theologians “submerge … the actual world in God.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Ironically, Dorner asserts that if God’s absolute immutability does not result in acosmism, then it will lead to deism and ultimately to atheism. If God is transcendently immutable in relation to the world, and all change rests on the world, then, for Dorner, classical theism is essentially a deistic doctrine. The natural consequence of deism is an unnecessary redundancy where God becomes irrelevant, and thus, it leads to atheism. At this point Dorner takes the concept to its logical conclusion, which undermines Christ’s divinity. If God is completely excluded from the contingency and changeability of the world, then Christ’s arrival requires no divine intervention; thus “Christ would be merely a quantitative increase in humanity.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Furthermore, divine intervention would be impossible; thus a “rebirth would be conceived in Pelagian fashion as the work of freedom.”[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Dorner assumes that a wholly immutable, deistic God not only undermines Christ’s divinity, but also destroys soteriology by placing it completely on the work of humanity. Accordingly, Dorner rejects any form of pantheism that undermines God’s immutability, and rejects any form of deism that undermines God’s livingness in relation to His creation. Instead, Dorner turns to his contemporaries to begin formulating a doctrine of God that acknowledges both the immutability and vitality of God. ## **The Influences** Dorner was an erudite scholar of theological history and confidently borrowed from the philosophical ideas of his contemporaries. Schelling, Hegel, and Schleiermacher had a lasting impact on Dorner and the development of his doctrine of immutability. Schelling’s dynamic immutability, Hegel’s liberated God as Substance and Subject, and Schleiermacher’s primacy of love find significance in Dorner’s doctrine of immutability. ## **Schelling** Classical theism’s doctrine of divine simplicity denied distinctions between God and His attributes. Changeability was impossible because no distinction exists between potentiality and actuality. Schelling’s organic, as opposed to logical or ethical, understanding of God’s immutability provided Dorner a method of separation between God’s potentiality and actuality. Robert Brown explains that Schelling’s bipolar God consists of both a triad of powers that underlay all reality and a freedom that encompasses God’s will.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) The three powers include God’s inward character, outward giving of self, and a unity of the inner and outer.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) However, for Schelling, the triadic powers require God’s freedom of the will to restrain or stabilize them; otherwise, the powers would result in chaos. In sum, Schelling’s God consists of three stabilized powers working in a dynamic process of actualization, a dynamic immutability. For Schelling, God is immutable because He is a self-sufficient entity who freely wills and creates without requiring the existence of the world. Schelling’s God is also mutable in the sense that a complex dynamic process exists within God, as opposed to a divinely simple, unrelatable God. Schelling’s dynamic immutability allowed Dorner to begin envisioning both an immutable and mutable God. Reflecting on the tension of Schelling’s dynamic immutability, Dorner concludes, “God is to be conceived as eternally both absolute potentiality and absolute actualization by virtue of the eternally self-rejuvenating divine life-process,” by which “God eternally wills and confirms its own ground.”[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Unfortunately for Dorner, Schelling’s freedom inherent in God’s will leaves open the possibility that God is capable of evil. Brown explains that, for Dorner, Schelling’s doctrine of God “has the unacceptable implication that God is capable of choosing to act in a manner that is not good, even though he does not actually do so.”[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Although Dorner finds value in Schelling’s dynamic immutability, he ultimately clarifies the distinction between God’s immutability and mutability, and limits God’s potential capriciousness by engaging the philosophy of Hegel. ## **Hegel** Hegel’s philosophy has broad ranging implications for theologians. Malysz provides several Hegelian concepts that influenced Dorner’s formulation of his doctrine of divine immutability. First, Hegel’s trinitarian emphasis reflects his concept of unarbitrariness, which envisions “a subject and a unity of subject-constitutive distinctions,” whereby God always remains the same even in the “concretization of his distinctions.”[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Hegel’s view of the trinity represents the essence of God and the reality of God’s complexity or distinctiveness – substance and subject. Dorner extrapolates Hegel’s trinitarian perspective into God’s involvement in the world. God’s vitality or livingness is realized through the Second Person of the Trinity, who joins God “with the world … \[so that\] this new actuality is also something new for God’s knowledge of himself and of the world.”[\[22\]](#_ftn22) In other words, Dorner applies Hegelian philosophy to the Incarnation to explain how God can be self-same and changeable. To do this, Dorner removes the doctrine of immutability from ontology and centers it on Hegel’s trinitarian reality. The relocation assists Dorner in formulating a separation between substance and subject, between immutability and mutability or, in Dorner’s vernacular, between essence and freedom, as represented by the Father and by the Son, respectively. Hegel’s concepts of freedom and necessity also find their way into Dorner’s understanding of God’s immutability. According to Malysz, Hegel’s self-determining God is “both unnecessary and can either be dismissed altogether, or simply equated with the process of the world.”[\[23\]](#_ftn23) In either case, God is completely free; He is free from the necessity to exist as a substance, and free to self-determinately act and move as the subject, even to the point of making Himself finite in Christ. According to Malysz, Hegel defines freedom as being “for oneself precisely as oneself – to realize oneself.”[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Thus, to be free, God must not only be free from the external world, but must also be free to align with His self-determined inner necessity represented in the Trinity. Thus, the concepts of inner necessity and freedom remain inseparable. According to Malysz, by utilizing Hegelian philosophy, Dorner identifies God as Father, who wills the Son as the representative of God’s freedom, not just to be, but “freedom to be and to act.’[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Regarding God’s freedom to be, the inner necessity of God freely manifests itself relationally within the persons of the Trinity. God’s inner necessity provides Dorner the limitation of God’s will required to restrict Schelling’s dynamic immutability, which allowed for God’s capriciousness. Regarding the freedom to act, Dorner asserts that God’s vitality in the world is revealed in the Incarnation by stating, “so far as he dwells in man, \[God\] also leads a historical life in the world, enters into contact with time.”[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Finally, the Hegelian concept of becoming finds its reflection in Dorner’s doctrine of divine immutability. According to Malysz, the presence of Hegel’s God is actualized through [the life of Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/living-life-in-christ/), thus the presence of God “shows itself closer to the world than the world is to itself.”[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Hegel’s panentheism is evident as he asserts that the becoming of the presence of God is also the becoming of the world. According to Williams, Hegel’s becoming is not only actualized through Christ’s life, but also Christ’s death, which is the self-definition of God as love, a love that must encompass both being (God’s substance) and God’s nonbeing (God’s subjectivity or movement).[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Thus, for Hegel, becoming and love are the same reality because Christ’s death is the “vison of this love itself – not \[love merely\] for or on behalf of others, but precisely *divinity* in this universal identity.”[\[29\]](#_ftn29) Hegel’s concept of becoming reveals itself in Dorner’s doctrine of divine immutability in two ways. First, Hegel’s emphasis on Christ’s actualization of God’s essence provides the impetus for Dorner’s extension of God’s freedom to the world. Second, Hegel’s emphasis on God’s identity as love provides the foundation for Dorner’s future understanding of God’s ethical essence. However, against Hegel, Dorner states that the world “depends on the fact that God is self-conscious *independently* of the world.”[\[30\]](#_ftn30) In other words, Dorner attempts to remove Hegel’s pantheistic tendencies, but he retains the connection between God’s actuality and Christ, between becoming and love. However, Dorner had in mind a love that moved beyond Hegel, a love that took primacy over all other attributes, a love inspired by Schleiermacher. ## **Schleiermacher** Schleiermacher was Dorner’s most significant conversation partner. In Dorner’s essay, he provides an extended survey of the history of the doctrine of immutability that ends with an analysis of Schleiermacher. In part two of his essay, Dorner spends most of his time criticizing Schleiermacher’s work, but, in the end, finds value in Schleiermacher’s efforts. First, responding to part one of Schleiermacher’s book, *Christian Faith*, Dorner provides a summary of his critique stating, Schleiermacher conceives God to be simple self-sameness and self-identical, without opposition. In this simplicity no real distinction between attributes, no distinction between knowledge and will, nor between will and ability are supposed to remain. There is nothing potential in God that does not become eternally actual …. God rather comprehends everything eternally and indivisibly with one and the same immutable thought.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) Dorner places Schleiermacher in the camp of classical theism’s doctrine of divine simplicity where no distinctions of divine attributes exist, and God is pure actuality with no potentiality, *actus purus*. Accordingly, Dorner levels the same accusations toward Schleiermacher as he did toward the doctrine of divine simplicity. Namely, the classical doctrine inevitably leads to deism and then to atheism or Pelagianism, or the doctrine leads to a form of pantheism. Although Dorner’s analysis focuses primarily on critiquing Schleiermacher, the final paragraph of Dorner’s historical survey concludes by recognizing that Schleiermacher did not completely align with the classical doctrines of immutability. In fact, Dorner suggests that in the second part of *Christian Faith*, the “entire position is reversed when Schleiermacher speaks of the realm of grace. For here we have … an ‘action of God’ motivated by love.”[\[32\]](#_ftn32) Dorner recognizes the distinctive nature of God’s attribute of love, but he believes that Schleiermacher is inconsistent by not revising the first part of his book to align with the more developed second part. However, no scholarly consensus exists. Robert Sherman assumes Dorner mistakenly missed the developmental connection between the first and second part of Schleiermacher’s work, while Matthias Gockel and Williams maintain that Dorner was correct, and Schleiermacher’s work consisted of conflicting accounts of God’s immutability.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Regardless, Schleiermacher’s distinction regarding the concept of love had a profound influence upon the development of Dorner’s doctrine of divine immutability. Schleiermacher asserts a primacy of God’s love distinct from God’s other attributes. The traditional view of immutability asserts that God has no distinction between His essence and attributes, but Schleiermacher’s exception occurs because “love is being equated with the being or nature of God,” and “only love and no other divine attribute can be equated with God in this fashion.”[\[34\]](#_ftn34) Schleiermacher’s distinctive nature of love provides the breakthrough that Dorner needs to ground God’s immutability in a unity with distinctions. Dorner recognized that the concept of love, as advocated by Schleiermacher, could be the force that drives causality and empowers the livingness of God, while simultaneously manifesting God’s immutable being. Under the influence of Schelling’s dynamic immutability, Hegel’s liberated God as Substance and Subject, and Schleiermacher’s primacy of love, Dorner’s doctrine of divine immutability takes shape. ## **The Solution** The analysis of Dorner’s solution to the extent of God’s immutability begins by first showing the relationship between God’s immutable ethical essence and God’s mutable ethical freedom. An examination of how God’s love is actualized within multiple modes of existence then ensues. Finally, the question of whether God’s ethical necessity takes priority over ethical freedom is addressed. ## **Ethical Essence** Dorner’s reconstruction of the classical doctrine of God’s immutability begins where Schleiermacher left off. God *is* love. God’s essence is love. Love is ethical. Accordingly, God’s love is ethical essence, which is also considered God’s ethical necessity, that which is absolutely immutable. In sum, according to Dorner, “The ethical in God *is* God in his divinity.”[\[35\]](#_ftn35) Unlike classical theism’s approach to immutability where God is identical with His attributes, and His attributes are identical with each other, Dorner contends that God is identical with love, and love is not identical with God’s other attributes. Love takes a form of primacy over the other attributes. Dorner asserts that God’s physical and logical attributes “do not exist for their own sake … they exist for absolute love.”[\[36\]](#_ftn36) For example, omnipotence reports to love, and love directs omnipotence. Accordingly, Dorner contends that God is not “immutable in his knowing and willing of the world and in his decree. On the contrary, in all these respects there takes place also on his side change, alteration, a permitting of himself to be determined.”[\[37\]](#_ftn37) Since God’s knowing and willing are directed by love, God’s knowledge and power are mutable. Dorner’s doctrine leaves room for God’s livingness, but the changeability of God is permitted only if “one thing continues to be preserved, the ethical self-identity \[love\] and immutability of God. This must remain inviolate.”[\[38\]](#_ftn38) Dorner’s synthesis of immutability and mutability requires a freedom that envelops both. First, God’s immutability as ethical essence requires a freedom independent from the world; otherwise Dorner lands in Hegelian panentheism. Second, God’s mutability requires ethical freedom, a freedom for God to act; otherwise, Dorner risks deism. Dorner connects the interdependent reality of God’s ethical essence and ethical freedom by stating, The ethical immutability that is in God requires also for itself the livingness that is just as eternal; the ethically necessary points of itself to freedom as its means of actualization. The livingness of God, the principle of which lies in his freedom, is no less bound up with the ethically necessary through itself, through its inner essence; the free is for the ethically necessary.[\[39\]](#_ftn39) In short, the mutability of God is ethically free to move, change, and act, which actualizes God’s immutable ethical essence. In sum, Dorner demands both an immutable ethical essence that avoids pantheistic tendencies, and a mutability that avoids deistic tendencies. The ramifications for humanity are palpable. Since God’s ethical freedom allows for the mutability of omnipotent power, God has the capacity to limit His power and allow humans to resist God. For Dorner, the ability for humans to freely resist God is absolutely necessary because a love “for God which was not freely offered but was only impelled by an utterly irresistible determination would have little worth (if indeed it could be called true love).”[\[40\]](#_ftn40) Dorner contends that God’s ethically free mutability provides the necessary environment for the actualization of God’s immutable essence, love: an environment that unlimited power could never produce. The concept of ethically free love leads Dorner to conclude that “love between God and man must be a *reciprocal relation*, as this is required by the nature of love.”[\[41\]](#_ftn41) If the relationship between God and man is reciprocal, then Williams explains that, for Dorner, God’s knowledge must also be contingent on reciprocity.[\[42\]](#_ftn42) Similar to the limitation of God’s mutable power, God’s knowledge is ethically free, thus also self-limiting because it is directed by love. Accordingly, for Dorner, God has knowledge of all possibilities, but “the knowledge of the actuality for which freedom will decide comes to him from the world of free beings.”[\[43\]](#_ftn43) In sum, the immutable essence of God is love, but the ethical expression of love requires reciprocity, a reciprocity made available by God’s mutable power and knowledge, which expresses His living relationship with His creation. ## **Modes of Being** God’s ethical essence and ethical freedom also have soteriological implications. If God is only ethical essence, the world could not receive Him. However, if God is only ethical freedom, then God is finite and lacks salvific power. The question remains as to exactly *how* God continues as an immutable, ethical essence, while simultaneously actualizing His essence in an environment of mutable freedom to redeem humanity. Dorner attempts to answer the question by diving deep into Plato’s question, “whether the good is good because God wills it, or whether God wills it because it is good.”[\[44\]](#_ftn44) Duns Scotus’s voluntarism affirms the first statement, the good is good because God wills it. The problem with Scotus’s response is that the good is not caused by the essence of God, but instead, the good relies on God’s power to decide good or evil, as if both were equally viable alternatives. Aquinas’s intellectualism affirms the second statement, God wills it because it is good. The problem with Aquinas’s response is that the good and God are independent from one another, which implies that the good controls God. Dorner rejects both answers because each in their own way separate God from goodness. Against intellectualism and voluntarism, Dorner provides a third alternative. Instead of separating God from goodness, Dorner asserts that the good is in God, which shifts the conversation from ontology to coinherent ethics. For Dorner, divine will remains efficacious, but “the ethical cannot have its reality in God simply through divine will; rather the ethical must be an eternal reality *in* God’s being and essence.”[\[45\]](#_ftn45) Once again, Dorner works toward an interdependent reality that synthesizes immutability and mutability to solve the apparent contradiction that the good is both intrinsic in God and willed by God. Williams explains that Dorner’s answer to the conundrum is that “the ethical in God has multiple modes of existence that nevertheless inwardly coinhere.”[\[46\]](#_ftn46) Reflective of both Schelling’s triadic powers and Hegel’s trinitarian emphasis, Dorner’s ethical substance is the mode correlated with the Father, and ethical freedom is the mode correlated with the Son. More to the point, Williams asserts that the good “requires the mediation of freedom in order to exist … the divine ethical substance is mediated and actualized by freedom.”[\[47\]](#_ftn47) In other words, the modes of being are inseparable; Christ freely actualizes the Father’s essence to redeem humanity in a perichoretic relationship. However, if Christ actualizes the Father, the question remains as to whether a priority exists between God’s ethical substance (the Father) and ethical freedom (the Son). ## **Necessity and Freedom** Dorner’s doctrine of immutability requires both ethical essence, also considered ethical necessity, and an ethical freedom that actualizes God’s ethical necessity. Regarding the primacy between the two concepts, it appears Dorner favors ethical necessity, “God is to be conceived *first* as the ethically necessary being or as the holy, and *second* as the ethically free; through both of these God actualizes himself eternally as self-conscious, holy, and free love.”[\[48\]](#_ftn48) In light of Dorner’s formulation, Robert Brown accuses Dorner of landing in the intellectualism that he attempts to resist, since the ethically necessary, the ontological aspect, appears to will the ethically free.[\[49\]](#_ftn49) However, it appears that Brown fails to grasp the breadth of Dorner’s perspective. The nature of the relationship between ethical necessity and ethical freedom is reciprocal, not causal. In Hegelian language, separation between substance and subject is impossible without undermining both. Accordingly, ethical necessity does not stand alone as a separate entity that wills ethical freedom. Instead, as Williams explains, ethical necessity requires ethical freedom for both to exist, just as the Father requires the Son.[\[50\]](#_ftn50) In sum, the actualization of God entails a complex reciprocity that avoids subordination, and requires both ethical necessity and ethical freedom. Ultimately, the ethical essence in God, the mode represented by the Father, and the ethical freedom in God, the mode represented by the Son, come full circle as they unite in love. In Dorner’s words, “the absolute union of the ethically necessary and the ethically free in which the two confirm one another, is love; and thus the primal good is love only because in him the ethical has a threefold and yet indissolubly coherent mode of being.”[\[51\]](#_ftn51) The threefold mode of being is the reciprocal relationship between God’s ethical necessity, God’s ethical freedom, and God’s being as love, which mediates the relationship. Within this love relationship, God’s immutable love remains forever constant, while God’s mutable relationship with the world varies in accordance with the directives of love. Finally, it is the amalgamation of God’s immutable ethical essence, which undermines pantheism, and God’s mutable ethical freedom, which undermines deism, that effectuates God’s living immutability. ## **Conclusion** Under the influences of modern philosophy and theology, specifically that of Schelling, Hegel, and Schleiermacher, Dorner provides a doctrine of God comprised of a reciprocal arrangement of God’s ethical essence and ethical freedom – God’s living immutability. Dorner’s solution provides a coherent alternative to the risks associated with the doctrine of divine simplicity inherent within a classical view of God’s immutability. Additionally, Dorner’s work overcomes the modern initiatives of extreme immutability found in deism and of extreme mutability found in various forms of pantheism. These findings affirm an approach to the doctrine of God that allows for both a perfectly stable, loving God, and, simultaneously, a God actualized through the Incarnation necessary for a dynamic faith and an efficacious soteriology. Although Dorner’s doctrine of living immutability has much to offer, further research regarding the potential ramifications of limiting God’s ontological immutability may be beneficial, especially in relationship to the problem of evil, process theology, and modern evangelical thought. Furthermore, additional research regarding the exact nature of Dorner’s limitation of foreknowledge and its relationship to both modern orthodox Christianity, and, alternatively, open theism may be fruitful. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Katherin Rogers, “The Traditional Doctrine of Divine Simplicity,” *Religious Studies* 32, no. 2 (1996): 166. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Isaak A. Dorner, *Divine Immutability: A Critical Reconsideration*, trans. Robert R. Williams and Claude Welch (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994), 136. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Rogers, “The Traditional Doctrine,” 176. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 136. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Piotr J. Malysz, “Hegel’s Conception of God and Its Application by Isaak Dorner to the Problem of Divine Immutability,” *Pro Ecclesia* 15, no. 4 (Fall 2006): 465. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Malysz, “Hegel’s Conception of God,” 465. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Robert R. Williams, “Introduction,” in *Divine Immutability: A Critical Reconsideration* (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994), 35. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 6. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Gottfried Thomasius, “Christ’s Person and Work,” in *God and Incarnation: In Mid-Nineteenth Century German Theology*, ed. and trans. Claude Welch (New York: Oxford, 1965), 48. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Williams, “Introduction,” 7. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Isaak A. Dorner, “System of Christian Doctrine,” in *God and Incarnation: In Mid-Nineteenth Century German Theology*, ed. and trans. Claude Welch (New York: Oxford, 1965), 194. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Williams, “Introduction,” 8. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 95. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid., 96. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid., 109. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 109. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Robert F. Brown, “Schelling and Dorner on Divine Immutability,” *Journal of the American Academy of Religion* 53, no. 2 (June 1985): 241. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Brown, “Schelling and Dorner,” 241. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 137. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Brown, “Schelling and Dorner,” 247. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Malysz, “Hegel’s Conception of God,” 450. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 188. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Malysz, “Hegel’s Conception of God,” 454. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Ibid., 461. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Ibid., 468. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 145. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Malysz, “Hegel’s Conception of God,” 458. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Robert R. Williams, *Recognition: Fichte and Hegel on the Other* (Albany: State University of New York, 1992), 232–33. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, *Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion*, trans. R. F. Brown, P. C. Hodgson, and J. M. Stewart, vol. 3, *The Consummate Religion* (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), 125. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 47. Emphasis added. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 124. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Ibid., 129. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Robert Sherman, “Isaak August Dorner on Divine Immutability: A Missing Link between Schleiermacher and Barth,” *The Journal of Religion* 77, no. 3 (July 1997): 387–88. See also Matthias Gockel, “On the Way from Schleiermacher to Barth: A Critical Reappraisal of Isaak August Dorner’s Essay on Divine Immutability,” *Scottish Journal of Theology* 53, no. 4 (2000): 500-502 and Williams, “Introduction,” 7. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Friedrich Schleiermacher, *Christian Faith*, ed. Catherine L. Kelsey and Terrence N. Tice, trans. Terrence N. Tice, Catherine L. Kelsey, and Edwina Lawler (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2016), 2:1007-1008 (§ 167.1). [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 175. Emphasis added. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Ibid., 175–76. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Ibid., 165. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Ibid., 176. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 159. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Ibid., 147. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 148. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Williams, “Introduction,” 25. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 149–50. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Ibid., 167. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 170. Emphasis added. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) Williams, “Introduction,” 29. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) Robert R. Williams, “I. A. Dorner: Ethical Immutability of God,” *Journal of the American Academy of Religion* 54, no. 4 (Winter 1986): 732–33. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 171. Emphasis added. [\[49\]](#_ftnref49) Brown, “Schelling and Dorner,” 247. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50) Williams, “Introduction,” 31. [\[51\]](#_ftnref51) Dorner, *Divine Immutability*, 174. ## ## **Bibliography** - Brown, Robert F. “Schelling and Dorner on Divine Immutability.” *Journal of the American Academy of Religion* 53, no. 2 (June 1985): 237–49. - Dorner, Isaak A. *Divine Immutability: A Critical Reconsideration*. Translated by Robert R. Williams and Claude Welch. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “System of Christian Doctrine.” In *God and Incarnation: In Mid-Nineteenth Century German Theology*, edited and translated by Claude Welch. New York: Oxford, 1965. - Gockel, Matthias. “On the Way from Schleiermacher to Barth: A Critical Reappraisal of Isaak August Dorner’s Essay on Divine Immutability.” *Scottish Journal of Theology* 53, no. 4 (2000): 490–510. - Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. *Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion*. Translated by R. F. Brown, P. C. Hodgson, and J. M. Stewart. Vol. 3, *The Consummate Religion*. Berkeley: University of California, 1998. - Malysz, Piotr J. “Hegel’s Conception of God and Its Application by Isaak Dorner to the Problem of Divine Immutability.” *Pro Ecclesia* 15, no. 4 (Fall 2006): 448–71. - Rogers, Katherin. “The Traditional Doctrine of Divine Simplicity.” *Religious Studies* 32, no. 2 (1996): 165–86. - Schleiermacher, Friedrich. *Christian Faith*. Edited by Catherine L. Kelsey and Terrence N. Tice. Translated by Terrence N. Tice, Catherine L. Kelsey, and Edwina Lawler. Vol. 2. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2016. - Sherman, Robert. “Isaak August Dorner on Divine Immutability: A Missing Link between Schleiermacher and Barth.” *The Journal of Religion* 77, no. 3 (July 1997): 380–401. - Thomasius, Gottfried. “Christ’s Person and Work.” In *God and Incarnation: IN Mid-Nineteenth Century German Theology*, edited and translated by Claude Welch. New York: Oxford, 1965. - Williams, Robert R. “I. A. Dorner: Ethical Immutability of God.” *Journal of the American Academy of Religion* 54, no. 4 (Winter 1986): 721–38. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Introduction.” In *Divine Immutability: A Critical Reconsideration*. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. *Recognition: Fichte and Hegel on the Other*. Albany: State University of New York, 1992.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Dorner, Bushnell, and God's Accessibility](https://www.livestransforming.com/dorner-bushnell-and-gods-accessibility/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Dorner, Bushnell, and God’s Accessibility In what ways did Dorner and Bushnell try to find a theological middle ground between theories of God’s accessibility and inaccessibility? Base your answer on the textbook readings, lecture videos, and any other relevant sources that might aid class discussion. ## **Response** Modernism brought the doctrine of God back to life after lying dormant for centuries under the influence of Augustine, Anselm, and Aquinas. Schleiermacher appears to have adopted a classical view of God’s robust immutability, *actus purus*, pure actuality with no potentiality. In other words, God cannot change, become, or evolve in any way. Alternatively, Hegel takes the opposite approach. Hegel’s Absolute Spirit is constantly evolving and changing; God and the world live in an interdependent panentheistic reality. Mediating theologians, such as Isaak Dorner and Horace Bushnell, see value in both orthodox Christianity and the views of Modernism. Dorner sees value in Schleiermacher’s immutable God and Hegel’s mutable God but believes that both miss the mark. For Dorner, Schleiermacher’s God is unaffected by the world, and thus relegated to an unrelatable, static God. Alternatively, Hegel’s God is hyper-accessible to the point where God and the world are practically indistinguishable, thus limiting God’s ethical freedom to choose and love. Dorner built his mediating theology of God upon two axioms. First, not only does God have the attribute of love, but the very essence of God is love, and if God’s essence is love, then He must be relatable and accessible to humanity. In other words, God’s love is not just a descriptor or an attribute, but an ethical substance. Second, if God’s relatability is real, then He must in some way be affected by the relationship without diminishing His perfection. In other words, God’s love must not be required, but ethically free. Thus, according to Robert Williams, since Dorner’s God is both an ethical substance (immutable) and ethically free (mutable), He can “enter into reciprocal relation with the world without loss or diminution of being.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) In sum, Dorner’s God is both an immutable other whose very essence is love and a highly accessible mutable being who freely extends His relational love to the world. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 39 182x300 - Dorner, Bushnell, and God's Accessibility](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-39-182x300.jpg "Dorner, Bushnell, and God - Lives Transforming's Accessibility")](https://amzn.to/3CedT9R)God in Christ Like Dorner, another mediating theologian, Horace Bushnell, attempts to find value in both Protestant orthodoxy and Modernism. Whereas Dorner focused on God’s immutability, Bushnell attempts to synthesize rationalism with experience by finding value in both. Bushnell opposed conservative positions that emphasized propositional truth over [Christian experience](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-counseling-when-to-pray/), and simultaneously, opposed liberal positions that undermined the supernatural by reducing God to a force of nature or mental state. Bushnell’s progressive orthodoxy did not avoid doctrine, but made propositional truth the slave to spiritual experience. Regarding Christian dogmatism and propositional truth, Bushnell states, “Language, under the laws of logic or speculation, does not seem to be adequate to any such use or purpose.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Bushnell was not suggesting that truth did not exist, but that the appropriation of God’s truth occurred through metaphor, images, poetry, paradoxes, and the imagination in ways that were inaccessible to language of reason. In sum, God is not accessible primarily through propositional truth via reason, but by experiencing communion with the Divine via the imagination. The payoff of Bushnell’s theology is its ability to reconcile opposing views. For Bushnell, the age-old debate between predestination and free will may never be adequately resolved through the language of reason, but through metaphor and paradox, both concepts may be held concurrently. Similarly, apparent contradictions in Scripture, competing theories of atonement, and the nature versus supernatural debate may resolve using Bushnell’s progressive orthodoxy. Ultimately, Bushnell’s God is accessible through the life-giving metaphors of God’s revealed truths in all its paradoxes and apparent contradictions, which transcend the rational and are made manifest through experience. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Robert R. Williams, “I. A. Dorner: Ethical Immutability of God,” *Journal of the American Academy of Religion* 54, no. 4 (Winter 1986): 735. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Horace Bushnell, *God in Christ: Three Discourses Delivered at New Haven, Cambridge, and Andover, with a Preliminary Dissertation on Language* (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1876), 914, Kindle. ## **Bibliography** - Bushnell, Horace. *God in Christ: Three Discourses Delivered at New Haven, Cambridge, and Andover, with a Preliminary Dissertation on Language*. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1876. Kindle. - Williams, Robert R. “I. A. Dorner: Ethical Immutability of God.” *Journal of the American Academy of Religion* 54, no. 4 (Winter 1986): 721–38.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Destroyer of the Gods: Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/destroyer-of-the-gods-book-review/) **Published:** January 17, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Destroyer of the Gods: Book Review During the last couple of centuries, certain scholars, such as those who participate in the History of Religions School, have promoted the idea that Christianity was just another religion that shared similar characteristics with other religions. The implication is that ancient Christianity was not unique, but, instead, it was syncretistic due to the impact of other religions and philosophical influences such as Hellenism and Gnosticism. [![Destroyer of the gods Early Christian Distinctiveness in the Roman World 182x300 - Destroyer of the Gods: Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Destroyer-of-the-gods_-Early-Christian-Distinctiveness-in-the-Roman-World-182x300.jpg "Destroyer of the Gods: Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4j1kOUH)Destroyer of the gods: Early Christian Distinctiveness in the Roman World However, in Hurtado’s book, *Destroyer of the gods: Early Christian Distinctiveness in the Roman World,* he attempts to prove the opposite by stressing Christianity’s distinctiveness while acknowledging that certain aspects of Christianity resemble other religions (2017, 5-6). Without a proper understanding of Christianity’s relationship to other ancient religions, both the layman and the scholar may misinterpret or misapply Scripture. Hurtado’s overriding thesis and main thematic initiative is that Christianity, within its Roman setting, is a uniquely different kind of religion (xiii). *With certain qualifications, Hurtado successfully shows that Christianity was distinctive from other ancient religions and philosophies in the Roman world.* The following analysis first summarizes the content and the main themes of Hurtado’s work and then examines the book’s strengths and weaknesses. ## **Summary and Main Themes** In his introduction, Hurtado clearly communicates that his goal is to focus on the distinctiveness of Christianity within the first three centuries (3-7). Accordingly, each chapter engages the primary thematic initiative of Christianity’s distinctiveness. The work begins by engaging both Jewish and pagan evidence that points to differences with Christianity. Specifically, Hurtado points out that if Christianity was simply a religion aligned with Judaism, then there would have been no reason for the Apostle Paul to persecute Christians prior to his conversion (16-20). Ancient evidence clearly supports the persecution of both [Jesus and Christians by ancient Jews](https://www.livestransforming.com/messianic-expectations-of-ancient-jews/), which would have been nonsensical without a Christian distinction. Similarly, Christianity also had several pagan critics, including Nero, Pliny the Younger, Galen, Marcus Aurelius, Lucian, and Celsus (20-34). More poignantly, Pliny labeled Christianity perverse, Lucian mocked Christianity, and Celsus accused Christians of being intellectually inferior (22-34). Again, it is difficult to reconcile why both the Jews and pagans criticized and persecuted Christians if the religions were homogenous. In chapter two, Hurtado begins by defining religion and noting that, unlike modern religions, ancient religions were more integrated into life. For the pagans, “exclusivity was bizarre,” for they believed in a plurality of divine beings such as Jupiter and Zeus while associating the deities with various parts of life such as nature and cities (44-49). Accordingly, the Roman religion showed reverence to and welcomed all gods in order to not offend any of the gods. Importantly, the key Christian distinctive was that Christians were expected to avoid worshipping any deity other than God; thus, Hurtado states, “that which was generally considered piety (*religio* or *eusebeia*), reverencing the many gods, was, for early Christians, idolatry, impiety of the gravest sort” (50). Although monotheism was a key distinctive from pagan religions, the questions remain as to how Christianity differed from Judaism, and why the pagans accepted Jewish monotheism and not Christianity. Hurtado’s answers revolve around Jesus and ethnicity. Jesus was considered an “unacceptable mutation” by the Jewish community rendering Christianity repugnant, and the pagans accepted Jewish monotheism because of their unique ethnicity (53, 76). The specific Christian distinctives regarding Jesus were linking Jesus with God, making exclusivist claims, and asserting that “*all* things are *through* Jesus” (66-72). However, Hurtado recommends not taking the distinctions between Jews and Christians too far by asserting two completely distinguishable religions. Instead, Christianity was an ancient religious movement that “emerged initially *within* the ancient Jewish tradition” but eventually became transethnic (67). Chapter three briefly acknowledges that certain voluntary religious groups existed in the ancient Roman world and then transitions into a discussion regarding religious identity. For most people in the Roman period, one’s ethnic identity was linked to one’s religious identity (78). However, Christianity disconnected religious identity from ethnic identity. According to Hurtado, the Christian’s religious identity was “conferred through their participation in the *ekklesia* (‘in Christ’)” and “shaped both how they saw themselves and how they saw fellow believers” (94). Christianity’s unique religious identity combined with its focus on exclusivity forged distinctives that extended beyond both ethnic and geographical borders. In chapter four, Hurtado highlights the bookish nature of Christianity that entailed “reading, writing, copying, and dissemination,” which was an unusual trait in the Roman world (105). The chapter begins with a brief reference to the importance of reading Scripture in a worship setting that likely arose from the influence of Christianity’s Jewish roots. Next, a longer section explores the topic of writing during the first two centuries. Hurtado then takes a foray into the unique features of Christian writing. Specifically, Hurtado notes the length of Paul’s letters, the biographical nature of the gospels, and the intense nature of the Christian effort to copy and disseminate their sacred texts utilizing codices rather than scrolls (118-138). In sum, Hurtado makes a case that the bookish nature of Christianity provides another important distinction. The final chapter addresses the relationship between religion and behavioral ethics. In the ancient Roman world, Christianity demanded certain behavioral requirements whereas pagan religions were often disconnected from ethics (143). Hurtado provides several examples to support his argument, including the pagan practices of infant exposure, gladiator events, and sexual use of children, all of which were criticized by Christians (144-150, 165-166). Hurtado also uses several biblical texts to support his argument including references to 1 Corinthians and 1 Timothy 3:2 (160-0168). By highlighting Christianity’s connection between religion and ethical behavior, Hurtado provides another important distinction between Christianity and the pagan religions of the Roman world. Hurtado’s conclusion summarizes his arguments by reiterating (1) the odd nature of Christianity when viewed from a pagan perspective, (2) the attack of atheism against Christianity due to their refusal to worship the pagan gods, and (3) the “in your face” exclusivity that transcended ethnic identity (183-189). Finally, the appendix briefly provides a summary of scholars who emphasize the similarities rather than the differences between Christianity and other religions. In summary, Hurtado uses the thematic motifs of Christian persecution, monotheism, identity, bookishness, and ethics to support his overall thematic initiative of Christian distinctiveness. ## **Critical Evaluation** The critical evaluation of Hurtado’s book first identifies a few weaknesses followed by a brief discussion regarding several strengths. Likely the most significant weakness of Hurtado’s work pertains to the distinction between Christianity and Judaism. Hurtado explains the pagan accommodation of Judaism by suggesting that Christianity was “much more objectionable than the Jews’ refusal to worship any deity but their own. The latter was an ethnic peculiarity, but that gave no justification for non-Jews to shirk their inherited responsiblity to their own gods” (54-55). However, Everett Ferguson, in a reference to Acts 6:5, explains that evidence exists that Jews used propaganda literature to spread the message of their religion, and a significant number of Gentiles converted to Judaism as proselytes or Godfearers (2003, 546). The question remains as to why the Roman world seemed to accept Judaism’s conversion methods and not persecute the Jewish religion or their converts who had no ethnic peculiarity. At best, Hurtado needed to address the potential inconsistency; at worst, his analysis is a *non sequitur*. A second weakness is that Hurtado, at times, correctly identifies an important distinction between Christianity and the Roman world, but he does not acknowledge certain overlapping similarities. For example, regarding Paul’s use of letters, Hurtado states, “I know of no other philosophical or religious group of the time that exhibits an appropriation of the letterform as a serious vehicle for its teaching that is comparable to what we see in letters of Paul (2017, 121). Although Hurtado appropriately notes the unusual length of Paul’s letters, his assertion regarding the utilization of letters may be too strong. George Parsenios explains that during the Roman period dozens of pseudepigraphic Cynic epistles were distributed for polemical and propaganda purposes, and Epicurus also used letters for the purpose of discipleship (2019, 82). A potential third weakness pertains to the lack of emphasis on the Cross. As will be explored shortly, the potential shortcoming lies primarily in emphasis rather than a complete absence. Numerous scholars have criticized Hurtado’s work for his lack of focus on Jesus’s death and resurrection. First, Joshua Jipp suggests that Hurtado should have spent more effort around the distinction that Jesus was “crucified and resurrected from the dead” (2017, 112). Second, Paul Hartog accuses Hurtado of not interacting with Paul’s discussion around the “*skandalon* of the cross” (2019, 231). Finally, B. G. White suggests Hurtado’s work lacks reflection on death and resurrection, and then he suggests that Hurtado misses the distinctiveness of divine grace especially in light of John Barclay’s recent book, *Paul and the Gift* (2017, 171). Although it is true that additional emphasis surrounding these specific topics may have enhanced Hurtado’s work especially when highlighting the distinction between Christianity and Judaism, to be fair, one wonders if these scholars have missed the connection between the cross and a Christian’s identity in Christ (cf. Gal 2:20-21). Hurtado spends an entire chapter on Christian identity, and Barclay’s work clearly makes a connection between grace and the participatory aspects of Christianity, which could not occur without the crucifixion, death, and resurrection. Accordingly, although Hurtado could have provided additional emphasis, the weakness appears to be overstated by certain scholars. Without question, the strengths of Hurtado’s work outweigh the weaknesses. First, *Destroyer of the gods* provides an accessible introduction to Christianity’s distinctiveness within the larger survey of comparative religion for a broad readership including laypeople, students, and scholars. Second, Hurtado does not completely ignore the resemblances between Christianity and other religions, but instead, highlights important nuances. Third, placing Christianity within its ancient environment of the Roman world provides a cultural context that many Christians do not consider when reading Scripture; thus, Hurtado’s contribution will assist believers with biblical interpretation by addressing the issue of cultural amnesia. Fourth, Hurtado has written a scholarly work that appropriately engages both secondary literature and numerous primary sources while presenting the issues in easy-to-understand language. Fifth, granted, Hurtado could have said much more, but he needs commended for engaging in the topic of Christianity’s distinctive religious identity, and its trans-ethnic nature that points to the fulfillment of the Abrahamic covenant that ultimately includes all the pagan nations. Finally, Hurtado’s work accomplishes the goal of proving that Christianity was distinct from both the pagan and Jewish religions and provides an important corrective against scholarship that has leaned too far in the direction of labeling Christianity as a homogonous religion. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ # Bibliography - Ferguson, Everett. *Backgrounds of Early Christianity*. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. - Hartog, Paul. “Destroyer of the Gods: Early Christian Distinctiveness in the Roman World.” *Southwestern Journal of Theology* 61, no. 2 (2019): 229–231. - Hurtado, Larry W. *Destroyer of the Gods: Early Christian Distinctiveness in the Roman World*. Waco: Baylor University, 2017. - Jipp, Joshua W. “Destroyer of the Gods: Early Christian Distinctiveness in the Roman World.” *Trinity Journal* 38, no. 1 (2017): 110–112. - Parsenios, George Leonidas. “Destroyer of the Gods: Early Christian Distinctiveness in the Roman World.” *Interpretation* 73, no. 1 (January 2019): 81–82. - White, Benjamin G. “Destroyer of the Gods: Early Christian Distinctiveness in the Roman World.” *Themelios* 42, no. 1 (April 2017): 169–171. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [The Theology and Epistemology of Charles Hodge](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-theology-and-epistemology-of-charles-hodge/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Theology and Epistemology of Charles Hodge What were Charles Hodge’s responses to the theological tendencies of Modernism? What were the reactions of Fundamentalists to Hodge’s theology? Base your answer on the textbook readings and any other relevant sources that might aid class discussion. ## **Response** As a proponent of orthodox Protestant theology, Charles Hodge responded to [the theological](https://www.livestransforming.com/theological-research/) tendencies of Modernism by deploying modern methods to reinforce orthodox Protestant Christianity. Reformed Scholasticism and Scottish common sense realism informed Hodge’s response to Modernism. Medieval Scholasticism utilized logic and rationality to find solutions to theological questions. The speculative nature of the effort caused many Reformers to dismiss the process. However, after the Reformation, theologians began once again appreciating the value of logic and rationality in what is now called Reformed Scholasticism. The influence of Reformed Scholasticism appears in Hodge’s assertion that the validity of God’s revelation depends on it neither violating morality nor the law of noncontradiction. Additionally, against idealism, which assumes that reality existed in the mind rather than external objects, Thomas Reid’s common sense realism asserted that humanity has the ability to know external reality, at least with reasonable certainty. For Hodge, God’s revelatory communication through Scripture is the external reality that can be comprehended and validated through the laws of reason. Since knowledge of an external reality is possible through a process of logical validation, confining Christianity to feelings or ethics, as espoused by Protestant liberalism, was no longer necessary. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 38 182x300 - The Theology and Epistemology of Charles Hodge](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-38-182x300.png "The Theology and Epistemology of Charles Hodge - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BUDbtL)Fundamentalism and American Culture Hodge’s epistemology allowed him to respond to Modernism by asserting that theology is a science. George Marsden suggests Baconianism had a profound influence upon Hodge and the other Princeton theologians, who drew strong analogies between theology and science.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Reflective of the Baconian method, Hodge’s method of theology utilizes an inductive approach. Just as nature is the data used to develop the natural sciences, the Bible is the data used to develop the science of theology. In other words, Hodge’s inductive approach to the Bible allows general principles to emerge from the facts of Scripture. These general principles are not based on subjective opinions, but rely on first principles. For Hodge, first principles consist of *a priori,* self-evident truths such as the law of noncontradiction, basic morality, and God’s inability to violate His divine attributes. In sum, Hodge’s response to Modernism is a type of biblical foundationalism that combines biblical facts and constitutive first principles to acquire knowledge, which is equivalent to using the scientific method to gain scientific knowledge. Fundamentalism embraced many of Hodge’s theological responses to Modernism. Hodge’s influence on Fundamentalism focused primarily on the topic of biblical authority. For Hodge, the authority of Scripture depends on rational reasoning, biblical inspiration, and infallibility. Regarding reason, the authority of Scripture depended on both the subjective testimony of the Holy Spirit and objective evidences of the Bible such as its impact on history. Regarding inspiration and infallibility, Hodge defended the inspiration of Scripture, which asserted that the Holy Spirit influenced the minds of the writers to communicate God’s Word infallibly. Hodge’s view of biblical inspiration and infallibility had a profound impact on Fundamentalism. D. G. Hart contends that Hodge’s development of the doctrine of inspiration “formed the cornerstone for fundamentalist opposition to liberal Protestantism” and identifies Hodge’s view of inerrancy “as an ideological source of fundamentalism.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Although Hodge’s view of biblical authority may have been the most obvious influence upon Fundamentalism, Hodge’s lack of awareness regarding cultural context and his rejection of historicism also had a lasting influence. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) George M. Marsden, *Fundamentalism and American Culture*, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford, 2006), 112. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Darryl G. Hart, “A Reconsideration of Biblical Inerrancy and the Princeton Theology’s Alliance with Fundamentalism,” *Christian Scholar’s Review* 20, no. 4 (1991): 362. ## **Bibliography** - Hart, Darryl G. “A Reconsideration of Biblical Inerrancy and the Princeton Theology’s Alliance with Fundamentalism.” *Christian Scholar’s Review* 20, no. 4 (1991): 362–75. - Marsden, George M. *Fundamentalism, and American Culture*. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford, 2006.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Martin Luther's Critique of Catholic Communion](https://www.livestransforming.com/martin-luthers-critique-of-catholic-communion/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Martin Luther’s Critique of Catholic Communion In the article, “Of the Sacrament of the Lords’ Supper” Martin Luther provides a critique of the Roman Catholic view of the Lord’s Supper during the sixteenth century. In the article, “Of the Sacrament of the Altar” Luther proposes alternatives to the Roman Catholic tradition of the Lord’s Supper. This post will discuss and review potential presuppositions that are evident in both the criticism of the Roman Catholic view as well as Luther’s alternatives. ## **PRESUPPOSTIONS AGAINST CATHOLICISM** First, Luther explains that detaining the cup from the laity is a custom that entered the church through the power of Satan. Is it true that detaining the cup from the laity is evil or is it a hidden assumption? Luther supports his argument by using biblical and historical evidence. The papists suggest that it is within their power to deny the cup to the laity because their higher authority permits the modification. Luther utilizes the biblical evidence of Ephesians 4:11 to argue the equality of believers and undermine the idea of a hierarchical human structure. Furthermore, Luther suggests the decision regarding the detaining of the cup originated from the historical council of Constance, which inappropriately supported custom over biblical evidence. Although more research is required to prove the council emphasized custom over Scripture, it appears the evidence supports Luther’s assumption. Second, Luther argues against the Roman Catholic view of transubstantiation. Luther again provides substantial support by arguing with the evidence of history, Scripture, and logic. Historically, Luther explains that even from Ambrose’s time the elevation of the elements was absent. Biblically, Luther astutely notices that 1 Corinthians 11:24 states the body is “given for you” not “shall be given for you.” In other words, the present tense language suggests the sacrament is Christ’s work not the work of a priest performed in the future. Accordingly, logic supports Luther’s final assertion that the sacrament does not justify ex opere, operato, or by the outward act, but instead, by the inward power of Christ. Again, the evidence supports Luther’s assumptions. ## **PRESUPPOSTIONS OF LUTHER’S PERSPECTIVE** Although the evidence supporting Luther’s assumptions against Roman Catholicism’s view of the Eucharist are strong, the presuppositions supporting his view of the Lord’s Supper are not as strong. Two significant presuppositions arise from Luther’s perspective as documented in the Large Catechism. First, Luther uses biblical evidence to suggest that the bread and wine are “the true body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Is it true that the bread and wine are literally Christ’s body and blood or is it a presupposition? Luther argues that 1 Corinthians 11:24 is literally true by stating, “Take, eat; this is My body.” In other words, if Christ says the bread is “My body” then that is exactly what it must be. However, Luther broadens the interpretation by arguing the bread and wine become more than food by a supernatural infusion of Christ, the Word of God, into the existing elements. Thus, the joining of the Word with the bread and wine becomes a Sacrament that conveys grace to the believer. Although Luther does a masterful job applying a literal interpretation to the phrase “this is my body,” by completely ignoring the remainder of the verse that states, “do in remembrance of Me” an inductive fallacy possibly exists. Excluding pertinent evidence risks a potential error that defies logic. In fact, Scripture is absent of evidence that suggests that Christ commonly infuses lifeless objects like bread, wine, glass, and metal with Himself and could potentially border on the implication of pantheism if taken to an extreme. More importantly, however, the biblical evidence in the Gospels and [1 Corinthians states](https://www.livestransforming.com/perfect-in-1-corinthians-13-9-10/) that the purpose of the meal is to remember that the atoning work of Christ provides grace, not that the Christ infused bread and wine provide grace. A myriad of verses including 2 Corinthians 12:9 support that Christ’s grace alone is sufficient. In other words, inanimate objects joined in some way with Christ are not necessary for the sufficiency of grace. So why is a literal view that the bread is actually Christ’s body a problem? First, as already mentioned, it risks a modified form of pantheism if the logical fallacy goes too far. Second, and more importantly, it risks a human reliance on something other than the sufficiency of Christ’s grace by suggesting the conveyance of grace includes Christ plus other objects. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 24 182x300 - Martin Luther's Critique of Catholic Communion](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-24-182x300.jpg "Martin Luther - Lives Transforming's Critique of Catholic Communion")](https://amzn.to/3DR0OnA)Christian Theology Second, Luther argues that the efficacy of the Lord’s Supper is the “remission of sins.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Is it possible that eating the bread and drinking the cup can actually cause the remission of sins or is this a presupposition? Luther again uses biblical evidence to support the argument, but this time refers to one of the Gospels. Matthew 26:27-28 states, “Drink ye all of it; this cup is the new testament in My blood, which is shed for you for the remission of sins.” Based on Luther’s previous literal presupposition, the logical conclusion Luther draws is that drinking the cup actually remits sin. This appears at first to be illogical until one remembers that Luther has joined the cup with Christ, which allows Luther’s logic to remain consistent. Unfortunately, Luther’s consistent logic is built on an inductive fallacy already alluded to above. Again, by completely ignoring the phrase “in remembrance of Me,” Luther gives the power of remission, at least partially, to the cup instead of blood, and ignores the real power of the cup, which is to stimulate remembrance. Of course, one could contend that Luther is arguing that the real power of the bread and the cup is completely the Word, but if so then what is the purpose of the joint venture?[\[3\]](#_ftn3) In other words, as Matthew 20:28 confirms, biblically and logically it is the blood, and the blood alone, that provides for the remission of sins.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) So what are the risks of assuming that the bread and cup have a part in the remission of sin? First, if the act of consuming the elements remits sin then a works based system of forgiveness could evolve in opposition to the very principles that nearly cost Luther his life. Second, it inappropriately risks adding components to the blood of Christ as a necessity for the remission of sin. ## **CONCLUSION** This paper has explored two of Luther’s presuppositions used to refute the Roman Catholic position regarding the Eucharist. Furthermore, Luther’s view of the Lord’s Supper provided two additional presuppositions from the Large Catechism. Accordingly, this post has shown that a number of potential presuppositions are evident in both the criticism of the Roman Catholic view of the Lord’s Supper as well as Luther’s alternatives. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1)Martin Luther, Luther’s Large Catechism: Of the Sacrament of the Altar, https://sites.google.com/site/wetmorelibertypapers/lordssuppertext/luthers-large-catchism (accessed February 10, 2012). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2)Ibid. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3)Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1998), 1126. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4)John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck, eds., The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty (Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983), 83. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Erickson, Millard J. Christian Theology. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1998. - Luther, Martin. Luther’s Large Catechism: Of the Sacrament of the Altar. https://sites.google.com/site/wetmorelibertypapers/lordssuppertext/luthers-large-catchism (accessed February 10, 2012). - Walvoord, John F., and Roy B. Zuck, eds. The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty. Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [High Priestly Prayer of Jesus: John 17](https://www.livestransforming.com/high-priestly-prayer-of-jesus-john-17/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # High Priestly Prayer of Jesus: John 17 ## **BRIEF SUMMARY** In the article, “The High Priestly Prayer of Jesus” Bob Deffinbaugh examines Jesus’ prayer documented in John 17. The article’s thesis may be articulated as follows: the priestly prayer of Jesus has a primary theme of glory with an emphasis on unity while providing practical lessons for prayer. The author’s goal appears to be the practical application of the glory, unity, and prayer motifs directly to the life of believer. This post provides an exploration of the author’s presuppositions, evidence, Scriptural exegesis, and logic. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 37 182x300 - High Priestly Prayer of Jesus: John 17](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-37-182x300.png "High Priestly Prayer of Jesus: John 17 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3WfHwOO)Holman Concise Bible Commentary ## **PRESUPPOSITIONS** Deffinbaugh assumes an evangelical perspective likely supported by his educational background from Dallas Theological Seminary. In fact, in many ways the entire article appears to simply expand on Walvoord and Zuck’s exposition in *The Bible Knowledge Commentary*.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The author’s exposition of prayer, glory, and unity show a pattern of intimate relational connections with God revealing a strong evangelical foundation. Specifically, prayer is conversational, glory is connected to personal suffering, and the significant emphasis on unity burgeons from an interpersonal, relational perspective as opposed to organizational unity. Accordingly, the author’s evangelical presuppositions that drive the article’s conclusions regarding unity diverge significantly from potential alternative perspectives such as the Modern Ecumenical Movement and the historical constructs of the Roman Catholic Church. ## **EVIDENCE** The evidence provided to support the article’s arguments includes history, scholarship, and Scripture. Historically, Deffinbaugh references Clement of Alexandria to support the overarching purpose of John 17 and integrates [Jewish thought](https://www.livestransforming.com/jewish-religious-thought/) regarding the Law in order to highlight the glory of Christ. The primary scholarly works utilized by the author are Leon Morris’s *Reflections on the Gospel of John* and D. A. Carson’s *The Farewell Discourse and Final Prayer of Jesus: An Exposition of John 14-17*. The author leans on Morris for linguistic support and integrates Carson’s more practical wisdom, while employing both authors’ insights into thesis development. Finally, although further analysis of Scripture is provided below, it is important to note that one of the strongest overarching attributes of the work is the author’s expansive integration of both New and Old Testament Scripture outside the confines of John 17 to support the arguments. ## **SCRIPTURE** Deffinbaugh utilizes strong Old and New Testament Scriptural support to clearly illuminate the primary theme of glory and provide appropriate emphasis on Christian unity while carefully avoiding the pitfalls of ecumenism. Furthermore, the author is reliable in applying a proper interpretation of intimacy, warfare, unity, and glory across the spectrum of Christ’s prayer. Finally, and perhaps more importantly, the author utilizes Scripture to examine the practical application of glory, unity, and prayer. The author’s depth is specifically revealed in the exploration of two glories. Although glory is often focused primarily on the future, it is also appropriate to paradoxically apply its precepts to the present sufferings of believers as “the sufferings themselves can be viewed as glorification.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The practical application of glory that suggests personal difficulties represent God’s process of honoring believers is splendid. Alternatively, although not completely ignored, an area of exegesis that lacked breadth was Deffinbaugh’s exploration of sanctification in John 17:18-19. Consistent with Woolvard and Zuck, the author appropriately recognizes the missional aspects of the two verses. However, the Greek word used for sanctification within the context of John 17 can also mean the process of God molding individuals “according to His holiness.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) In addition to the missional aspects of the prayer, it appears significant that Christ may have also been praying for the continual revelation of God’s truth to liberate the disciples from the power of the worldly forces.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) ## **LOGIC AND CLARITY** The author’s overall logic and clarity of the practical application of prayer, glory, and unity is solid. The tripartite structure based on the chronology of the prayer is prudent and the identified categories are reasonable. However, the intended audience and bible study format of the article caused thesis development at times to appear discontinuous, especially when attempting to integrate entertaining tangents such as the reference to impeaching the President. Furthermore, the blog style format caused unnecessary duplication of content regarding certain topics including the past tense used by Jesus and the connection between Jesus’ priestly prayer and the prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane. Finally, potential logic gaps exist regarding the goal of all Christians. Although the glory of God is without question the primary purpose of history, suggesting humanity can decide in a living room conversation what is going to ultimately glorify God could potentially risk usurping the glory that is being promoted. It is God that demonstrates his power in humanity and God that makes humanity worthy in order for God to be glorified.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Accordingly, if man’s decisions are made based on God’s power then the risk subsides, but if man attempts to exclusively determine what will glorify God – the glory of God is undermined. ## **CONCLUSION** Deffinbaugh’s article provides excellent support for the theme of glory, emphasis on unity, and practical lessons of prayer. Although the minor weaknesses identified did detract, the author’s presuppositions are supported by strong evidence, sound biblical exegesis, and steady logic. Accordingly, the goal of practically applying the concepts of glory, unity, and prayer to everyday life was accomplished. Finally, the author’s insights provide a significant contribution to the exposition and practicality of the priestly prayer of Jesus in John 17. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1)John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck, eds., *The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty* (Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2)W. A. Elwell, ed., *Evangelical Dictionary of Theology: Glory*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001), 485. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3)J. E. White, *Holman Concise Bible Commentary: Simple, Straightforward Commentary of Every Book of the Bible*, ed. D. S. Dockery (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1998), 485. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4)*The Pulpit Commentary: St. John Vol. II*, ed. H. D. M. Spence-Jones (Bellingham, WA: Logos Research Systems, 2004), 348-49. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5)Romans 9:17; I Thess. 1:11-12. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Elwell, W. A., ed. *Evangelical Dictionary of Theology: Ecumenism*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001. - *The Pulpit Commentary: St. John Vol. II*. Edited by H. D. M. Spence-Jones. Bellingham, WA: Logos Research Systems, 2004. - Walvoord, John F., and Roy B. Zuck, eds. *The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty*, 330-34. Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983. - White, J. E. *Holman Concise Bible Commentary: Simple, Straightforward Commentary of Every Book of the Bible*. Edited by D. S. Dockery. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1998.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Prayer and Faith Article Critique: Edward Bounds](https://www.livestransforming.com/prayer-and-faith-article-critique-edward-bounds/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Prayer and Faith Article Critique: Edward Bounds **Bounds, Edward M. “Prayer and Faith.” In *The Necessity of Prayer*.** The presuppositions in Bounds’s work are numerous. This post will address two significant presuppositions. First, Bounds provides a presupposition that faith is a prerequisite to prayer. Second, the author also advances arguments based on the presupposition that trust is all feeling. Finally, Bounds’s work contains a number of additional potential presuppositions that are considered. This discussion post will show that many potential presuppositions exist within Bounds’s work. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 36 182x300 - Prayer and Faith Article Critique: Edward Bounds](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-36-182x300.png "Prayer and Faith Article Critique: Edward Bounds - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DS9lqf)The Joyful Christian: 127 Readings ## **FAITH PRECEDES PRAYER PRESUPPOSITION** First, Bounds explains that faith in some way is a pre-requisite to prayer. In other words, faith is a “first place” or “starting point” necessary for prayer. [\[1\]](#_ftn1) Is it true that one has to have faith in order to pray or is it a presupposition? To support the argument that faith must precede prayer, Bounds uses the evidence of Mark 11:24 to suggest that an appropriate amount of belief causes answers to prayers. Granted, there is a certain connection between belief and prayer, however, Mark 11:24 does not specifically say that faith must precede prayer; instead, it encourages the person who is praying to believe. In fact, in what could only be interpreted as a prayer, Mark 9:24 records a father crying out to Jesus saying, “help my unbelief,” which is a perfect example of a prayer that admittedly did not have belief as a starting point, but instead, began with unbelief. Furthermore, the Lord’s Prayer in Matthew 6:10 gives clear evidence that answers to prayer are contingent upon an alignment with God’s will as evidenced by the famous phrase: “Thy will be done.” Accordingly, it does not seem logical to suggest that complete faith is necessary as a pre-requisite to prayer when there is a simultaneous possibility that the prayer may not align with God’s will.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) In other words, unless a believer omnipotently knows the will of God, it is not possible to have complete faith in an affirmative answer. Of course, one could argue that prayer goes unanswered because the believer has not perfected his faith or perfected his faith enough. Fortunately, Jesus’s prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane in Mark 14 undermines this logic when he prayed, “Remove this cup from me.” Obviously, Jesus’s faith was not lacking, but God flatly denied the request. Although it seems possible that faith can precede prayer, it does not appear that the Bible requires it; in fact, the Bible appears to encourage some form of doubt within every human request in light of the important principle that accompanied Jesus’s prayer – “not what I will, but what you will.” So why is the assertion that faith must precede prayer such a problem? One reason is that it can impede believers from praying because they may think they do not have enough faith to pray. Second, it could cause a firestorm of guilt within a believer when a prayer remains unanswered, especially if it is determined that the sole reason for the denial is a lack of faith. ## **TRUST IS ALL FEELING PRESUPPOSITION** Second, Bounds explains that “trust is faith become absolute…a conscious act” and according to Scripture it is the “feeling of the soul,” and then the author adds emphasis by stating that “trust like life, is feeling…*all* feeling.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Is it true that trust is faith become absolute, a conscious act, and *all* feeling? Obviously, the suggestion that trust is an act and simultaneously “all feeling” seems logically contradictory. However, what is more concerning is that Bounds’s passion attempts to lure the reader into believing that Scripture actually supports his contentions when no Scriptural support exists. The only evidence that exists regarding these specific assertions appears to be enthusiasm. In fact, the first Scripture utilized in Bounds’s chapter on Prayer and Trust is Mark 11:23, but it does not include the word trust and quickly leads to another topic altogether. The word trust is actually only used five times in the New American Standard version. However, the Greek word for trust is *peitho.* The New Testament utilizes the word *peitho* 52 times and it is translated into words such as trust, convince, confidence, persuade, and obey. Notably, when the New Testament translates the word *peitho* into “trust” it connotes an act that specifically means “to convince,” or “to persuade,” which certainly pertains to cognitive faculties. [\[4\]](#_ftn4) Although trust may spill over into our feelings, suggesting that trust is “all feeling” goes far beyond the actual Greek meaning. What is the implication of an errant view asserting that trust is “all feeling?” Unfortunately, the impact can be potentially significant and even damaging. If trust means “all feeling” then when a believer is not feeling convinced, then by definition, logic would suggest that trust must vanish. For example, a believer may not feel loved by God today, thus, if trust is “all feeling” then one would have to conclude that God cannot be trusted – the logical flaw is obvious. Alternatively, if trust is being “convinced” or “persuaded” that God is love, then cognitively a believer can trust that God loves them even if they do not feel it on a given day. ## **OTHER PRESUPPOSITIONS** There is an overwhelming sense that an analysis of Bounds’s presuppositions could possibly match the length of Bounds’s book. Accordingly, a number of potential presuppositions deserve further analysis. First, in chapter two Bounds suggests that definite and specific requests are necessary. However, is it possible that an appropriate prayer request could be vague, such as the previously mentioned ambiguous phrase requesting, “Thy will be done.” In chapter four Bounds says, “Desire is an absolute essential of prayer.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) However, as Dr. Wetmore explained in his response to Edwards, desire in [the New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/) normally contains negative connotations. Is it possible that desire, which Bounds defines as an “an inward longing for something of which we are not possessed,” could actually hinder prayer at times?[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Additionally, in chapter five Bounds suggests that prayer must be “red hot” and full of fervor in order to “carry us through…long periods of pleading prayer.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Is it true that prayer must entail intense feelings or is it possible for prayer to be peacefully contemplative? Furthermore, since Deffinbaugh taught in his article, “The High Priestly Prayer of Jesus,” that John 17 was Jesus’s longest recorded prayer, is it even necessary or beneficial to pray for long periods? Bounds also says in chapter five that “fervency has its seat in the heart, not the brain, nor in the intellectual faculties of the mind.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) However, Bounds does not define the word “heart” or prove the location of fervency. Ironically, in chapter six, Bounds admits there is a “wrestling quality” to prayer, but how does the necessity for “wrestling” logically reconcile with the requirement in chapter two that prayer be completely free from doubt.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) In chapter eight Bounds states, “prayer governs conduct.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Is it true that prayer controls conduct? If orthodoxy suggests that the Holy Spirit empowers sanctification, which is the process of becoming holy, then is prayer really the engine that powers obedience? Furthermore, on the one hand Bounds states that “conduct makes character” and then in the next paragraph states that “the more we pray (conduct), the purer and better our lives (character).”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) It is apparent that a logical inconsistency may exist. In chapter nine Bounds explains that the reason God answers prayer is because a believer is obedient and then concludes that believers “*can* keep God’s commandments.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) The implication is that if a believer can keep all of God’s commandments, then answers to prayers are imminent. Is it possible that a believer can live without sin? This appears to be inconsistent with Romans 7, but further investigation is required. Finally, in chapter 14 Bounds states “prayer converts even the bricks, and mortar, and lumber, into a sanctuary” where God dwells.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Does prayer really convert buildings into a church, and further, is church actually a building made of brick and mortar? These presuppositions and many more provide fertile ground for further analysis. ## **CONCLUSION** Bounds’s work is chock-full of presuppositions. Specifically, this paper has proven that two of Bounds’s presuppositions are faith is a pre-requisite to prayer and trust is all feeling. Finally, further investigation appears necessary in order to assess a number of additional potential presuppositions. Accordingly, this post has shown that many potential presuppositions exist within Bounds’s work. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Edward M. Bounds, “Prayer and Faith,” in *The Necessity of Prayer* (Grand Rapids: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, n.d.), 3, http://sites.google.com/site/wetmorelibertypapers/boundsnecessitywithref (accessed January 28, 2012). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) C. S. Lewis, *The Joyful Christian* (New York: Touchstone, 1977), 95-96. Lewis provides similar logic in a discussion regarding answered prayers. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Bounds, *The Necessity of Prayer*, 14. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) *Theological Dictionary of the New Testament*, ed. G Kittel, G. W. Bromiley, and G. Friedrich, electronic ed. (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1964), 6:1-4. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Bounds, *The Necessity of Prayer*, 20. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 26. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 27. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 30. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 38. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 46. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 66. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Bounds, Edward M. “Prayer and Faith.” In *The Necessity of Prayer*. Grand Rapids: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, n.d. http://sites.google.com/site/wetmorelibertypapers/ boundsnecessitywithref (accessed January 28, 2012). - Lewis, C. S. *The Joyful Christian*. New York: Touchstone, 1977. - *Theological Dictionary of the New Testament*. Edited by G Kittel, G. W. Bromiley, and G. Friedrich. Electronic ed. Vol. 6. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1964.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Spiritual Disciplines](https://www.livestransforming.com/spiritual-disciplines/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Spiritual Disciplines [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 35 182x300 - Spiritual Disciplines](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-35-182x300.jpg "Spiritual Disciplines - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4hbXu4J)Spiritual Disciplines for the Christian Life Donald Whitney lists eleven spiritual disciplines, which include Bible intake, prayer, worship, evangelism, serving, stewardship, fasting, silence, solitude, journaling, and learning.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The impact on members of my local church would be significant if the spiritual disciplines were practiced consistently. However, first a few caveats are in order. David Earley correctly notes that the spiritual disciplines are “not an end in themselves, they are a means to an end.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) If any of the spiritual disciplines, in and of themselves, become gods, even the most righteous activities move toward idolatry. Oswald Chambers astutely points out when referencing Matthew 6:24, “It is easy to associate mammon only with sordid things.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) In other words, the enemy would love for the disciplines to become a yardstick for righteousness, a means of unhealthy comparisons, and a methodology that glorifies human performance rather than God. With caveats firmly in place, underestimating the importance of the spiritual disciplines on their potential impact for members of the local church would be a grievous mistake. For my local church, in particular, a number of the spiritual disciplines are lacking and, at times, even appear absent. First, although evangelistic outreach exists through events, the spiritual discipline of personal evangelism often seems nonexistent. In light of the fact that the Institute of American Church Growth reports that between 75 and 90 percent of conversions occur through one-on-one relationships, the lack of emphasis on personal evangelism is highly problematic.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Second, Whitney references the Barna Research Group who suggests that 23 percent of Christians never read the Bible.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Unfortunately, due to the young age of the church I attend, I would venture to guess that Barna’s statistics are high. However, it is hard to imagine the magnitude of the impact on the emotional and spiritual health of the members who may consistently experience love, joy, and peace once fully engaged in the Word. Third, although certain disciplines are more difficult to assess, such as silence, solitude, fasting, prayer, and journaling – stewardship is not. [The local church](https://www.livestransforming.com/disciple-making-in-the-local-church/) I attend averages ten dollars per week per attendee. Obviously, actual tithing is not even in sight. However, the freedom experience and faith expansion of the attendees who would decide to move outside the control and manipulation of the dollar bill, and instead, rely on God to provide, would be significant. Finally, the spiritual discipline of worship has unfortunately become more about evaluating the singers, rating the songs, assessing the decibel level, and seeking entertainment in my church’s seeker friendly atmosphere. Accordingly, the impact of true authentic worship may be revolutionary. Paul urges believers to present their “bodies as living and holy sacrifice, acceptable to God, which is your spiritual service of worship” (Romans 12:1 NASB). In other words, if attendees would understand worshipping God as an all-encompassing life offering, their bondage to the temporal pressures of the world would perish. I especially enjoy Eugene Peterson’s paraphrase of the same verse, which states, “So here’s what I want you to do, God helping you: Take your everyday, ordinary life – your sleeping, eating, going-to-work, and walking-round life – and place it before God as an offering. Embracing what God does for you is the best thing you can do for him” (Romans 12:1 The Message). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). Donald S. Whitney, *Spiritual Disciplines for the Christian Life* (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1991), 5. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). Liberty University, “Presentation: A Matter of the Heart – Overview of Spiritual Formation and Prayer,” Liberty University Web site, Microsoft Silverlight file, 7:45, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_ (accessed March 16, 2013). [\[3\]](#_ftnref3). Oswald Chambers, *The Complete Works of Oswald Chambers* (Grand Rapids, MI: Discovery House, 2000), 728. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4). William Fay and Linda Evans Shepherd, *Share Jesus Without Fear* (Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999), 12. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5). Whitney, *Spiritual Disciplines for the Christian Life*, 32. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Chambers, Oswald. *The Complete Works of Oswald Chambers*. Grand Rapids, MI: Discovery House, 2000. - Fay, William, and Linda Evans Shepherd. *Share Jesus Without Fear*. Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999. - Liberty University. “Presentation: A Matter of the Heart – Overview of Spiritual Formation and Prayer.” Liberty University Web site. Microsoft Silverlight file. http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_ (accessed March 16, 2013). - Whitney, Donald S. *Spiritual Disciplines for the Christian Life*. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1991.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Sharing Your Faith Without Fear](https://www.livestransforming.com/sharing-your-faith-without-fear/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Sharing Your Faith Without Fear David Earley describes living on mission as following the direction of Jesus as a missionary “not something the church does for God,” but “it is the church getting in sync with what God is already doing on planet earth.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Later, Earley asks the listener to list four or five lost people and pray, love, serve, and share the Gospel with people who do not know Christ.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) I would rate my current level of living on mission as it relates specifically to personal evangelism as a one. Although I have joined God in leading a number of people to Christ, I am not intentional about personal evangelism. In fact, it has only been within the last six months that I have begun to seriously address the issue of personal evangelism in my life. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 34 182x300 - Sharing Your Faith Without Fear](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-34-182x300.jpg "Sharing Your Faith Without Fear - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3C17C1p)Share Jesus Without Fear The Lord is definitely pressing me to be a person living on mission. The type and style of personal [evangelism taught](https://www.livestransforming.com/evangelism-vision-sample/) during my formative years seemed controlling and argumentative, and at times, felt unbiblical. Even today, when I hear suggestions to extend kindness or provide service in order to lead someone to Christ, I cringe at the potential for manipulation, which has plagued Christianity since at least the time of Constantine. In other words, a fine line exists between actually caring for another human being and selfishly thinking, “If I provide a kind act then maybe I can get him to believe what I believe.” However, during a recent vacation I finished reading William Fay’s book, “*Sharing Jesus without Fear*,” which opened my mind to an entirely different approach to evangelism. Fay teaches to extend inquiry and empathy rather than arguments and condescension.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Furthermore, Fay suggests creating an environment of discovery that allows the unbeliever to hear the Holy Spirit’s promptings, rather than human suggestions.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Although a very simple book, I found myself becoming excited about actually caring for my non-Christian friends by asking non-threatening, spiritual questions, which may significantly benefit their life now and into eternity. Once I finished Fay’s book, I read Will McRaney’s book, *The Art of Personal Evangelism*.” I was almost fearful to open the book wondering if the flood of bad memories regarding evangelism would be overwhelming. However, once again, I was pleasantly surprised. Specifically, McRaney supports Fay’s assertions by suggesting that in a postmodern society questions, stories, dialogue, and listening are much more powerful tools for evangelism than argumentative approaches.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) It is a little embarrassing that at my age, my progress is just beginning, but I am at least finding myself thinking about people in elevators, on airplanes, and at work much differently and beginning to ask initial questions to open dialogue about spiritual matters. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). Liberty University, “Presentation: Living on Mission,” Liberty University Web site, Microsoft Silverlight file, 4:17, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_ (accessed April 5, 2013). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). Ibid, 15:19. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3). William Fay and Linda Evans Shepherd, *Share Jesus without Fear* (Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999), 32-33. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4). Ibid., 45. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5). Will McRaney Jr., *The Art of Personal Evangelism* (Nashville, TN: B&H, 2003), 166. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Fay, William, and Linda Evans Shepherd. *Share Jesus Without Fear*. Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999. - Liberty University. “Presentation: Living on Mission.” Liberty University Web site. Microsoft Silverlight file. http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_ (accessed April 5, 2013). - McRaney, Will Jr. *The Art of Personal Evangelism*. Nashville, TN: B&H, 2003.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [New Testament Christian Community](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-christian-community/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # New Testament Christian Community It is sometimes difficult to imagine the importance of the New Testament concept of community. In one of the most powerful references to the unity of believers, the Apostle Paul states that, “In Himself He might make the two into one new man…and might reconcile them both in one body to God through the cross.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Peter O’Brien comments that Christ actually brought believers “together in a sovereign act that was nothing less than a new creation.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The impossibility of functioning individually becomes obvious in light of the believer’s integration into a newly created corporate entity that resides in Christ. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 33 182x300 - New Testament Christian Community](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-33-182x300.jpg "New Testament Christian Community - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4h7A68v)Radical: Taking Back Your Faith from the American Dream Accordingly, Dave Early appropriately points out that if believers simply attend church on Sunday morning without an ongoing connection, then the body becomes ineffective.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) One might propose taking Earley’s logic a step further by suggesting that if Sunday morning consists solely of a mass of people listening to entertaining music and teaching, then it is likely that the word “church” may be an inappropriate name for the activity. As David Platt points out, the model of church provided by Jesus was a focus on the few, not on the masses.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Thus, the remainder of this discussion board post will focus on Christian community in terms of participation in relationship with *the few*. I had two rather different experiences regarding integration into Christian community during my early adulthood. My first experience entailed attending a Sunday morning service and then being asked to sign up to join a small group. Unfortunately, the small group I joined seemed to exist as a forum to spew advice couched as truth given in love and to heave judgment couched as accountability. Alternatively, I had a pastor ask to personally meet with me every week for a few months. We met in a room at a library and each week he would ask me what God was doing in my life. Once I had finished answering the question, then I would ask him the same question. He would answer and then we would pray and leave. My meetings with Pastor Bob were my first experiences of true Christian community. Since those initial meetings with Bob, I have spent the last fifteen years of my life meeting with thousands of people individually and in small groups. Pastor Bob helped me see the power of inquiry over advice giving and empathy over extending judgment. He modeled Christian community by allowing the Holy Spirit to reveal and convict rather than personally feeling the need to fix or control. Pastor Bob’s influence inspired me to make personal discipleship in an environment of Christian community my ministerial mission. Accordingly, I have applied Bob’s principles of the spiritual discipline of community to many areas of my life and ministry. First, I decided not only to personally disciple others, but also teach others to disciple in a safe environment of community through Monday night training sessions. Second, I published a book that focuses on relational [discipleship in Christian](https://www.livestransforming.com/christ-in-discipleship/) community. Third, I created an accredited college curriculum regarding the practical integration of faith and psychology that continues to be offered to graduating seniors. Currently, I plan to continue my lifelong mission of personally building disciples within a safe environment of community with the individuals and small groups of people that God places in my life as well as teaching others to do the same. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). Ephesians 2:15-16 (NASB). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). Peter T. O’Brien, *The Letter to the Ephesians* (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999), 199. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3). Liberty University, “Presentation: The Overlooked Disciplines – Saying Thanks,” Liberty University Web site, Microsoft Silverlight file, 13:11, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_ (accessed March 21, 2013). [\[4\]](#_ftnref4). David Platt, *Radical: Taking Back Your Faith from the American Dream* (Colorado Springs, CO: Multnomah, 2010), 1-2. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Liberty University. “Presentation: Living in Community.” Liberty University Web site. Microsoft Silverlight file. http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_ (accessed March 21, 2013). - O’Brien, Peter T. *The Letter to the Ephesians*. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999. - Platt, David. *Radical: Taking Back Your Faith from the American Dream*. Colorado Springs, CO: Multnomah, 2010.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Christian Identity Markers of Self](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-identity-markers-of-self/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Christian Identity Markers of Self [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 32 182x300 - Christian Identity Markers of Self](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-32-182x300.jpg "Christian Identity Markers of Self - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40sC7Xb)The Search For Significance: Seeing Your True Worth Through God’s Eyes Although difficult to limit meaningful identifying markers to four, the following summarizes the four most important and encouraging identifying markers in my life along with the reasons for my selections. First, in Christ, “I am justified and redeemed.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) David Early explains that upon regeneration, God “looks at me through the righteousness of Jesus Christ.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) [Robert S. McGee](https://www.livestransforming.com/robert-mcgee/) furthers the explanation of justification by astutely asking, “When God considers you, does He deceive Himself in some way, or does He know who you truly are? If He knows who we truly are, then why do we preface His understanding of us with phrases such as ‘in God’s eyes, we are righteous’…. Are we trying to say that God is not living in reality? That He is somehow involved in self-deception?”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Paul’s letter to the Romans emphatically states, “the righteousness of God has been manifested…through faith in Jesus Christ for all those who believe” (Romans 3:21-22 NASB). In other words, God does not look at me as if I am righteous when I am not, rather I am righteous, “justified as a gift by His grace” (Romans 3:24). However, when I attempt to find my righteousness or goodness in my relationships, my performance, my career, or anything other than in Christ, I am placed under the control and manipulation of the world. Thankfully, God freed me from the bondage of the world by giving His righteousness – a real righteousness – to me. Accordingly, the importance of justification cannot be overstated. The remaining identifying markers are in many ways extensions of justification, but if selections are necessary, then the second marker is, “We have been established and sealed in Christ.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The reason for my selection is that I cannot imagine living a life of religious tyranny that constantly questions personal salvation by wondering what I need to do, or not do, in order to procure or keep my salvation. Fortunately, God alone saves and keeps me, because I am “sealed in Him with the Holy Spirit of promise.” (Ephesians 1:13) The third marker is, “We have been sanctified in Christ.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Sanctification is the process of “making the person holy or good.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The reason for selecting the third marker is that relying on human effort to make myself holy or good would be at best, futile, and at worst, delusively sinful. However, providentially, my sanctification is in Christ (1 Cor. 1:2). In other words, in Christ, the incessant need to sin by finding my value and worth in things outside of Christ subsides, and holiness, which sets me apart from the influences of the world, results. In sum, grace, not human effort, leads to obedience. The final important and encouraging identifying marker is, “I am one with others in the body of Christ.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The reason for the selection of the fourth marker is that my new creation status is not limited to my new self. Instead, in Christ, He has made “the two into one new man.” (Ephesians 2:15). Amazingly, Christ not only made individual believers new, but also created a new humanity, a new corporate entity of believers, via His death and resurrection.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) More specifically, Christ did not build a new structure, like constructing a house from hundreds of distinct parts, but instead, He built a “new entity in His own person, *it is He Himself in a new dimension*.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The ramifications of Christ’s body existing as a new dimension of Him provides an unimaginable power to influence the world now and throughout eternity. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). Liberty University, “Presentation: Recovering Your Spiritual Identity,” Liberty University Web site, Microsoft Silverlight file, 7:17, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_ (accessed April 3, 2013). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). Liberty University, “Presentation: Recovering Your Spiritual Identity,” 7:29. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3). Robert S. McGee, *The Search for Significance* (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2003), 41. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4). Liberty University, “Presentation: Recovering Your Spiritual Identity,” 12:05. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5). Ibid, 11:40. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6). Millard J. Erickson, *Christian Theology*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 890. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7). Liberty University, “Presentation: Recovering Your Spiritual Identity,” 10:42. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8). Peter T. O’Brien, *The Letter to the Ephesians* (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999), 200. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9). R. Schnackenburg, *Ephesians: A Commentary* (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1991), 115. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Erickson, Millard J. *Christian Theology*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007. - Liberty University. “Presentation: Recovering Your Spiritual Identity.” Liberty University Web site. Microsoft Silverlight file. http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_ (accessed April 3, 2013). - McGee, Robert S. *The Search for Significance*. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2003. - O’Brien, Peter T. *The Letter to the Ephesians*. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999. - Schnackenburg, R. *Ephesians: A Commentary*. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1991.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [God's Power in Prayer](https://www.livestransforming.com/gods-power-in-prayer/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # God’s Power in Prayer [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 15 182x300 - God's Power in Prayer](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-15-182x300.png "God - Lives Transforming's Power in Prayer")](https://amzn.to/4h8HUXA)Prayer: The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders Dave Earley asks a question that, at first glance, appears rhetorical. Earley asks whether the listener believes that God can do things bigger, better, more long lasting, and more effectively than humans can.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The rhetorical nature of the question soon diminishes when the listener realizes that if the answer to the question is in the affirmative, then action results; otherwise the answer is misguided. Specifically, if one truly values the power of God’s aptitude, then the daily practice of prayer must follow. The Apostle Paul emphatically affirms Earley’s expected answer by stating that God “is able to do far more abundantly beyond all that we ask or think” (Ephesians 3:20 NASB). Accordingly, Paul’s practice of prayer recognizes the absolute necessity of God’s power and intervention in the lives of believers. In Paul’s letter to the Ephesians, he prays that God will reveal Himself to his readers and that the eyes of their heart will be enlightened (Ephesians 1:17-18). In other words, the revelation and enlightenment necessary for spiritual growth originates from God and God alone, and without God’s intervention, spiritual eyes remain closed, and effectiveness in ministry is absent. If prayer is the activator of God’s movement, and God’s omnipotent movement is the determining factor of impact, then prayer has omnipotent impact.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Three prayer habits of high-impact leaders that I currently apply or plan to apply are praying for those I serve, turning problems into prayer, and training others to pray for me. First, after reading the first chapter of [Earley’s book on prayer](https://www.livestransforming.com/david-earley-timeless-secret/), praying for those I serve took on a new meaning and necessity. Although somewhat embarrassing, as a spiritually gifted leader, I had not previously connected my prayer life directly to my leadership life. However, understanding prayer in light of leadership effectiveness and efficiency is highly motivational. Second, my perspective of turning problems into prayers has changed. At times, the health and wealth prayers of modern Christian society have resembled coveting more than praying. However, in accordance with Paul’s prayer to the Ephesians referenced earlier, when the focus of the problems remains primarily spiritually focused, then turning problems into prayers become not just palatable, but invigorating. Third, training others to pray for me is a concept completely absent from my life. Ironically, I have read numerous requests for prayer from Paul in his letters, but I have not applied his requests to my life. I am not sure if this was due to pride, ignorance, or both. Regardless, I have noticed the spiritual attacks from the enemy, especially during specific days of ministry work, but again, I had not previously connected the necessity for training others to pray for me to mitigate the attacks. It is obviously time for a change in my prayer life. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). Liberty University, “Presentation: Prayer – The Common Denominator of High Impact Leaders,” Liberty University Web site, Microsoft Silverlight file, 2:33, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_ (accessed March 16, 2013). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). David Earley, *Prayer: The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders* (Chattanooga, TN: Living Ink, 2008), 6-8. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Liberty University. “Presentation: Prayer – The Common Denominator of High Impact Leaders.” Liberty University Web site. Microsoft Silverlight file. [http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_](http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_tab_group_id=_2_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D_1942950_) (accessed March 16, 2013) - Earley, David. *Prayer: The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders*. Chattanooga, TN: Living Ink, 2008.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Embracing the Cross of Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/embracing-the-cross-of-christ/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Embracing the Cross of Christ David Earley explains that embracing the Cross means saying no to my interests and being “willing to have nothing other than Jesus.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) My current level of embracing the cross is quite difficult to assess but would likely fall within a range between three and four. Although numerous instances exist, two specific examples provide an explanation for my assessment. I graduated from college at the top of my class with a degree in accounting, passed the CPA exam prior to graduating, and landed a job with a prominent international consulting firm. After a number of years with Deloitte, I decided I needed more. I started a construction company and grew it to one of the top companies in the Midwest by the age of thirty. Unfortunately, or maybe fortunately, I started waking up at night in pools of sweat, and then in the mornings, I would start crying in my office for no apparent reason. My doctor diagnosed me with severe anxiety, prescribed me an addictive form of anti-anxiety drugs, and encouraged me to hire a counselor. My value and worth had become completely connected with my career and it was time to abandon my interests. Accordingly, I gave up my career. Another area of my life that needed relinquished was sex. I married my wife twenty-five years ago this June at the young age of twenty. I spent the first decade of marriage arguing about sex. I wanted more sex and she was not interested. Accordingly, I would attempt to manipulate and control her by using various tactics such as buying flowers and shaming her. At age 32, I gave up sex. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 31 182x300 - Embracing the Cross of Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-31-182x300.jpg "Embracing the Cross of Christ - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40tZkID)Luther’s Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough Relinquishing my career and sex had a profound impact on my life. First, in both areas of my life God was asking if I was “willing to have nothing other than Jesus.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) In other words, was it possible to find value, worth, meaning, happiness, and purpose in a career or sex? The answer was obviously a resounding, “No.” Second, an amazing shift began to occur once I abandoned my need for a career and sex by living life in a way that Christ was enough. Regarding my career, my anxiety began to decrease because I stopped pushing so hard. I started treating employees, suppliers, and subcontractors more like human beings than machines. Empowerment replaced micromanagement and an energetic atmosphere replaced a suppressive environment. Paradoxically, my career and business began to thrive. Regarding sex, I decided Christ was enough and that I did not need anything from my wife, thus I began loving her unconditionally. Without the need for sex, my anger subsided, which eliminated the manipulation and control. For example, when I brought home flowers my wife would graciously accept them rather than rolling her eyes. Paradoxically, in the absence of manipulation, control, shame, and guilt my wife actually started to enjoy living with me again. [Jesus masterfully explains](https://www.livestransforming.com/jesus-early-life/) the paradox: “He who has found his life will lose it, and he who has lost his life for My sake will find it” (Matthew 10:39 NASB). I tried finding my life in my career and sex and lost it. However, when I lost my career and sex life and trusted in Christ to meet all my needs, I found it. The Lord is obviously not done with me. He is currently pressing me to abandon other areas of my life to Him. Over the last number of years, I have struggled with various health issues, which has elevated my anxiety. God is asking me to give up my health. Of course, this does not mean giving up on life. It simply means that God wants me to give up needing my health in order for me to feel peace, fulfillment, or completeness because I am already complete in Him. Furthermore, I am sensing that God may be asking me to give up my financial security. Although God has not confirmed a complete redirection into ministry or other volunteer initiatives, it is with a positive expectancy that I look forward to what God may be asking me to “give up” next. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). Liberty University, “Presentation: Embracing the Cross,” Liberty University Web site, Microsoft Silverlight file, 2:54, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_ (accessed April 4, 2013). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). Ibid. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Liberty University. “Presentation: Embracing the Cross.” Liberty University Web site. Microsoft Silverlight file. http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_ (accessed April 4, 2013).[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Discipline of Thanksgiving](https://www.livestransforming.com/discipline-of-thanksgiving/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Discipline of Thanksgiving Dave Earley references a biblical example of thanksgiving from Acts chapter 16, which made the largest impression on my thinking.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) After casting out an evil spirit from a profitable fortune telling slave-girl, Paul and his companion, Silas, were beaten with rods and thrown into prison (Acts 16:16-24 NASB). However, instead of sulking, during the middle of the night, Paul and Silas began praising God (Acts 16:25). God then sent an earthquake that freed the prisoners and culminated in the conversion of the jailer (Acts 16:26-34). The reason this biblical example made a significant impression is due to its ability to reveal the providential nature of God’s character, which necessitates a thankful response to all circumstances. When challenging circumstances arise, it is tempting for believers to think that God is not present or that God is intentionally delivering punishment. However, God never leaves or condemns “those who are in Christ Jesus” (Hebrews 13:5; Romans 8:1). Of course, God disciplines those He loves, but even God’s discipline is “for our good, so that we may share His holiness” (Hebrews 12:10). Accordingly, James appropriately encourages believers when facing trials to “consider it all joy” (James 1:2). When one places a proper perspective on the providential nature of God, the natural response to challenges, suffering, and discipline is thanksgiving, which not only places an appropriate trust in God, but also provides a peace in the believer’s heart. In light of God’s providence, applying the discipline of thanksgiving is relatively simple. Instead of attempting to identify all the “good” things that have happened during a given day or week, simply make a list of the “trials” that have occurred. After listing all the trials, then name the list at the top of the page in big bold letters – “My Gift List” (James 1:2 The Message). Finally, write the reasons why each of the challenges is a gift, which may include potential character enhancements such as increased endurance and greater holiness. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 30 182x300 - Discipline of Thanksgiving](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-30-182x300.jpg "Discipline of Thanksgiving - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3WgdRFz)Discipleship: Dietrich Bonhoeffer Works, Volume 4 Dave Earley listed approximately 31 different spiritual disciplines in his training video.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) However, I found the spiritual disciplines of ambition and thought life particularly interesting. First, growing up in the United States under the mantra of the “American Dream” has caused me to personally struggle with the discipline of ambition. I remember quite some time ago telling my pastor that I wanted to “make something of myself.” He responded by asking me a simple question, “Why?” After that conversation, I have gradually learned the freedom that detaching from achievement can provide. In fact, I currently have a quote from Dietrich Bonhoeffer on my laptop to remind me of the lesson that states, “One must completely abandon any attempt to make something of oneself.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The second discipline I found interesting was thought life. While reading [Donald Whitney’s book](https://www.livestransforming.com/donald-whitney-spiritual-disciplines/) on the disciplines, I often remembered times the enemy would attempt to use Scripture against me like he did while tempting Jesus in the desert or when my thoughts would wander during prayer time. Accordingly, a significant risk seems to exist that if one exercises any of the disciplines while allowing thoughts to go awry, then transformation may terminate. Thus, one must not underestimate the seriousness of being “transformed by the renewing of your mind” (Romans 12:2 NASB). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). Liberty University, “Presentation: The Overlooked Disciplines – Saying Thanks,” Liberty University Web site, Microsoft Silverlight file, 8:08, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_ (accessed March 18, 2013). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). Ibid, 0:29. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3). Dietrich Bonhoeffer, *Discipleship*, ed. Geffrey B. Kelly and John D. Godsey, trans. Barbara Green and Reinhard Krauss (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003), 308. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. *Discipleship*. Edited by Geffrey B. Kelly and John D. Godsey. Translated by Barbara Green and Reinhard Krauss. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003. - Liberty University. “Presentation: The Overlooked Disciplines – Saying Thanks.” Liberty University Web site. Microsoft Silverlight file. http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D\_1942950\_ (accessed March 18, 2013).[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Self-Care for Christian Counselors](https://www.livestransforming.com/self-care-for-christian-counselors/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Self-Care for Christian Counselors Providing crisis care/counseling takes a tremendous toll on the crisis care giver emotionally, physically, and spiritually. Self-care is crucial for the crisis counselor to develop when ministering in crisis situations. Using professional and scholarly sources, research optimal strategies for self-care. Share what type of crisis you believe will be your greatest challenge. What optimal self-care strategies will you consider to promote emotional, physical, and spiritual well-being? ## **Response** Self-care is critically important for the health and perseverance of counselors, especially crisis counselors. Mary Mayorga, Sabina Devries, and Elizabeth Wardle (2015) note that the American Counseling Association deems self-care a necessary part of the profession (p. 25). Research supports the use of several self-care strategies to support counselors’ physical, emotional, and spiritual health. First, regarding physical self-care, Mayorga, Devries, and Wardle propose getting enough rest, daily physical activity, which includes both aerobic and anaerobic exercise, as well as healthy eating, which includes consuming significant amounts of fruits and vegetables (p. 23). Second, regarding emotional self-care, Jason Hotchkiss and Ruth Lesher (2018) encourage activities such as mindful self-awareness, self-compassion, meditation, journaling, maintaining boundaries, and supportive relationships (pp. 87-94). Supportive relationships may include strong relationships with mentors, friends, and supervisors (Hotchkiss & Lesher, p. 96). More specifically, Liberty University (n.d.) recommends the support of other ministers of the same gender. Third, regarding spiritual self-care, T. Scott Bledsoe and Kimberly Setterlund (2015) suggest the daily rituals of praying, reading devotionals, and confronting negative thoughts (p. 57). [The Apostle Paul](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-apostle-pauls-perspective-on-jewish-law/) highlights the importance of protecting the counselor’s thought life by stating, “We are destroying speculations and every lofty thing raised up against the knowledge of God, and we are taking every thought captive to the obedience of Christ” (2 Corinthians 10:5, New American Standard Bible). [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 29 182x300 - Self-Care for Christian Counselors](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-29-182x300.jpg "Self-Care for Christian Counselors - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3WeApGs)Counselor Self Care The crisis that I believe will be my greatest challenge as a counselor is the death of children or adolescents. When I was in third grade, I had a schoolmate that died from leukemia. In fifth grade I had a friend, who rode the school bus with me, die in her sleep. When I was in ninth grade, I had teammate die in a car crash. Furthermore, my father was a policeman, and I was exposed to numerous death scenarios at a young age. Unfortunately, my brain was not developed enough to properly process the information, and in my small hometown, counseling services were basically nonexistent. Unfortunately, I still struggle with processing death, especially with children and adolescents. During early adulthood, I ignored self-care practices to my detriment. However, I currently utilize a number of self-care strategies to promote physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being. First, I exercise six times per week both aerobically and anaerobically to support my physical health. I eat a low-carb diet that includes fish, fruit, and vegetables, while excluding flour and processed sugar. Second, to support my emotional health, I need significant time alone reading, writing, and spending time with my wife who is an integral part of my support system. Finally, reading scripture and praying are staples of my spiritual life. Additionally, I consistently take captive thoughts that cause unhealthy emotions, and then intentionally replace them with thoughts based on God’s truth, which aligns with the Apostle Paul’s exhortation to “be transformed by the renewing of your mind” (Romans 12:2, New American Standard Bible). **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** - Bledsoe, T. S., & Setterlund, K. A. (2015). Thriving in ministry: Exploring the support systems and self-care practices of experienced pastors. *The Journal of Family and Community Ministries*, *28*, 48–66. - Hotchkiss, J. T., & Lesher, R. (2018). Factors predicting burnout amount chaplains: Compassion satisfaction, organizational factors, and the mediators of mindful self-care and secondary traumatic stress. *Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling*, *72*(2), 86–98. - Liberty University. (n.d.). *Self-care & pastoral crisis intervention* \[Video presentation\]. - Mayorga, M. G., Devries, S. R., & Wardle, E. A. (2015). The practice of self-care among counseling students. *I-Manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology*, *8*(3), 21–28. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Christian Bereavement Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-bereavement-counseling/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Christian Bereavement Counseling Wright (2012) comments, “A bereaved person, no matter his or her age, needs safe places, safe people and safe situations.” As a pastoral crisis caregiver, how would you offer these crucial elements to those in the midst of a death crisis? [![03 14 182x300 - Christian Bereavement Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-14-182x300.png "Christian Bereavement Counseling - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DOgZlv)The Complete Guide to Crisis & Trauma Counseling: What to Do and Say When It Matters Most!, Rev. Ed. ## **Response** A safe environment is a critical part of all forms of counseling, but especially for bereaved individuals. Norman Wright (2011) suggests that a safe environment includes safe places, such as familiar surroundings, safe people, such as friends and family, and safe situations, such as roles that create purpose without creating stress (pp. 263-264). Wright provides a number of basic crisis intervention procedures that generally assist in creating a safe environment for bereaved persons, which include active listening, assessing needs, normalizing grief responses, realistic reassurances, support for effort, creation of attainable plans, educating, and attending to emotional degradation (pp. 164-165). Wright’s basic guidelines form a foundation of safe support for bereaved individuals. However, specific guidelines that support each category of safety is valuable in attending to those experiencing loss. First, safe people are those who provide compassionate care. Cathy Quinn (2016) suggests that the type of relational care that supports the bereaved is “epitomized by kindness, openness, trust, dignity, mutual respect, collaborate care, sensitive and honest communication, consistent and accurate information, guidance, and support” (p. 562). Furthermore, Kath Peters, Colleen Cunningham, Gillian Murphy, and Debra Jackson (2016) offer additional ways to be safe people by highlighting the importance of the caregiver helping the bereaved feel understood, share experiences, and problem solve (p. 419). The research providing guidance regarding how to be safe people is supported by the Apostle Paul’s words to the Galatians, “Bear one another’s burdens, and thereby fulfill [the law of Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/christ-is-the-end-of-the-law-pauls-view/)” (Galatian 6:2, New American Standard). Safe places are also supportive of the healing of bereaved individuals. According to Quinn (2016), a safe place is a location where quality information is provided and effectively communicated in a calm, caring, fashion (p. 564). Furthermore, Peters et al. (2016) reference research that suggests that peer support groups are an effective way of providing safe places for the bereaved, especially those groups who have experienced similar loss, offer a space to speak freely, and normalize the grief response (pp. 420, 423). Not surprisingly, random acts of kindness also helped the bereaved experience a safe place to open up and share experiences (Peters et al., pp. 420, 423). Finally, safe situations complete the trilogy of care that supports those experiencing the loss of a loved one. Liberty University (n.d.) references David Switzer’s four-point process of meeting the needs of a bereaved individual. The bereaved first need a non-judgmental environment, followed by an affirmation of self-worth, encouragement to reinvest in new experiences, and finally, assistance in rediscovering meaning (Liberty, n.d.). A final issue that needs addressed is the topic of finances. According to Peters et al. (2016), depending on the type of loss, the bereaved may be left in a situation of financial strain or even destitution (p. 424). Assessing the financial need and garnering financial assistance also provides a safe situation for the mourner. In sum, the caregiver has multiple resources, both personally and corporately, to offer bereaved individuals so they may be supported with safe people, places, and situations. **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** ## **References** - Liberty University. (n.d.). *A crisis of loss* \[Video presentation\]. - Peters, K., Cunningham, C., Murphy, G., & Jackson, D. (2016). Helpful and unhelpful responses after suicide: Experiences of bereaved family members. *International Journal of Mental Health Nursing*, *25*(5), 418–425. - Quinn, C. (2016). Creating and maintaining compassionate relationships with bereaved parents after perinatal death. *British Journal of Midwifery*, *24*(8), 562–566. - Wright, H. N. (2011). *The complete guide to crisis & trauma counseling: What to do and say when it matters most*. Minneapolis: Bethany House. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Christian Crisis Management: Alcohol](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-crisis-management-alcohol/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Christian Crisis Management: Alcohol # **Crisis Case Management** ## **Nature of Crisis** The A&E Network series, *Intervention*, documents Alex’s struggle with alcohol in series 17, episode 7, produced by Seeley (2017). Alex’s mom, Patti, is a world-class fiddle player. Alex did not know his biological father until his teenage years. When Alex turned five, his mother married Alex’s stepfather. Alex never felt he could live up to his stepfather’s high expectations. Eventually, Patti and Alex’s stepfather divorced. The estranged relationship with his stepfather left Alex feeling worthless and abandoned. Alex turned to his fiddle to find acceptance and worth, but he felt that he could never live up to his mother’s musical talent. Now in his twenties, Alex turned to alcohol to cope with his emotional pain. Alex’s addiction to alcohol has left him without a career, and his friends and family are about to give up. Alex could soon lose everything. Patti had always loved Alex, her only son, and cannot stand the thought of losing Alex to alcohol. Although Patti does not often attend church, she considers herself a Christian and came to me as her counselor to help her through her crisis with Alex. According to Liberty University (n.d.-a), the type of crisis Patti faces is primarily an interpersonal crisis between her and Alex; however, Patti’s constant enabling of Alex highlights the existential crisis that Patti is encountering as she struggles with her own inner conflicts with identity. [![03 14 182x300 - Christian Crisis Management: Alcohol](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-14-182x300.png "Christian Crisis Management: Alcohol - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DOgZlv)The Complete Guide to Crisis & Trauma Counseling: What to Do and Say When It Matters Most!, Rev. Ed. ## **Alleviating the Crisis** Several important pastoral counseling strategies need implemented to assist Patti in alleviating the crisis. H. Norman Wright (2011) identifies eight steps of crisis intervention. First, when Patti reaches out for help, a prompt response is important, and the response should include some basic intervention procedures such as listening to Patti’s story, which increases understanding and builds trust. The second step is to help Patti act. To address the overwhelming nature of the situation, the counselor could take a directive role and encourage Patti to brainstorm some alternative ways of handling the situation. Third, the counselor needs to restore balance by normalizing her responses. For example, the counselor can communicate that it is common for parents to enable children during times of crisis due to fear. The next step is for the counselor to provide realistic hope. At this point, the counselor can explain that professionally facilitated intervention, followed by inpatient rehabilitation, has led many people to overcome addictions. Fifth, the counselor needs to clarify the expectations of counseling and identify other mature individuals within [the church community](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-church/) to support Patti through the crisis. The sixth step is for the counselor, over time, to help Patti face the problem of enabling through active listening. Once the problem is recognized, the counselor can then help Patti set goals and act to decrease the enabling. Seventh, the counselor can now begin helping Patti recognize that her self-worth is tied to her identity as a mom, which feeds her enabling. At this point, Patti may be open to finding her value and worth in Christ, rather than in Alex’s success or failure. Finally, the counselor needs to clarify that, although she is not responsible for Alex’s choices, she can take responsibility by addressing issues that are within her control (pp. 161-185). ## **Teaching Coping Skills** Several coping strategies are available for Patti to assist her in dealing with the crisis. First, Liberty University (n.d.-b) suggests deploying stress management tools such as relaxation response training, health initiatives including nutritional techniques and physical exercise, and time management. Second, Although Alex is still alive, Patti feels as if she is grieving the loss of her son. Accordingly, Wright (2011) suggests daily journaling to express the emotions and challenges of grief (pp. 115-116). Third, Wright notes the importance of Scripture and prayer to comfort Patti in her time of crisis (pp. 415-427). Fourth, Liberty University (n.d.-c) explains that an intervention is often necessary with people struggling with addictions. Patti can take steps toward working with a professional to facilitate a message of love to Alex through an intervention. Fifth, Wright recommends that a person in crisis expand “his or her social support system as soon as possible” (p. 174). In Patti’s situation, participation in a crisis small group ministry at church or an Al-Anon family group that share a similar experience may also assist in coping. Finally, Wright explains that crisis counseling is not therapy (p. 150). However, if Patti struggles with ongoing anxiety, depression, or other severe emotional challenges, W. Brad Johnson and William Johnson (2014) suggest that a referral to a cognitive behavioral therapist may help Patti cope (pp. 23-24). ## **Developing Resiliency** Although difficult to recognize at the time, crisis provide opportunities for personal growth. Wright (2011) explains that individuals develop resiliency when they find new meaning in their crisis rather than maintain stagnant beliefs, develop a survivor rather than victim mentality, and taking control of decisions rather than allowing circumstances to dictate choices (pp. 224-225). It is difficult to imagine finding new meaning through crisis outside of a perspective in Christ. James points out that challenges do have meaning; they test one’s faith, produce perseverance, which in turn, lead to maturity (James 1:2-4, New American Standard Bible). Furthermore, it is natural for people to find their value in worth in just about anything but God: career, money, children, spouses, friends. During times of crisis, something of value is lost, and Christians can find their completeness in Christ rather than the person or item lost (Colossians 2:10, New American Standard Bible). Helping Patti redefine suffering and find her identity in Christ, rather than Alex, will exponentially increase resiliency. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Johnson, W. B., & Johnson, W. L. (2014). *The minister’s guide to psychological disorders and treatments*. New York, NY: Routledge. - Liberty University. (n.d.-a). *Introduction to crisis counseling* \[Video presentation\]. - Liberty University (n.d.-b). *Models of crisis counseling* \[Video presentation\]. - Liberty University (n.d.-c). *Substance abuse & crisis Care* \[Video presentation\]. - Seeley, K. (Director). (2017). Alex. In G. R. Benz, M. Branton, J. L. Weaver, L. Fleury, and J. Wagman’s, *Intervention*. New York, NY: A&E Network. Available from https://www.aetv.com/shows/intervention/season-17/episode-7. - Wright, H. N. (2011). *The complete guide to crisis & trauma counseling: What to do and say when it matters most*. Minneapolis, MN: Bethany House. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Christian Crisis Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-crisis-counseling/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Christian Crisis Counseling Johnson & Johnson (2014) write, “Your troubled parishioners will get better when they work hard in \[counseling\] to understand themselves, learn new skills, and modify self-defeating beliefs, behaviors, and emotions.” As a pastoral crisis counselor, respond to the following questions: What specific strategies identified in this module/week’s reading will equip you to provide beneficial pastoral crisis care/ministry? What strategies have you discovered in other scholarly research? What strategies have you used or observed? ## **Response** Certain strategies can assist in equipping those who provide pastoral crisis care. First, Liberty University (n.d.) suggests using a pastoral crisis intervention strategy that uses the acronym SAFER, which stands for stabilizing, acknowledging, facilitating understanding, encouraging coping, and recovery or referral. The process begins with the pastoral counselor building rapport and listening to the facts of the crisis, followed by encouraging the expression of emotions and normalizing the response (Liberty, n.d.). Next, the caregiver provides coping tools, and then he or she assesses whether the counselee is recovering or needs a referral (Liberty, n.d.). In instances where referrals are necessary, W. Brad Johnson and William L. Johnson (2014) assert that referring parishioners to a competent Christian mental health professional is optimal, if the counseling is psychologically sound, scripturally congruent, and Spirit directed (p. 12). Furthermore, Johnson and Johnson (2014) suggest that pastors remain open to referring counselees to non-Christian counselors in certain situations where a competent Christian counselor is not available (p. 12). [![03 13 182x300 - Christian Crisis Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-13-182x300.jpg "Christian Crisis Counseling - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40q8XYR)Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Christians with Depression: A Practical Tool-Based Primer (Spirituality and Mental Health) Johnson and Johnson (2014) explain that success in counseling is at least partially attributed to “modifying self-defeating beliefs, behaviors, and emotions” (p. 49). During times of crisis, feelings of shock and confusion can lead to distorted thoughts. Michelle Pearce (2016) explains that Christian cognitive behavioral therapy (CCBT) is a proven strategy that can assist individuals in addressing the distortions (p. 35). CCBT is based on the interconnectedness between thoughts, emotions, and actions, and it asserts that emotions can be modified by changing the way we think and behave (Pearce, 2016, pp. 35-36). According to Alexis Trader (2011), CCBT is rooted in ancient Christianity, and many writings of [the Church](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-church/) Fathers, such as Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and John Chrysostom, reflect the concepts found in CCBT (pp. 16, 53). Even Augustine identified certain relationships currently found in CCBT when stating, “It is impossible for a man’s acts to be evil, whose thoughts are good, for acts issue from thoughts” (Trader, 2011, p. 63). Scripture also supports CCBT concepts. For example, in Luke 6:45 Jesus states, “The good man out of the good treasure of his heart brings forth what is good” (New American Standard Bible). Personally, I have used Christian based cognitive behavioral therapy for several years. When individuals experience crisis, it is common to experience it within the context of loss: a loss of a job, a loss of a marriage, or a loss of a loved one. A cognitive distortion that often accompanies loss is personalization. Personalization occurs when the individual takes responsibility for an event outside his or her control, and often results in piling guilt on top of the feeling of loss (Pearce, 2016, p. 70). Through empathy and inquiry, the counselor can often assist the counselee in recognizing that God is in control, and the belief that humans have control over events outside of their control is an illusion. Once personalization is recognized and thoughts are re-aligned with the truth that God is in control, the emotion of guilt often dissipates. \[Word Count 499\] \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Johnson, W. B., & Johnson, W. L. (2014). *The minister’s guide to psychological disorders and treatments*. New York: Routledge. - Liberty University. (n.d.). *Models of crisis counseling* \[Video presentation\]. Retrieved from https://learn.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-28693574-dt-content-rid-345592251\_1/courses/PACO604\_B02\_201920/PACO604\_LUO\_8wk\_DEV\_ImportedContent\_20160929093339/PACO604\_Presentations/Models%20of%20crisis%20care%20%28LMS%29/res/html5.html - Pearce, M. (2016). *Cognitive behavioral therapy for Christians with depression: A practical tool-based primer*. West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton. - Trader, A. (2011). *Ancient Christian wisdom and Aaron Beck’s cognitive therapy: A meeting of minds*. New York: Peter Lang. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Why Christians Get Married](https://www.livestransforming.com/why-christians-get-married/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Why Christians Get Married There are many ideas about why people should get married; Scripture even mentions more than one reason. Some recent publications suggest that marrying for love is a bad idea. Explore this idea using Internet resources and the Bible to articulate your point of view on this subject. ## **Response** Recent publications have suggested that marrying for love or only for love is a bad idea. For example, Susan Gadoua suggests that marrying only for love is dangerous because the emotion of love changes, love does not provide a strong foundation, and love is not all that you need.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Ted Huston provides support for Gadoua’s argument by summarizing a 13-year longitudinal study in the United States that confirms that people who say they marry for love “are prone to divorce when love dissipates.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Finally, Stephanie Coontz recognizes that, historically, marriage was more about in-laws and labor force rather than about individual needs of a man or woman.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Without question, in certain psychological and sociological circles, love has fallen out of favor as a primary reason for people to get married. Scripture addresses several reasons for marriage, which extend back to [the book of Genesis](https://www.livestransforming.com/genesis-4-1-and-procreation/). First, in Genesis 2:18 God asserts that man needs companionship and should not be alone. The Prepare Enrich program highlights the importance of companionship by evaluating factors such as communication, conflict resolution, leisure activities, and relationship roles.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) God also told man and woman in Genesis 1:28 to “be fruitful and multiply” (New American Standard Bible). Accordingly, a second reason for marriage is procreation. Third, the Song of Solomon makes clear that the physical union between a man and wife brings pleasure. Although not a comprehensive list, three biblical reasons for marriage include companionship, procreation, and pleasure. [![03 12 182x300 - Why Christians Get Married](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-12-182x300.jpg "Why Christians Get Married - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3PxY1SG)Ephesians: (A Paragraph-by-Paragraph Exegetical Evangelical Bible Commentary – BECNT) (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament) Paul writes in his letter to the Ephesians, “He who loves his own wife loves himself; for no one ever hated his own flesh, but nourishes and cherishes it, just as Christ also does the church, because we are members of His body. *For this reason*, a man shall leave his father and mother and shall be joined to his wife, and the two shall become one flesh” (Ephesians 5:28-31, emphasis mine). Frank Thielman comments on the passage by suggesting that God instituted marriage for the same reason that Christ relates to the church.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Thielman continues by explaining that the union of marriage is built on a husband “who imitates the self-sacrificial, nurturing, and supporting roles that Christ fills with respect to the church.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Accordingly, although potential byproducts, the primary reason for marriage is not a feeling of love, companionship, procreation, or pleasure. Instead, as divine imagers, the primary reason for marriage is for individuals to learn to sacrifice, support, and nurture a partner by becoming more like Christ while living in union with another individual. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Susan Pease Gadoua, “3 Reasons Why You Shouldn’t Marry for Love Alone,” Psychology Today, November 17, 2013, accessed November 3, 2018, https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/contemplating-divorce/201311/3-reasons-why-you-shouldnt-marry-love-alone. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ted L. Huston, “What’s love Got Do with It?: Why Some Marriages Succeed and Others Fail,” *Personal Relationships*, 2009, 322. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Stephanie Coontz, “The Radical Idea of Marrying for Love,” in *Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life*, ed. David M. Newman and Jodi O’Brien, 7th ed. (Los Angeles: Pine Forge, 2008), 158. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Prepare-Enrich, *Facilitator’s Manual*, (Life Innovations, Inc., n.d.), 17, accessed November 3, 2018, http://www.prepare-enrich.com/prepare\_enrich\_content/training/facilitators\_manual.pdf. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Frank Thielman, *Ephesians* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010), 389. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 379. ## **Bibliography** - Coontz, Stephanie. “The Radical Idea of Marrying for Love.” In *Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life*, edited by David M. Newman and Jodi O’Brien. 7th ed. Los Angeles: Pine Forge, 2008. - Prepare-Enrich. *Facilitator’s Manual*. Life Innovations, Inc., n.d. Accessed November 3, 2018. http://www.prepare-enrich.com/prepare\_enrich\_content/training/facilitators\_manual.pdf. - Gadoua, Susan P. “3 Reasons Why You Shouldn’t Marry for Love Alone.” Psychology Today. November 17, 2013. Accessed November 3, 2018. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/contemplating-divorce/201311/3-reasons-why-you-shouldnt-marry-love-alone. - Huston, Ted L. “What’s love Got Do with It? Why Some Marriages Succeed and Others Fail.” *Personal Relationships*, 2009, 301–27. - Thielman, Frank. *Ephesians*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Christian Blended Family Issues](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-blended-family-issues/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Christian Blended Family Issues What do you see as some of the most impactful challenges involved in a blended family coming together under one roof? What areas would you seek to address in counseling a couple thinking about remarrying to form a blended family? ## **Response** The challenges of a blended family are quite significant. However, Jaymes Gonzales contends that preblended family counseling not only increases the chance for success, but it also helps smooth the process of integration.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Three of the most impactful challenges involved in a blended family are the emotional health of the biological parent, the ability to effectively handle situations with an ex-spouse, and the integration of the new partner into the family. All three need addressed in preblended family counseling. [![03 11 182x300 - Christian Blended Family Issues](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-11-182x300.jpg "Christian Blended Family Issues - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40verS8)Dating and the Single Parent: \* Are You Ready To Date? \* Talking With The Kids \* Avoiding A Big Mistake \* Finding Lasting Love by Ron L. Deal (1-Oct-2012)… First, regarding the health of the biological parent, emotional healing is paramount. Ron Deal references one of his clients who states, “healing before remarriage is the most important thing a person can do for themselves and their children.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The pain of loss often extends beyond inner turmoil and into relationships. For example, if a spouse had an affair, it may be difficult to ever trust again. If a parent left an abusive situation, he or she may experience guilt for not “sticking with it” for the kids. Accordingly, it is important to remind the counselee of God’s healing hand, “He heals the brokenhearted and binds up their wounds” (Psalm 147:3).[\[3\]](#_ftn3) A second challenge is effectively parenting children with an ex-spouse. Deal states, “Ex-spouses can wreak lots of havoc on remarriage relationships.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In most cases, a form of shared custody occurs with underage children; thus, interaction with ex-spouses will continue. In a best-case scenario, discussions around pick-up and drop-off times, financial obligations, and shared decision making with ex-spouses may continue amicably for years. In a worst-case scenario, ex-spouses can initiate an endless stream of legal motions, complaints, and court dates to antagonize or even attempt to bankrupt the spouse. Accordingly, the handling of conflict with an ex-spouse is critical to [counseling a couple](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/marriage-counseling/) thinking about remarrying to form a blended family. The third challenge of a blended family is the integration of the new partner into the family. Gonzales points out that education is critical regarding family member’s expectations.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) More specifically, Deal explains that it is unreasonable to assume that children will automatically be open to the possibility of a stepfamily.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Children may experience significant fear of integrating a new family member. For example, children may fear potential competing attachments or hurt from another potential breakup.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The fears that children face need addressed. They may provide an opportunity to discuss their faith in an age-appropriate way, possibly by reminding them of verses such as Psalm 56:4, “In God, whose word I praise, in God I trust.” In sum, the counseling process must engage in discussions around emotional health, ex-spouses, and assimilation. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Jaymes Gonzales, “Prefamily Counseling: Working with Blended Families,” *Journal of Divorce & Remarriage* 50, no. 2 (January 2009): 156–57. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ron L. Deal, *Dating and the Single Parent* (Minneapolis: Bethany House, 2012), 49. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2016). [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Deal, *Dating and the Single*, 88. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Gonzales, “Prefamily Counseling,” 152. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Deal, *Dating and the Single*, 190. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 101–2. ## **Bibliography** - Deal, Ron L. *Dating and the Single Parent*. Minneapolis: Bethany House, 2012. - Gonzales, Jaymes. “Prefamily Counseling: Working with Blended Families.” *Journal of Divorce & Remarriage* 50, no. 2 (January 2009): 148–57. [](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Christian Premarital Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-premarital-counseling/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Christian Premarital Counseling What is the status of premarital counseling in your church/community? What level of importance does your church place on the institution of marriage, and are they doing anything creative to support young marriages? [![03 10 182x300 - Christian Premarital Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-10-182x300.jpg "Christian Premarital Counseling - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gH2lLr)Strengthening Marital Intimacy: Elements in the Process ## **Response** I have attended a non-denominational church, The Bridge, in Anderson, Indiana for several years prior to that church recently shutting down. The Bridge did not use any premarital assessment tools, but the pastor would meet with couples three times prior to the wedding. In the first session the pastor would listen to the couple’s story and discuss the typical needs of a man and woman. The second session addressed issues of sex and specifically how to discuss and handle situations when one partner wanted sex more often than the other. The third session addressed the importance of discussing the “blacklist,” which consists of topics that couples often avoid because they could be hurtful or difficult. Such topics might include in-law relationships, finances, and character flaws. The discussion of blacklist items aligns with Ronald Hawkins’s contention that good communication is vitally important for couples.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) I recently began attending a Lutheran church close to my residence in Fishers, Indiana. It appears the church places a high importance on the institution of marriage. However, the only visible efforts to support young marriages is a Sunday school class that emphasizes topics for young married couples. Otherwise, there does not appear to be anything creative to support young marriages. I currently am the executive director of a Christian counseling organization, Lives Transforming, which has five licensed counselors on staff. The premarital [counseling performed by Lives Transforming](https://www.livestransforming.com/lives-transforming-counseling-and-coaching-theory/) utilizes the Symbis assessment tool to provide a basic understanding of personality differences, communication styles, expectations etc. However, popular Christian assessments often lack emphasis on Gospel integration. According to Larry Crabb, the most basic human need is a sense of worth, and the primary route to worth is security and significance.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Often couples are looking to find security and significance in a marriage relationship. However, Crabb appropriately points out that justification by faith is an individual’s only way to acquire worth or acceptability.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The Apostle Paul explains that “this righteousness is given through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe…and all are justified freely by his grace through the redemption that came by Christ Jesus” (Rom 3:22, 24, New International Version). Accordingly, God’s gift of righteousness declares individual’s value and worth, not a spouse’s opinions or behaviors. Hawkins contributes to the discussion by asserting that intimacy is possible only when a “strong sense of separate self-worth” exists.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Thus, only when the couple can come to terms with their own sense of identity in Christ can the partners truly focus on loving each other rather than needing the partner to fill certain voids or needs. In sum, true love and intimacy can only occur if built upon the message of the Gospel. Thus, Lives Transforming combines assessment tools with the message of the Gospel. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Ronald E. Hawkins, *Strengthening Marital Intimacy* (Kearney, NE: Baker, 1991), 116. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Larry Crabb, *Effective Biblical Counseling: A Model for Helping Caring Christians Become Capable Counselors* (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2013), 63. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 24–25. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Hawkins, *Strengthening Marital Intimacy*, 12. ## **Bibliography** - Crabb, Larry. *Effective Biblical Counseling: A Model for Helping Caring Christians Become Capable Counselors*. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2013. - Hawkins, Ronald E. *Strengthening Marital Intimacy*. Kearney, NE: Baker, 1991.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Personal Counseling Theory: Example](https://www.livestransforming.com/personal-counseling-theory-example/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Personal Counseling Theory: Example # **Personal Theory Paper** ## **Summary** ### **Primary Goal** The primary goal of counseling is for a life to be transformed into the image of God by recognizing and appropriating his or her identity in Christ through the renewal of the mind. The goal of counseling is based on the Gospel. Jay Adams’s goal of counseling is righteousness that focuses on behavior change (Powlison, 2010, p. 102). However, Timothy Keller (2012) asserts that the gospel “has nothing to do with developing a righteousness we give God,” but is “God’s developing and giving us righteousness through Jesus Christ (1 Cor 1:30; 2 Cor 5:21)” (p. 63). The goal of counseling completely depends on the believer’s “in Christ” status that results from justification through God’s gift of righteousness. James Samra (2008) asserts that the stative nature of being in Christ has ethical implications; the believer’s attitudes and actions must align with the realm within which they belong (pp. 74-75). The alignment of attitudes and actions with the believer’s status occurs by letting God’s truth transform him into the image of Christ by actively renewing the mind (See Rom 12:2). The stative and dynamic aspects of transformation are not contradictions. Paul often parallels the indicative and imperative, and thus “can both declare that believers are spiritual and exhort them to be spiritual” (Samra, 2008, p. 82). David Benner’s (2015) goal focuses on transformation (p. 73). However, Benner (2015) limits the solution to God’s love and misses the importance of the believer’s new identity (p. 73). Sandra Wilson’s (2001) goal focuses on understanding and overcoming the hurt and shame of the past (pp. 15-16). However, the goal of counseling is not primarily about recovering from the past, but instead being freed from the past by appropriating a new identity in Christ. ### **Development of Problems and Personal Need** Agreeing with Larry Crabb (2013), the primary need of humanity is a sense of worth (pp. 62-63). Prior to the Fall, mankind had a sense of worth united with God in the Garden. However, Brian Rosner (2017) explains that Adam and Eve’s transgression was an identity crisis where Satan tempted them to establish their “identity independent of God” (p. 86). The problem is a separation of identity from God, which results in mankind looking elsewhere for worth. Keller (2008) astutely notes, “Our need for worth is so powerful that whatever we base our identity and value on we essentially ‘deify'” (p. 163). Keller (2008) continues by explaining that humans often find their identity and worth in spouses, family, children, work, career, money, possessions, relationships, and approval (pp. 275-276). Deification of worldly objects completely undermines spiritual and psychological maturity. For example, when a wife is deified, the result is co-dependence, where the husband attempts to manipulate and control his wife to feel better about himself since his identity is wrapped up in his wife’s attitudes and actions. Divorce is often the result. Alternatively, if one’s identity is wrapped in Christ, then the disastrous results are avoided. In sum, problems arise when individuals attempt to find value and worth outside of Christ in such areas as people’s opinions, performance, and circumstances. For Adams, humanity’s problem is sinful behavior (Powlison, 2010, p. 102). Sinful behavior is not the problem; it is the result of the problem that an individual’s identity is separated from God. Johnny Baker explains that for Wilson problems develop from childhood (Liberty University, *Healing*). If Wilson is correct, then children from functional family environments would be healthy, but these children also require a new identity in Christ to solve the problem of worth. For Benner (2015), a separation of God’s love is the problem (p. 27). Benner is correct, but a new identity in Christ is necessary to unite the believer with God’s love. ### **Biblical Integration** The entire counseling methodology relies on biblical integration, which is essential to the goal of counseling’s three components: (1) God’s image, (2) identity in Christ, and (3) the renewal of the mind. First, Scripture declares that humans are made “in the image of God” (see Gen. 1:26, 27; 5:1, 9:6). Michael Heiser (2015) explains that the meaning of the phrase hinges on properly translating the Hebrew preposition “in” as a verb or function, “We are created to image God, to be his imagers. It is what we are…not an ability we have, but a status” (pp. 42-43). In other words, as God’s representatives, believers are His imagers. Second, Rosner (2017) concludes that being made in God’s image is tied directly to a new identity as God’s children (p. 84). Believers made in God’s image are adopted as sons and daughters “in Christ” with the rights of heirs (Rosner, 2017, pp. 84-85). Harold Hoehner (2002) explains that the “in Christ” formula indicates a believer’s union with Christ, thus the believer is no longer separated from God (p. 171). In other words, a new identity has been forged, for anyone who is “in Christ, he is a new creation” (2 Cor 5:17, English Standard Version). The believer’s new identity in Christ takes on Christ’s attribute of righteousness that is declared to the believer as a gift (Crabb, 2013, p. 24). Although these spiritual benefits are given to the believer, Hoehner (2002) explains that “believers still need to appropriate them” (p. 172). Third, although humanity was created as God’s divine image bearers, and believers have a new identity in Christ, Scripture asserts that for believers to be transformed into who they already are requires “the renewal of your mind” (Rom 12:2). In other words, the process of appropriating the spiritual benefits that God has already given to the believer occurs by renewing the mind upon God’s truth. It is upon these three biblical constructs, divine imaging, new identity, and mind renewal that [Christian counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/telehealth-christian-counseling/) rests. ### **Formula for Change** The methodology’s formula for change rests on the acronym B-T-E-A, which needs to be taught to the counselee prior to using the four-step formula for change. It is first necessary for the client to understand that Beliefs inform Thoughts that lead to Emotions, which, in turn, result in Actions. In other words, healthy inner beliefs ultimately lead to healthy outward behavior, “For no good tree bears bad fruit…the good person out of the good treasure of his heart produces good” (Luke 6:43-45). The four-step formula for change begins by having the client identify the unhealthy emotion (Crabb, 2013, p. 146). According to Michelle Pearce (2016), the unhealthy feeling is often more noticeable and easier to identify than the underlying thought or belief (p. 72). Furthermore, focusing on the unhealthy emotion allows the client to take her spiritual temperature by juxtaposing the emotions with the fruit of the Spirit (see Gal 5:19-26). The second step is to assist the client in identifying the underlying thoughts or beliefs that automatically entered her mind when feeling the unhealthy emotion (Pearce, 2016, p. 72). The unhealthy thoughts will often align with one of the ten distortions identified in cognitive behavioral therapy. The unhealthy beliefs will often relate to identity issues whereby the client is finding her worth in an object of the world, rather than in Christ. The third step is to assist the client in replacing the unhealthy thoughts or beliefs by first disputing it and then moving toward a new thought or belief that more accurately portrays the situation (Pearce, 2016, p. 74). The new thoughts or beliefs should be supported with specific biblical verses or concepts that align with God’s truth in Scripture (Pearce, 2016, p. 74). The fourth step is to assist the client in letting God’s truth transform her by preparing a plan of mind renewal by meditating daily on the replacement thoughts or beliefs. ### **Balance of Theology and Spirituality** The counseling methodology assumes theology and spirituality are equally important, but functionally different. The solution to mankind’s problem is justification by faith where infinite eternal worth is procured through the declaration of righteousness via Christ’s death and resurrection (Crabb, 2013, p. 25). Without objectively understanding justification, Richard Lovelace (1979) explains that believers risk relying on “their sanctification for their justification” and attempt to procure God’s acceptance through sincerity, experience, religious performance, and sin management (p. 101). In other words, when spiritual experience trumps sound theology, the Gospel is undermined. However, the absence of spiritual experience undermines maturity. Gordon Fee (1994) explains that Paul’s insight into the Gospel came via the revelation of the Holy Spirit (p. 851). A theologically sound, objective historical reality of a believer’s position in Christ is necessary, but for Paul “this reality also involves a clearly subjective, experiential appropriation that results in some radical change in the believer; and the Spirit is the absolutely crucial element for this dimension of conversion” (Fee, 1994, p. 854). In other words, the four-step formula for change requires the counselee to meditate on God’s truth to appropriate the positional reality into an experiential reality. When an objective understanding of the Gospel is absent from a spiritual awakening, the Gospel is rendered impotent. In the proposed counseling methodology, the objective reality and subjective experience work in tandem. As clients cognitively identify false beliefs, the Holy Spirit reveals the truth that sets the client free. As clients objectively understand their position in Christ, the Spirit experientially reveals aspects of life not yet healed. As clients open their minds to the objective reality of God’s acceptance, the Spirit opens the client’s heart to hidden defects in character. In sum, the incarnate Christ and Holy Spirit of truth collaborate to mature believers. ### **Human Personality** Like Crabb, Adams, Wilson, and Benner, the proposed counseling methodology assumes the structure of human personality is finite, made in God’s image, and fallen. David Entwistle (2010) summarizes the three components by suggesting that a biblical anthropology grounds humanity’s worth in the divine image bearing status, which depends on God due to the damaging effects of the Fall (p. 131). Humanity’s finite, fallen state and capacity for divine image bearing provide the need for the counseling solution of a new identity in Christ. A distinctive structural feature of the proposed counseling methodology is the acceptance of the a trichotomist perspective of the human constitution. Millard Erickson (1998) explains that trichotomism asserts that individuals are composed of a body that is physical, a soul that consists of reason and emotion, and a spirit that responds to spiritual stimuli (p. 539). Specifically, the soul houses the mental capacities for mind renewal. The spirit houses the Holy Spirit who forges a new identity as sons and daughters of God who inherit the spiritual benefits of Christ. Paul succinctly summarizes, “The Spirit himself bears witness with our spirit that we are children of God, and if children, then heirs – heirs of God and fellow heirs with Christ” (Rom 8:16-17). [![03 9 182x300 - Personal Counseling Theory: Example](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-9-182x300.jpg "Personal Counseling Theory: Example - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4h5p1W5)Discipleship Counseling Developmentally, the proposed counseling methodology aligns with Crabb and Adams who strongly oppose personality theories that undermine personal responsibility and humanity’s capacity to choose. First, Crabb (2013) points out that an individual’s behavioral choices are bound to the individual’s understanding (p. 101). An individual’s history, circumstances, and disposition does not cause behavior; instead, the individual’s understanding of his history, circumstances, and disposition results in the chosen behavior. Second, Neil Anderson (2003) suggests that “God will not do for us what He has instructed us to do” (p. 99). Individuals must choose to renew the mind (Rom 12:2), take captive every thought (2 Cor 10:5), and put on the armor of God (Eph 6:11). Humanity is completely responsible for choices made. ### **Counselor’s Function and Role** The role of the counselor is to create an environment of trust and safety using the acronym TEACH. First, with a belligerent client, the counselor disarms with Truth. David Burns (2008) explains that by finding some truth in criticisms, instead of defending, the counselor can disarm the client (pp. 100-101). Second, the counselor extends Empathy. Carl Rogers (1959) defines empathy as the ability “to perceive the internal frame of reference of another with accuracy…as if one were the person” (pp. 210-211). Third, the counselor Asks questions. The power of inquiry has been known since the time of Socrates, and Christ used inquiry dozens of times in the New Testament to further understanding (e.g. Luke 10:23). Fourth, the counselor Communicates assertively. If enough trust exists, assertive communication can assist clients in taking responsibility. Finally, the counselor provides Hope. The counselor extends words of encouragement, which gives the client courage to change. Jesus encouraged Simon when He changed his name to Peter, the rock (Matt 16:18). The function of the counselor is to facilitate the discovery of God’s truth. Along with creating trust and safety, the TEACH method can also facilitate the discovery of truth. However, many other techniques are available to the counselor as well. For example, David Burns (2006) provides several options such as the uncovering technique, which asks the counselee what it would mean about him if the belief was true (pp. 101-102). Uncovering techniques are especially helpful in uncovering misplaced identities. Other techniques include role-playing, defining terms, and acceptance paradox (Burns, 2006, pp. 182-185, 209-220). The key to using these techniques is to facilitate new beliefs that align with identity formation in Christ, and new thoughts that align with the Word of God. ### **Major Contribution to Counseling** The major contribution of the proposed counseling methodology is the integration of techniques from cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) with the client’s objective understanding and subjective appropriation of his or her new identity in Christ. Pearce (2016) observes that CBT develops skills in clients that have been scientifically proven to change the function of the brain to impact emotions and behaviors (p. 47). Accordingly, within the realm of thought distortions, CBT is a proven method for assisting counselees. Various forms of CBT also recognize that individuals struggle with self-defeating beliefs that pertain to identity, such as the challenges that occur when finding worth in achievement, approval, love, perfectionism, and pleasing others (Burn, 2006, p. 106). However, no form of CBT provides an adequate answer to the primary need of humanity – a sense of worth. In fact, CBT often encourages clients to replace the thought distortions, and then overcome the self-defeating beliefs by finding a sense of value in the very things that cause the dysfunction: family, career, friends, hobbies, and even self. Unfortunately, any worldly object of identity will inevitably fail. The only viable solution to humanity’s need for worth is a complete identity replacement, where the individual takes on the worth and value of Jesus Christ through faith. Various forms of Christian CBT are currently available. For example, Michelle Pearce (2016) recently published *Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Christians with Depression*. Pearce utilizes several CBT techniques and appropriately integrates them with mind renewal, meditation, and prayer. However, Pearce ultimately falls short by ignoring the importance of identity formation. In sum, CBT without the integration of the new creation status in Christ results in placing a band-aid on a wound that is temporary, and it ultimately has no power to heal the client’s most fundamental need. ### **Limitations of This Counseling Theory** Several potential limitations exist for this counseling theory. First, as with all integrationist models, the risk of syncretism exists. Adams opposes integrationists by asserting that “Scripture contains all information relevant to psychological health” (Entwistle, 2010, p. 166). Although Adams goes too far, anytime secular concepts commingle with biblical principles, users must be aware of the risks. A second limitation is that the methodology focuses primarily on cognition, thus it risks minimizing the importance of emotions and personal history. Third, a limitation of all counseling theories is the willingness of the participant. Accordingly, the proposed counseling methodology requires a method of assessing and encouraging willingness, which could include motivational interviewing. According to Miller and Rollnick (2009), motivational interviewing is “a collaborative person-centered form of guiding to elicit and strengthen motivation for change” (p. 137). However, regardless of the skill of the counselor, the Holy Spirit is ultimately responsible for prompting believers toward willingness. The most significant limitation of the proposed counseling theory pertains to identification of unhealthy thoughts and beliefs and the application of the replacement truth. During the four-step process, the counselor facilitates the client’s recognition of unhealthy thoughts and beliefs. However, if the client does not trust the counselor or is not feeling safe, then the client may not disclose the real underlying thought or belief supporting the unhealthy emotion. Furthermore, the client may simply not be self-aware enough to claim the cognition. Finally, even if the client identifies the relevant cognition, the replacement thoughts or beliefs must be identified and applied directly to the distorted cognition. The client must renew his or her mind with truth from God that directly and completely undermines the false belief. An inexperienced counselor may not recognize the distortions or potential ambiguity. ### **Classification** As previously mentioned, the proposed counseling methodology integrates techniques from CBT with the client’s objective understanding and subjective appropriation of his or her new identity in Christ. Accordingly, the most appropriate classification is integrational, which has certain affinities with and distinctions from other counseling methods. For example, according to Baker, Adams’s nouthetic counseling asserts the Bible is completely sufficient for counseling, thus the integration of psychological constructs is unnecessary (Liberty University, *Nouthetic*). The proposed theory agrees that the Bible is sufficient for counseling. However, just as the Holy Spirit’s sufficiency to reveal God’s truth does not negate the benefits of hermeneutics, neither does the sufficiency of Scripture negate the benefits of human psychology. An alternative to Adams is Benner’s (2015) Christian counseling, which suggests that believers must move beyond objectively knowing God toward experience (pp. 30-31). The proposed methodology recognizes the importance of a subjective appropriation that experiences Christ but eschews the idea that believers should ever “move beyond” objective knowledge. The objective and subjective are in constant collaboration. Crabb’s (2013) method of counseling suggests that integrating psychological constructs into counseling is appropriate if they do not undermine the Word of God because Scripture always supersedes psychology (pp. 50-51). The proposed methodology aligns with Crabb’s integrational perspective, but it goes further by asserting that for the psychology to be useful it must enhance the client’s understanding of God’s truth. Wilson’s (2001) method is also an integrational form of Christian counseling, but it is built on family of origin psychology supported with various biblical concepts (see p. 88). Alternatively, the proposed methodology is built on a theology of justification by faith supported by psychological constructs. # **Practical Application** ### **Counseling Utility and Specific Potential Influence** The utility of the proposed methodology for the overall discipline of counseling rests primarily in its ability to assist client’s in meeting their greatest need – a sense of worth. A sense of worth that cannot come from self, other people, or performance because everything outside of Christ will inevitably fall short. A sense of worth that can come only from a new identity formed in Christ because the believer is justified by faith and the recipient of Christ’s righteousness through the inhabitation of the Holy Spirit. The potential influence upon my life is the continued experience of the fruit of the Spirit as I appropriate the objective knowledge of Christ through subjective experience by renewing my mind of God’s truth. Specifically, peace and joy can overcome anxiety and depression as I meditate on the truth that my value is in Christ, and not based on my business failures, relationship lapses, or performance mishaps. Furthermore, the potential influence for my counseling ministry is the opportunity to share the Good News with counselees that they are no longer defined by the worldly influences of other people’s opinions and performance standards that often manifest into emotional distress. ### **Counseling Moment Example** My phone rang, and Bob was on the other end of the line asking if we could meet. When Bob walked into my office, he slouched down in a chair. Bob had attended church all his life, but now alcohol was his way of life. I asked Bob if he wanted to tell me what was going on. He snapped and told me I probably would not care. I began TEACH by finding some truth and let Bob know that he was right, people often do not care (T). Bob explained that his wife left him for another man about a year ago. I responded by stating that his wife leaving must have been very difficult (E). I asked if he wanted to talk about it (A). Bob explained that work had become too important, and he lost his priorities. I explained that when priorities get skewed, pain is often involved (C). Bob told me he was ready to be done. I told Bob that I thought he might just be getting his second wind (H). I then assessed willingness by asking whether he would press a big red button, if he thought it would make the problem go away. He said he would press the button. I explained B-T-E-A to Bob, and then used the four-step formula for change by first asking Bob to identify his unhealthy emotion. Bob quickly told me he had been fighting depression. I asked him to identify his thought. Bob’s thought was that his depression would never go away. I explained that never and always are words that cause a feeling of hopelessness, and then I asked Bob to try and change his thought to something more real, more truthful. Bob decided that his depression might go away, but it might not. He could not predict the future. I then used a technique to uncover beliefs by asking Bob what his wife leaving meant about him. Bob quickly retorted that it meant he was worthless. I asked Bob how he might feel if what his wife thought about him had nothing to do with whether he was good enough. Bob thought that would help, but he had no idea how he could believe it. I had Bob read Romans 3:21-23 out loud. I asked Bob what that verse said about where his worth comes from. Bob realized that he was already righteous, already full of worth, because he has Christ’s righteousness through faith. I asked Bob whether his wife’s opinion of him trumps God’s opinion of him. Bob started to cry. He had never thought about the practical application of Gospel. Bob explained he would no longer need to feel worthless if his worth did not depend on his wife. I then asked Bob whether he would need alcohol to mask pain. Bob smiled. He said that if the pain was gone, then the alcohol was no longer needed. Bob and I took a few minutes to prepare a daily plan of mind renewal using Roman 3:21-23 and set a time to meet again. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Anderson, N. T. (2003). *Discipleship counseling: The complete guide to helping others walk in freedom and grow in Christ*. Ventura, CA: Regal. - Benner, D. G. (2015). *Surrender to love: Discovering the heart of Christian spirituality*. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. - Burns, D. D. (2006). *When panic attacks: The new, drug-anxiety therapy that can change your life*. New York: Three Rivers. - Burns, D. D. (2008). *Feeling good together: The secret to making troubled relationships work*. New York: Broadway. - Crabb, L. (2013). *Effective biblical counseling: A model for helping caring Christians become capable counselors*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. - Entwistle, D. N. (2010). *Integrative approaches to psychology and Christianity: An introduction to worldview issues, philosophical foundations, and models of integration*. Eugene, OR: Cascade. - Erickson, M. J. (1998). *Christian theology* (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. - Fee, G. D. (1994). *God’s empowering presence: The Holy Spirit in the letters of Paul*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. - Heiser, M. S. (2015). *The unseen realm: Recovering the supernatural worldview of the Bible*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham. - Hoehner, H. W. (2002). *Ephesians: An exegetical commentary*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. - Keller, T. (2008). *The reason for God: Belief in an age of skepticism*. New York: Penguin. - Keller, T. (2012). *Center church: Doing balanced, gospel-centered ministry in your city*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. - Liberty University (Producer). *Presentation: Healing relationships* \[Video\]. Available from http://www.apple.com/itunes/download. - Liberty University (Producer). *Presentation: Nouthetic counseling* \[Video\]. Available from http://www.apple.com/itunes/download. - Lovelace, R. F. (1979). *Dynamics of spiritual life: An evangelical theology of renewal*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic. - Miller, W., & Rollnick, S. (2009). Ten things that motivational interviewing is not. *Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy,* *37*(2), 129-140. - Pearce, M. (2016). *Cognitive behavioral therapy for Christians with depression: A practical tool-based primer*. West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton. - Powlison, D. (2010). *The biblical counseling movement: History and context*. Greensboro: New Growth. - Rogers, C. R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality and interpersonal relationships as developed in the client-centered framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), *Psychology: A study of a science, vol. III. Foundations of the person and the social context* (pp. 184–256). New York: McGraw Hill. - Rosner, B. S. (2017). In J. Lunde (Ed.), *Known by God: A biblical theology of personal identity*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. - Samra, J. G. (2006). *Being conformed to Christ in community: A study of maturity, maturation and the local church in the undisputed Pauline epistles*. New York: T&T Clark. - Wilson, S. D. (2001). *Hurt people hurt people: Hope and healing for yourself and your relationships*. Grand Rapids: Discovery House. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Christian Versus Secular Spirituality](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-versus-secular-spirituality/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Christian Versus Secular Spirituality Defining the terms spirituality and Christian spirituality continues to feed an ongoing debate. Fernando Garzon (2011) suggests that Christian spirituality means focusing on developing an intimate relationship with Christ “that progressively transforms one’s values, sense of purpose, beliefs, and lifestyle in the context of a faith community” (p. 62). Garzon (2011) contrasts the United States population, who are 85% Christian, with clinical psychologists who are 46% Christian (p. 62). The gap highlights the importance of counselors at large increasing their sensitivity to spiritual matters. A secular therapist using spirituality in counseling with a Christina client may be somewhat effective. Certain forms of secular therapy are potentially compatible with Christianity. Richard Watts (2000) suggests that Adler’s Individual Psychology aligns with Christianity by emphasizing human responsibility, cognitive development, relational connections, and the capacity for human transformation (p. 319). The most important connection between [Individual Psychology and Christianity](https://www.livestransforming.com/psychology-theology-and-spirituality-in-christian-counseling/) is the relational aspect that Adler terms “social interest” (Watts, 2000, p. 320). Just as Individual Psychology highlights the importance of valuing others, Christianity hinges on relationships with God, others, and self. Accordingly, a secular counselor using a compatible form of therapy may be somewhat effective in using spirituality in counseling with a Christian client. Without question, a secular therapist could give thoughtful attention and respect to a Christian client with certain forms of therapy. For example, Watts (2000) identifies four respectful aspects of the Adlerian psychotherapeutic process. First, the alliance between the counselor and the client is of utmost importance (Watts, 2000, p. 323). Second, the goal of facilitating new cognitive structures is maintained (Watts, 2000, p. 323). Third, an emphasis on encouragement is promoted (Watts, 2000, p. 324). Finally, several techniques that align with Scripture, such as listening, teaching, and challenging are encouraged (Watts, 2000, 325). By utilizing these four techniques, the therapist can provide an environment of thoughtfulness and respect. [![03 8 182x300 - Christian Versus Secular Spirituality](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-8-182x300.png "Christian Versus Secular Spirituality - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3Puwi5B)Effective Biblical Counseling: A Model for Helping Caring Christians Become Capable Counselors The primary limitation of Individual Psychology and all secular psychologies is that they lack a solution to the human condition. According to T. L. Brink (1999), Individual Psychology asserts that the central problem of humanity is a feeling of inferiority (pp. 614-615). Although the observation is admirable, the solution offered by Adler is to compensate for the inferiority by enhancing social interest through friends, family, and career (Brink, 1999, p. 615). For example, Individual Psychology asserts that friends help overcome inferiority as they “allow one to be important to someone else” (Brink, 1999, p. 615). Alternatively, Larry Crabb (2013) suggests that humans overcome inferiority by finding significance and security through an understanding of their identity in Christ within an environment of unconditional love (pp. 71-72). Adler’s compensation for inferiority by finding worth and value in friends, family, and career not only undermines the Gospel, but also results in the solutions becoming the problem when clients find identity in social interests instead of God. Thus, when friends, family, and career inevitably disappoint, the neurosis continues. Accordingly, secular psychologies ultimately fail. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## - Brink, T. L. (1999). Individual psychology. In D. G. Benner & P. C. Hill (Eds.), *Baker encyclopedia of psychology & counseling* (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. - Crabb, L. (2013). *Effective biblical counseling: A model for helping caring Christians become capable counselors*. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. - Garzon, F. L. (2011). Spirituality in counseling. *Faculty Publications and Presentations*, 62. - Watts, R. E. (2000). Biblically-based Christian spirituality and Alderian therapy. *Journal of individual psychology*, *56*(3), 316–328. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Biblical Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-counseling/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Biblical Counseling [![03 7 182x300 - Biblical Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-7-182x300.png "Biblical Counseling - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/429HYSM)The Biblical Counseling Movement: History and Context Of the six issues in contemporary biblical counseling identified by Powlison (2010), the integration of human motivation is the most significant (pp. 241-246). Jay Adams (1970) asserts that the purpose of nouthetic counseling is “to correct sinful behavior patterns by personal confrontation and repentance” (p. 49). However, behavior change does not necessarily correspond to a transformed life. For example, a client may use will-power to do something kind, but with selfish motivations. In this instance, behavior may change, but the client’s inner life is dis-integrated. Also, a client could simply comply with the authoritarian mandate of the counselor. Again, the client’s behavior may change, but sin-management undermines the Gospel (Willard, 1997, pp. 41–42). Alternatively, Powlison (2010) asserts that when an individual understands grace, “the necessary behavioral changes will make sense from the inside” (p. 246). The other five issues are devalued because they in some way hinge on human motivation. First, Powlison (2010) identifies the issue of clarifying the relationship between responsibility and suffering (pp. 246-249). However, if the client’s inner life is responsible for behavior change, then the fear of blameshifting to external circumstances resolves (Powlison, 2010, p. 249). Second, the risk of confrontation is mitigated if the counselor focuses on the client’s identity as a child declared righteous (Rom 3:22) and loved by God (Rom 8:39-39), rather than criticizing behavior, which risks defensiveness (Powlison, 2010, pp. 249-252). Third, the issue of contextualization to new audiences is curtailed when human motivation is addressed because it undermines the accusation that [biblical counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/comparison-david-powlison/) lacks “even the rudiments of inner life and motivation” (Powlison, 2010, pp. 253-254). Next, the distinctive relationship between biblical counseling and secular psychology is clarified when identity formation is prominent because secular psychology has no real solution to individuation other than leaning on the sinful self (Powlison, 2010, pp. 255-258). Finally, the “same old” distinctives associated with biblical counseling, such as a critique of secularism and a biblical alternative to counseling, are actually highlighted when the issue of human motivation is appropriately settled (Powlison, 2010, pp. 241-243). Powlison (2010) further supports the importance of the inner life of human motivation in appendix 4 by stating, “We will love anything, except God, unless our madness is checked by grace” (p. 290). Powlison (2010) explains that if sin is punished, counseling becomes moralistic, if excused, then relativistic (pp. 291-292). However, when a counselor brings grace to sin, which provides the psychological air necessary for the client to face sin, the client can recognize their inner completeness in Christ (Col 3:3) through faith that renders sin impotent. In sum, grace, not the law, leads to obedience (Gal 3:3). \[Word Count – 438\] \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Adams, J. E. (1970). *Competent to counsel* (pp. 45–49). Grand Rapids: Zondervan. - Powlison, D. (2010). *The Biblical counseling movement: History and context*. Greensboro, NC: New Growth. - Willard, D. (1997). *The divine conspiracy: Rediscovering our hidden life in God*. New York: HarperOne. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Therapeutic Uses of Scripture](https://www.livestransforming.com/therapeutic-uses-of-scripture/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Therapeutic Uses of Scripture [![03 6 182x300 - Therapeutic Uses of Scripture](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-6-182x300.jpg "Therapeutic Uses of Scripture - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/406PTxs)Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling (AACC Library) **1. What are the most important therapeutic uses of Scripture in counseling?** Mark McMinn (1996) references Stanton Jones’ work that conceptualizes four important therapeutic uses of Scripture in counseling. First, certain counseling strategies may draw directly from Scripture such as cognitive therapy (McMinn, 1996). Other examples may include direction for dealing with guilt, resentment, and greed (“The Bible,” n.d.). Second, Scripture may support certain forms of counseling in principle such as religious imagery (McMinn, 1996). Additional examples may include support for dream analysis, retreats, and small groups (“The Bible,” n.d.). Another use of Scripture would be to help identify when counseling does not contradict Scripture (McMinn, 1996). An example would include the powerful technique of role-playing (“The Bible,” n.d.). Finally, it is critical to know when Scripture contradicts certain forms of counseling such as “adultery as a treatment for midlife depression” (McMinn, 1996, p. 109). More specifically, McMinn (1996) suggests assessing the utilization of Scripture in counseling by answering whether it will help establish a healthy sense of self, need, or healing relationship. Furthermore, the utilization of Scripture may be beneficial to promote Biblical explanations for problems, references for meditation, standards of morality, and a foundation for truth (“The Bible,” n.d.). Finally, utilizing Scripture in the spiritual formation of the counselor may be the most important indirect [use of Scripture in counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-counseling-role-of-scripture/) (“The Bible,” n.d.). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - McMinn, M. R. (1996). *Psychology, theology, and spirituality in Christian counseling*. Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House. - *The Bible in Christian counseling* \[Video presentation\]. (n.d.). Retrieved from - http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-17127429-dt-content-rid 100343610\_1/courses/PACO506\_B01\_201240/Course%20Content/Week%205\_%20% - 20Counseling%20Grid%2C%20Client%20Assessment%2C%20and%20Holistic%20Counseling/Learning%20Resources - /The%20Scriptures%20in%20Christian%20Counseling/506M5P1\_1206/index.html **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Sinfulness of Psychology](https://www.livestransforming.com/sinfulness-of-psychology/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Sinfulness of Psychology [![03 6 182x300 - Sinfulness of Psychology](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-6-182x300.jpg "Sinfulness of Psychology - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/406PTxs)Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling (AACC Library) **1. Respond to the following: Psychology is just sinful human beings sinfully thinking about sinful human beings. Clarify your rationale for agreeing or disagreeing with this statement.** The pejorative nature of the statement appears illogical on three counts. First, if the proposed theological indictment emphasizes the initial phrase, “just sinful human beings,” then it is difficult to understand how the accusation would not apply to all humans in all fields of study. If the accusation accents the middle phrase, “sinfully thinking,” one wonders if the author is supporting a fideistic Christianity or naïvely implying it is possible for Christians to think without the influence of sin. Regardless, Scripture is clear that even thinking about thinking is commanded of Christians (2 Corinthians 10:5). Finally, if the disparaging emphasis is on the third phrase, “[about sinful human beings](https://www.livestransforming.com/psychology-sinful/),” then the entire polemic fails as Christ not only thought about sinful humanity, but the sole purpose of the incarnation was a focus on sinners (Mark 2:17). Ironically, due to the fallen nature of humanity, if one concludes that psychology is just sinful human beings sinfully thinking about sinful human beings, then it seems one must make the same conclusion of theology. Accordingly, either the phrase is pejorative in nature and without logic, or it is entirely true without the pejorative connotation. Thus, to the extent any truth exists within any discipline, it must not be associated with the discipline or the individual, but God and God alone, which supports Entwistle’s proposition that “all truth is God’s truth” (Entwistle, 2010, p. 13). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Entwistle, D. N. (2010). *Integrative approaches to psychology and Christianity: An introduction to worldview issues, philosophical foundations, and models of integration.* 2nd ed. Eugene, OR: Cascade. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Prayer in Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/prayer-in-counseling/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Prayer in Counseling [![03 6 182x300 - Prayer in Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-6-182x300.jpg "Prayer in Counseling - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/406PTxs)Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling (AACC Library) **1. What are some cautions or possible negative impacts regarding the use of prayer in counseling?** A number of risks exist when using prayer in counseling. First, regarding intercessory prayer for the needs of a counselee, it is possible that the client will assume that prayer is the counselor’s responsibility and ignore his or her responsibility to pray (McMinn, 1996). Second, contemplative prayer that focuses on meditation and worship risks straying into heresy if [the theological](https://www.livestransforming.com/theological-research/) foundation of the client wanes (McMinn, 1996). Third, regarding a healthy sense of self, prayer may cause the counselee to feel inferior or self-conscious (“Prayer,” n.d.). Fourth, in light of a healthy sense of need, prayer can deteriorate into hoping for magical results, and a counselor may inappropriately use prayer to motivate the client or help the counselee feel better rather than connect with God (“Prayer,” n.d.). Fifth, regarding the importance of a healthy healing relationship, prayer may risk an improper dependency on the counselor and a potential breach of boundaries if the focus strays from God (“Prayer,” n.d.). Finally, McMinn (1996) also enumerates a number of additional risks including praying for social effect, which Jesus condemns, praying ritualistically, which risks meaninglessness, and praying as a defense mechanism, which may cause counselees to avoid relevant personal issues. Personally, it appears other risks of prayer may include its potential misuse as an extension of coveting and a reason to turn against God when an answer contradicts the client’s wishes. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - McMinn, M. R. (1996). *Psychology, theology, and spirituality in Christian counseling*. Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House. - *Prayer for psychological and spiritual health* \[Video presentation\]. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-17127441-dt-content-rid-100343758\_1/courses/PACO506\_B01\_201240/Course%20Content/Week%206\_%20%20Prayer%2C%20Scripture%2C%20and%20the%20Holy%20Spirit%20in%20Counseling/Learning%20Resources/Prayer%20for%20Psychological%20and%20Spiritual%20Health/506M6P2/index.html **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Healthy Sense of Self](https://www.livestransforming.com/healthy-sense-of-self/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Healthy Sense of Self [![03 6 182x300 - Healthy Sense of Self](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-6-182x300.jpg "Healthy Sense of Self - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/406PTxs)Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling (AACC Library) **1. How would you describe a “healthy sense of self”?** Mark McMinn (1996) suggests that a healthy sense of self is one who has “an accurate understanding and acceptance of themselves,” which leads to “greater emotional or spiritual health” (p. 45). I would certainly agree with McMinn’s assertions. However, except for a brief reference to *imago Dei*, he stops short of detailing a biblical understanding of a healthy self. A Christian’s sense of self pertains to what objectively occurs at regeneration. First, a new birth occurs when the Holy Spirit enters the believer’s spirit (Erickson, 2007; Romans 8:16). Once the new birth occurs, the union with Christ is complete and a new entity exists (Erickson, 2007). Now the believer is “in” Christ and Christ is “in” the believer (2 Corinthians 5:17; Colossians 1:27). Accordingly, the believer receives [the gift of Christ’s righteousness](https://www.livestransforming.com/righteousness-theme-in-the-book-of-matthew/) (Romans 5:17). Erickson (2007) clarifies this monumental assertion by stating, “that the believer is righteous is not a fiction…it is a correct evaluation of a new legal entity” (p. 965). Thus, an accurate understanding of self is one who is righteous, which naturally leads to self-acceptance (Romans 8:1). Finally, once self-acceptance occurs, the emotional and spiritual health, including the fruit of the Spirit that McMinn refers to, results from Christ’s inhabitation, thus ridding the believer of the need to find acceptance externally. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Erickson, M. J. (2007). *Christian theology*. (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. - McMinn, M. R. (1996). *Psychology, theology, and spirituality in Christian counseling*. Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Counseling Suffering People](https://www.livestransforming.com/counseling-suffering-people/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Counseling Suffering People [![03 5 182x300 - Counseling Suffering People](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-5-182x300.png "Counseling Suffering People - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40g5mey)The Problem of Pain **1. How should you counsel suffering people? Is the point of counseling to remove all suffering? Why or why not?** Three reasons suggest that the point of counseling is not to remove all suffering. First, suffering has the benefit of promoting growth (James 1:2-4). In fact, John Ortberg (2002) suggests that one of the most important factors in spiritual formation is suffering (p. 211). Second, challenges move individuals to reach out to God for comfort, thus removing all suffering would actually risk a counselee missing the voice of God. C. S. Lewis (1996) insightfully supports the assertion by concluding that pain is God’s “megaphone to rouse a deaf world” (p. 83). Finally, God has determined suffering as necessary; otherwise, it would not exist. Accordingly, it seems unreasonable for a counselor to attempt to remove all suffering. Henri J. M. Nouwen (1975) astutely claims, “It would be just another illusion to believe that reaching out to God will free us from pain and suffering” (p. 150). Although suffering is necessary, unnecessary suffering, which is suffering that does not draw us closer to God, is not necessary. Accordingly, the counselor can effectively counsel suffering people by helping counselees’ explore the benefits of sufferings, discover a grace-based theodicy, and experience suffering with the counselee. Perhaps most importantly, is the fellowship of human suffering with the counselee just as Christ, who became flesh, fellowshipped with humanity’s sufferings even unto death (2 Corinthians 1:7; Philippians 3:10). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Lewis, C. S. (1996). *The problem of pain*. New York, NY: Touchstone. - Nouwen, H. J. M. (1975). *Reaching out: The three movements of the spiritual life*. New York: Doubleday. - Ortberg, J. (2002). *The life you’ve always wanted: Spiritual disciplines for ordinary people.* Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Confronting Sin in Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/confronting-sin-in-counseling/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Confronting Sin in Counseling [![03 2 182x300 - Confronting Sin in Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-2-182x300.png "Confronting Sin in Counseling - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4acRwyc)Solution-Focused Pastoral Counseling: An Effective Short-Term Approach for Getting People Back on Track **1. How do you decide when to confront sin in counseling, and what form of confrontation to use?** Deciding when to confront sin in counseling depends on two major factors. First, the level of trust the counselee has with the counselor, and second, the willingness of the counselee (“Counseling Methods,” n.d.). Specifically, if the counselee is in a willing position, rather than a blaming or attending position, the probability of confrontational effectiveness significantly increases (Kollar, 2011). If adequate trust and willingness exist, then numerous forms of confrontation are available. First, and possibly most effective, is inquiry (McMinn, 1996). Pondering is another form of confrontation that may be effective as long as the counselor avoids manipulation (McMinn, 1996). Pondering disarms the client while allowing the discovery process to occur. Another form of confrontation, which is similar to the powerful downward arrow technique in cognitive therapy, is to help the counselee visualize the end by asking, “Then what?” (“Counseling Methods,” n.d.). A fourth form of confrontation is silence, which may cause the client some discomfort, but allows the counselor to abstain from encouraging sin (McMinn, 1996). Fifth, direct censure may be effective when extreme levels of trust exist; but caution is advised as laying down the law may actually arouse the counselee’s “sinful passions” (“Counseling Methods,” n.d.; Romans 7:5, New American Standard). Personally, the utilization of empathic confrontation may be the most powerful approach by metaphorically holding up a mirror that facilitates truth discovery while simultaneously serving clients (1 Corinthians 9:19-23, The Message). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - *Counseling methods related to confrontation and confession* \[Video presentation\]. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-17127454-dt-content-rid-100343955\_1/courses/PACO506\_B01\_201240/Course%20Content/Week%207\_%20%20Sin%2C%20Confession%2C%20and%20Redemption%20in%20Counseling/Learning%20Resources/Confrontation%20and%20Confession%20in%20Christian%20Counseling/506M7P2\_1206/index.html - Kollar, C. A. (2011). *Solution-focused pastoral counseling: An effective short-term approach for getting people back on track*. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. - McMinn, M. R. (1996). *Psychology, theology, and spirituality in Christian counseling*. Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Why Did God Give Me Disease](https://www.livestransforming.com/why-did-god-give-me-disease/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Why Did God Give Me Disease An 8-year-old boy named “George” was diagnosed with a rare constellation of five auto-immune diseases; two of these diseases were terminal and could take his life. At the time of diagnosis, the diseases were very aggressive; he faced the possibility of being completely bed-ridden in the next couple of months and facing death within five months. However, George received aggressive treatments and experienced the support of a loving family. After two years of treatments, George began to be angry about his condition. One night, his older brother was going to bed and he saw his younger brother on the floor. He nudged him and asked, “What are you doing?” George responded that he was praying because he did not want to be angry at God. He then asked his older brother, “Why did God allow these diseases to happen to me?” The older brother then said, “Let’s go and talk to Mom and Dad.” George approached his parents and posed this question: “Why did God give me all of these diseases?” The Mom and Dad come to you and ask, “What should we share with our son?” Consider the following questions as you complete your thread: - **What are the doctrinal issues to consider in this situation?** - **How would these doctrines aid you in sharing with the parents?** - **If the parents requested that you counsel their son, what information would you counsel George?** [![03 3 182x300 - Why Did God Give Me Disease](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-3-182x300.png "Why Did God Give Me Disease - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4h2iwmw)A Theology of Biblical Counseling: The Doctrinal Foundations of Counseling Ministry ## **Response** The doctrinal issues pertaining to childhood disease often require the exploration of the problem of natural evil and a [theology of suffering](https://www.livestransforming.com/theology-of-jonah/). Regarding the problem of evil, Millard Erickson (1998) suggests that most solutions attempt to diminish God’s omnipotence, goodness, or the power of evil (pp. 439-446). Alternatively, John Feinberg (2001) notes that several theodicies, without diminishing God or evil, have been espoused including Augustine’s free-will theodicy, the Irenaean soul-building theodicy, and Leibniz’s theodicy of infinite contingent possibilities where God creates optimal alternatives (p. 1185). Heath Lambert (2016) asserts that God’s character, which includes His attributes of strength and care, underpins the theology of suffering (p. 255). Lambert (2016) also explains that a theology of suffering provides three categories of benefits. Suffering can benefit believers’ lives by leading to holiness, benefit other people by sharing in God’s comfort, and glorify God as individuals learn dependence on Him (pp. 263-269). Without an understanding of God’s attributes of strength and care, trusting the application of the doctrines is impossible. Accordingly, I would begin by reinforcing God’s attributes to George’s parents, which include God’s omniscience, His infinite familiarity with the situation; God’s omnipresence, His constant presence with George; God’s goodness, His effort to always do what is best for George; and love, His deep love for George. I may discuss a relevant theodicy, such as the Irenaean soul-building theodicy, which asserts that although evil exists, God “intends to use it to build souls and ultimately develop people” (Feinberg, 2001, p. 1186). Although difficult to comprehend, if George’s parents believe God’s attributes, it is reasonable that they could trust God in using the difficult situation to move George and others toward relying more on Christ. Scripture verses such as Roman 5:3-5, which address suffering, may assist George’s parents (English Standard Version). Furthermore, I could discuss an aspect of the theology of suffering by retelling the story of the man born blind in John 9:1-3. The story could reinforce that George’s malady is not the fault of humans, and that God has an uncanny ability to bring glory to Himself and bless others through suffering. Again, difficult to comprehend, but if George’s parents believe in God’s attributes, then they may find a way to trust God via a theology of suffering. Counseling George would start by explaining that anger is normal in difficult situations, and he does not have to be afraid to tell God. Reading Psalm 55 from Eugene Peterson’s work, *The Message*, may assist George in understanding, while simultaneously comforting him in communicating his authentic feelings. Furthermore, reading Psalms 100:5, 106:1, and 107:1 may assist George in understanding God’s incredible goodness and extravagant love for him. After explaining God’s attributes, I may ask, “George do you think it is possible that God could somehow make something good happen out of these diseases? Do you think you could trust God to do that even though it might be hard?” Finally, I would pray with George and likely shed a few tears with him. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Erickson, M. J. (1998). *Christian theology* (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. - Feinberg, J. S. (2001). Theodicy. In W. A. Elwell (Ed.), *Evangelical dictionary of theology* (2nd ed., pp. 1184-1187). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. - Lambert, H. (2016). *A theology of biblical counseling: The doctrinal foundations of counseling ministry*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Pastoral Immorality and the Doctrine of the Church](https://www.livestransforming.com/pastoral-immorality-and-the-doctrine-of-the-church/) **Published:** February 9, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Pastoral Immorality and the Doctrine of the Church A pastor has served a local church for 10 years. However, he developed an immoral relationship with the young lady serving as his administrative assistant. The associate pastor of the church learns of this affair and struggles with what to do. The associate pastor comes to you for counsel. 1. **As you studied the topics discussed in the doctrine of the church, what issues are involved?** 2. **What counsel do you provide the associate pastor?** ## **Response** Three issues pertaining to the doctrine of the church relate to an associate pastor discovering an immoral relationship between a senior pastor and an administrative assistant: the definition of church, the role of church leadership, and the role of the church community. From the time Constantine conjoined the church and state, to the mega-church performances on Sunday mornings, the definition of church has become blurred. Millard Erickson (1998) contends that the definition of the New Testament church must be determined considering the backdrop of both the Greek and Hebrew culture, which suggests that the church is God’s people indwelt by the Spirit assembling in a given city as the center of Christ’s activity (pp. 1041-1049). [![03 3 182x300 - Pastoral Immorality and the Doctrine of the Church](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-3-182x300.png "Pastoral Immorality and the Doctrine of the Church - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4h2iwmw)A Theology of Biblical Counseling: The Doctrinal Foundations of Counseling Ministry Regarding the role of church leadership, Heath Lambert (2016) asserts that “elders are responsible to fill the roles of teaching and leading” (p. 306). Paul highlights the role of elders by stating, “Let the elders who rule well be considered worthy of double honor, especially those who labor in preaching and teaching” (1 Timothy 5:17, English Standard Version). Lambert (2016) explains that the role of teaching in the local church must not be constrained to the pulpit, but also extended to congregants at a personal level (pp. 306-307). Furthermore, the function of elders must include leading the congregation in growing and ministering to others in various ways, including the ministry of counseling (Lambert, 2016, pp. 307-308). Finally, regarding the role of the church community, Lambert (2016) identifies four areas where the community can assist. [The church community](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-church/) can create an environment of worship and provide fellowship for people who are struggling. Furthermore, the church community can meet regularly with congregants to teach them various skills and create an environment for congregants to be held accountable (pp. 309-311). The doctrine of the church provides much guidance to an associate pastor regarding a situation where he discovers his senior pastor having an immoral relationship. First, a mega-church institutional culture risks the temptation to cover up potential scandals for fear of financial destruction or loss of power; however, when the church is defined properly as a community of God’s people, the temptation need not exist. Accordingly, I would first explain to the associate pastor that a cover-up is not wise. Second, I would encourage the associate pastor to address the issue with the elders of the church. In a healthy church environment, the elders will confront the senior pastor in love and attempt to understand the situation. Often senior pastors succumb to such sinful behavior as a way of dealing with their own unresolved issues, such as finding their value and worth outside of Christ or coping with emotional issues they have kept hidden. Wise elders will also determine whether the senior pastor should stay in his current position, and institute a plan to support the pastor through recovery. Finally, the elders should lead the entire church community by encouraging them to come alongside all effected parties and offer worship, fellowship, teaching, accountability, and if possible, reconciliation. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Erickson, M. J. (1998). *Christian theology* (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. - Lambert, H. (2016). *A theology of biblical counseling: The doctrinal foundations of counseling ministry*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Ministering to Pregnancy out of Wedlock](https://www.livestransforming.com/ministering-to-pregnancy-out-of-wedlock/) **Published:** February 8, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Ministering to Pregnancy out of Wedlock Jean came from a dysfunctional home where her biological father abandoned the family and her mother was physically abusive toward the children. As a result, Jean was removed from her home and placed in foster care. Eventually, she was placed in a loving Christian home. As a result of a more stable situation, she made a profession of faith in Jesus Christ. However, Jean “looked” for love and became involved in an immoral relationship which resulted in a pregnancy. Jean experienced tremendous guilt about her pregnancy and comes to you for counsel. - How can the doctrines of Christ and the Holy Spirit minister to Jean? - What doctrinal truths do you share with the foster parents concerning this situation with Jean? ## **Response** The doctrine of Christ explains why Jean engaged in an immoral relationship and how she can overcome her guilt. Specifically, Heath Lambert (2016) explains that, due to Christ’s death and resurrection, Jean was given the free gift of [Christ’s righteousness](https://www.livestransforming.com/righteousness-theme-in-the-book-of-matthew/) (p. 146). When Jean appropriates Christ’s righteousness, the attempt to solidify her own righteousness or worth by having sex with another man would not be necessary. Instead of Jean thinking that she needed another man to make her feel loved, accepted, and valued the message of the gospel is that she is already completely loved, accepted, and valued because of Christ’s righteousness in her (2 Corinthians 5:21). The sin would have been overcome by the presence of Christ’s righteousness in her because she would not have needed the immoral relationship to fill a void that did not exist. The same gospel that explains why Jean encountered an immoral relationship, simultaneously resolves her guilt. Jean’s immoral relationship does not negate the gift of righteousness (Romans 5:15-17). The Apostle Paul explains Jean’s declared righteousness does not come through achieving a certain level of morality, but through faith in Christ (Philippians 3:9). Accordingly, for Jean, it is because of faith, not morality, that there is “no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus” (Romans 8:1, English Standard Version). Paul explains that if Jean attempts to earn her righteousness to decrease her guilt, then Christ died unnecessarily (Galatians 2:21). It is because of the cross that Jean can live completely forgiven, empowered to overcome sin, and comforted by God’s acceptance (Lambert, 2016, pp. 150-154). [![03 4 182x300 - Ministering to Pregnancy out of Wedlock](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-4-182x300.jpg "Ministering to Pregnancy out of Wedlock - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4ab9Ojv)God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul The Holy Spirit’s role is no less amazing. Although the Spirit and Jesus are distinct, Gordon Fee (1994) explains that when Paul “speaks of Christ as living in him, he almost certainly means ‘Christ lives in me *by His Spirit*,’ referring to the ongoing work of Christ in his life that is being carried out by the indwelling Spirit” (p. 838). The Spirit helps believers appropriate the reality of Christ. The Spirit convicts Jean of her sin, so she knows her immoral relationship is wrong; teaches Jean by opening her eyes, so she experiences the love and acceptance of her Father; and reveals her righteousness and value in Christ, so she is empowered to overcome sin (Lambert, 2016, pp. 161-171). The truths of the doctrine of Christ and the Holy Spirit are valuable to Jean’s foster parents. They may be experiencing guilt as failed parents, or they may attempt to pile more guilt on Jean in a futile attempt to modify behavior. Either way, the counselor has a wonderful opportunity to share the gospel message with Jean’s foster parents by teaching them that Jean’s sin did not come because she was not righteous enough, but because Jean did not realize just how righteous she was in Christ through His death and resurrection. The counselor can also explain the Holy Spirit’s role in convicting Jean, which led her to repentance and empowers her to overcome sin. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Fee, G. D. (1994). *God’s empowering presence: The Holy Spirit in the letters of Paul*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. - Lambert, H. (2016). *A theology of biblical counseling: The doctrinal foundations of counseling ministry*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Internet Pornography: Man and Sin](https://www.livestransforming.com/internet-pornography-man-and-sin/) **Published:** February 8, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Internet Pornography: Man and Sin A young lady is engaged to be married. However, she discovers that her husband to be is addicted to internet pornography. She seeks counsel from her father concerning this issue. He shares for her not to worry about this issue. He states that the young man will discontinue the internet pornography once they are married and gratifies his sexual needs within marriage. She comes to you for pre-marital counseling and shares this concern with you. 1. **As you studied the doctrines of man and sin, what are the issues that relate to this situation?** 2. **What is your counsel to the young lady concerning her future husband’s addiction to internet pornography?** [![03 3 182x300 - Internet Pornography: Man and Sin](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-3-182x300.png "Internet Pornography: Man and Sin - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4adAUq1)A Theology of Biblical Counseling: The Doctrinal Foundations of Counseling Ministry ## **Response** Two issues pertaining to the doctrine of man relate to internet pornography, the image of God and the body and soul (Lambert, 2016, pp. 184-203). First, Michael Heiser (2015) explains that Hebrew grammar clearly identifies the phrase, image of God, as a status, not an ability, as all believers are God’s creation, marred by sin, and restored to God through Christ (pp. 42-43). Accordingly, the job of the counselor is to help individuals become who they are already are, a reflection of the *Imago Dei*. Next, Heath Lambert (2016) asserts a dichotomous anthropology where the physical body is highly valued, and the soul consists of the inner man, which houses individual’s volition, cognition, and emotion (pp. 192-197). Importantly, the process of divine imaging occurs from the inside-out, where bodily activities are “guided by their souls” (Lambert, 2016, p. 197). The doctrine of sin relates to internet pornography in three ways: dealing with the effects of sin, dealing with personal sin, and dealing with the sins of others (Lambert, 2016, pp. 219-227). Original sin ultimately affects mankind’s motivations, thinking, emotions, bodies, relationships, and the world (Lambert, 2016, pp. 219-225). Dealing with sin consists of identifying, confessing, and repenting from sin (Lambert, 2016, pp. 228-234). Dealing with the effect of other people’s sins consists of recognizing that everyone is a sinner and addressing the subject of forgiveness (Lambert, 2016, pp. 235-246). Lambert (2016) explains that “the standard for our forgiveness of others is God’s forgiveness of us” (p. 236). Furthermore, Lambert (2016) contends that God only forgives those sins that are humbly confessed (p. 244). If Lambert is correct, then it appears God neither forgives unknown sins nor future sins, which risks an insufficient sacrifice, thus scholars often nuance Lambert’s assertion (see MacArthur, 1998, pp. 53-66). [When counseling the lady](https://www.livestransforming.com/services/), I would apply the doctrines of man and sin. First, I would remind the lady that her fiancé is made in the image of God and restored to God by Christ. Second, I would explain that God honors the physical body and sexual desire. A man’s attraction to a woman and her body is healthy; however, when her fiancé’s cognitions, emotions, and volitions distort the goodness of creation the soul drives sinful behavior. Third, I would explain that pornography often causes women to feel physically “not good enough,” but that his issue has nothing to do with her. Fourth, I would encourage her to discuss the issue non-defensively and encourage him to get help. Fifth, I would explain that addictions are often coping mechanisms; thus, her fiancé’s solution is *not* simply to try harder to stop. Instead, her fiancé must capture his distorted thoughts (2 Corinthians 10:5, English Standard Version), renew his mind (Romans 12:2), and appropriate Christ’s righteousness (Lambert, 2016, pp. 229-234). God’s truth can transform him. Finally, I would remind her that all humans sin, and she can free herself of any bitterness by extending the same forgiveness to her fiancé that her heavenly Father extends to her. **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** ## **References** - Heiser, M. S. (2015). *The unseen realm*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham. - Lambert, H. (2016). *A theology of biblical counseling: The doctrinal foundations of counseling ministry*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. - MacArthur, J. (1998). *The freedom and power of forgiveness*. Wheaton, IL: Crossway. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Christian Solution Focused Brief Therapy](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-solution-focused-brief-therapy/) **Published:** February 8, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Christian Solution Focused Brief Therapy This discussion will show that a sound rationale exists to support solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT). First, it will provide a brief comparison between SFBT and positive psychology (PP) and then present a research-based argument to support SFBT. An annotated list of resources supporting the rationale for SFBT as well as an annotated list of assumptions of SFBT will follow the post. [![03 1 1 182x300 - Christian Solution Focused Brief Therapy](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-1-1-182x300.jpg "Christian Solution Focused Brief Therapy - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fVpRD6)More Than Miracles (Routledge Mental Health Classic Editions) SFBT and PP are similar in focus and pathological perspective. F. P. Bannink explains that both therapies focus on solutions instead of problems and neither “seek or create pathology” (Bannink and Jackson 2011, 3-4). As the founder of solution-focused therapy, Steve de Shazer (1985) states, “Interventions can initiate change without the therapist’s first understanding…what has been going on” (119). SFBT and positive psychology also have a number of differences. A primary difference is that SFBT focuses on practice while PP “aims to be scientific” (Bannink and Jackson 2011, 5). The founder of PP, Martin E. P. Seligman, refers to it as “a new science of strength and resilience” (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2000, 8). Additionally, PP points toward strengths while SFBT points toward exceptions; PP produces theories while SFBT takes a “not knowing” stance, and PP focuses on a present solutions while SFBT focuses on a future solutions (Bannink and Jackson 2011, 6-10). SFBT exhibits a number of strengths that support a rationale for utilization. First, it is positive therapy built on hope. Bannink (2007) supports the hopeful assertion by stating that, “happiness is not the result….of right genes or mere chance” (87). Second, SFBT has a broad application. De Shazer and Yvonne Dolan (2007) state that SFBT is “applicable to all problems, and indeed has been applied to a wide range of problems” (13). Third, SFBT is easy to learn and versatile. Terry S. Trepper et al. suggest that SFBT is “deceptively easy to learn” and “many techniques can be integrated into SFBT (Trepper et al. 2006, 134). Fourth, Jacqueline Corcoran and Vijayan Pillai (2009) explain that due to the brief nature of SFBT, it is “a cost-effective method” (240). Finally, although limited, certain empirical evidence supports SFBT. Specifically, Corcoran and Pillai’s (2009) review of numerous SFBT experiments from 1985 to 2006 concludes, “about 50 percent of the studies can be viewed as showing improvement over alternative conditions or no-treatment method” (240). Furthermore, Bannink (2007) explains that numerous pre-post studies have also shown success, but the “studies are not controlled…and hence cannot be considered satisfactory evidence” (90). Some have expressed [potential theological weaknesses](https://www.livestransforming.com/theological-research/) of SFBT. For example, regarding SFBT’s focus on solutions, James R. Beck asks, “Does not the Bible contain an equally powerful theme regarding suffering?” (Beck 1998). Although certain theological weaknesses may exist, the overall evidence appears to support a sound rationale for SFBT. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Bannink, F. P. 2007. Solution-focused brief therapy. *Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy* 37, no. 2 (June): 87-94. - Bannink, Fredrike, and Paul Z. Jackson. 2011. Positive psychology and solution focus – looking at similarities and differences. *Interaction. The Journal of Solution Focus in Organisations* 3, no. 1 (May). http://www.fredrikebannink.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/PP-and-SF-2010-def.1.pdf (accessed May 20, 2012). - Beck, James R. 1998. Solution-focused pastoral counseling. Denver Seminary. http://www.denverseminary.edu/article/solution-focused-pastoral-counseling/ (accessed May 20, 2012). - Corcoran, Jacqueline, and Vijayan Pillai. 2009. A review of the research on solution-focused therapy. *British Journal of Social Work* 39, no. 2 (March): 234-42. - De Shazer, Steve. 1985. *Keys to Solution in Brief Therapy.* New York: W. W. Norton. - De Shazer, Steve, and Yvonne Dolan. 2007. *More than miracles: The state of the art of solution-focused brief therapy*. New York: Haworth Press. - Seligman, Martin E. P., and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. 2000. Positive psychology: An introduction. *American Psychologist* 37, no. 2 (June): 87-94. - Trepper, Terry S., Yvonne Dolan, Eric E. McCollum, and Thorana Nelson. 2006. Steve de Shazer and the future of solution-focused therapy. *Journal of Marital and Family Therapy* 32, no. 2 (April): 133-139. ## **Annotated References** ### **Supporting a Rationale for SFBT** Bannink, F. P. 2007. Solution-focused brief therapy. *Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy* 37, no. 2 (June): 87-94. Bannink provides a concise overview of solution-focused brief therapy that includes a short history, practical presuppositions, and results of recent outcome studies. Additionally, Bannink identifies the differences between problem-focused and solution-focused therapy highlighting certain benefits of the latter. Corcoran, Jacqueline, and Vijayan Pillai. 2009. A review of the research on solution-focused therapy. *British Journal of Social Work* 39, no. 2 (March): 234-42. This article summarizes a review of treatment outcomes of solution-focused therapy from 1985 to 2006. The purpose of the project was to assess the empirical evidence available regarding the effectiveness of solution-based therapeutic initiatives. The authors conclude by documenting the results obtained from the review process. De Shazer, Steve, and Yvonne Dolan. 2007. *More than miracles: The state of the art of solution-focused brief therapy*. New York: Haworth Press. As the final work of Steve de Shazer, this book provides the latest advances in solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT). The authors provide a rather comprehensive investigation of SFBT; however, the overview in the first chapter is especially helpful in assisting the reader in understanding the benefits and tenets of SFBT. Trepper, Terry S., Yvonne Dolan, Eric E. McCollum, and Thorana Nelson. 2006. Steve de Shazer and the future of solution-focused therapy. *Journal of Marital and Family Therapy* 32, no. 2 (April): 133-139. This article investigates the potential future of solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) in light of its broader applications. Following a summary of the SFBT practice, the authors provide an exploration of training and research in SFBT that provides additional rationale for the therapeutic approach. ### **Annotated List of Assumptions for SFBT** **1. If it isn’t broken don’t fix it (De Shazer 2007, 1-2; Kollar 2011, 82).** Certain schools of psychology suggest therapy needs to exist even without a presenting problem. SFBT is relevant only if a problem exists, and then moves toward doing more of what works. Alternatively, if a certain exercise is not working, SFBT avoids blaming the client and suggests something different. **2. Small steps can lead to big changes (De Shazer 2007, 2).** SFBT is a minimalistic approach to therapy that supports manageable steps to avoid overwhelming the client. The assumption is that small changes will naturally lead to larger changes in the life of the individual and once enough changes occur to mitigate the presenting problem, the therapy terminates. **3. The solution is not necessarily directly related to the problem (De Shazer 2007, 2).** Most forms of therapy begin with the problem and then move toward a solution. SFBT reverses the formula and begins with the solution. Accordingly, SFBT spends little or no time on pathology. Kollar (2011) explains this assumption by suggesting that the problem is the problem, not the counselee’s psychopathology (77-80). **4. The language for solution development differs from problem analysis (De Shazer 2007, 3).** Language pertaining to problems normally focuses on history and presumes permanence. SFBT language is more hopeful and future-focused. Kollar (2011) endorses the concept by suggesting that language should focus on “when” not “if” change will occur based on the assumption that the counselee is always changing (70-72). **5. No problems happen all the time (De Shazer 2007, 3).** A major intervention of SFBT assumes that even apparently insignificant exceptions can activate healthy behavioral change. Kollar (2011) furthers the argument by suggesting that complex problems do not demand complex solutions and assisting the client in discovering exceptions helps create the solutions (Kollar 2011, 67-70). **6. The future is both created and negotiable (De Shazer 2007, 3).** The tenet assumes a future that is hopeful where individuals create their own destiny. Kollar (2011) clarifies De Shazer’s assumption with the application of a biblical worldview by suggesting that solutions are co-created by joining God in His current activity within the life of the counselee (76-77). **7. God is already active in the counselee (Kollar 2011, 62-67).** It is necessary for Christian counselors to be open to where God is already working in the life of the counselee. SFBT within a Christian context looks for events where God is working and focuses on these areas rather than the presenting problems. **8. The counselee is the expert and defines goals (Kollar 2011, 72-75).** The counselee’s emphasis on client-generated solutions holds the counselee capable of change and creates an environment where the counselee is more likely to take ownership of the solutions. Furthermore, the client-centered approach mitigates the risk of an unhealthy dependent relationship with the counselor. **9. The counseling relationship is positional (Kollar 2011, 80-82).** SFBT assess the willingness of a client from a positional perspective. Specifically, the counselor identifies whether the client is in the willing, blaming, or attending position. If necessary, the counselor attempts to move the counselee toward willingness by supporting the client’s identified goals. ## **References** - De Shazer, Steve, and Yvonne Dolan. 2007. *More than miracles: The state of the art of solution-focused brief therapy*. New York: Haworth Press. - Kollar, Charles Allen. 2011. *Solution-focused pastoral counseling: an effective short-term approach for getting people back on track*. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Pastoral Counseling Models](https://www.livestransforming.com/pastoral-counseling-models/) **Published:** February 8, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Pastoral Counseling Models [![03 1 182x300 - Pastoral Counseling Models](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-1-182x300.jpg "Pastoral Counseling Models - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4hey32B)Strategic Pastoral Counseling: A Short-Term Structured Model David G. Benner’s “Strategic Pastoral Counseling Model” and Ron Hawkins’ “Pastoral Assessment Model and Counseling Scenario” have numerous similarities and differences. Both models support brief therapy, assume God is working, emphasize future hope, and attempt to maintain focus. Furthermore, both encourage dialogue that promotes safety and trust, referred to by Hawkins as “fit” and Benner as “joining” (Benner 2003, 76). Differences between the two models also exist. Hawkins (2012a) appears to expand Benner’s more individualistic approach by placing additional emphasis on the temporal and supernatural systems (slide 4). Furthermore, Benner (2003) provides a counseling structure that emphasizes the alignment of “underlying beliefs and values” and brings “meaning to the problems” (92). Hawkins’ (2012a) solution-focused therapy emphasizes the “what” rather than the “why” and attempts to provide present hope through imagining a preferred future (slide 2). Hawkins’ (2012b; c) “Pastoral Counseling Scenario” includes proper preparation of the counseling setting and assessment of the counselor’s relational style (slides 1-4; slides 1-6). Furthermore, the counseling strategy entails listening to counselee’s story, discovering a preferred future, collaborating toward a solution, and identifying supportive resources (Hawkins 2012d, slide 4). Finally, the session concludes with purposeful feedback, pragmatic movement, and authentic debriefing (Hawkins 2012e, slides 1-4). Decisions and resources for the present context include the identification of bibliotherapeutic materials, alignment of support groups and lay counselors, and a referral list for specialized needs. The elements of Hawkins’ (2012a) “[Pastoral Assessment Model](https://www.livestransforming.com/pastoral-counseling-faith-and-reason/)” include the inner core, soul, body, temporal systems, and supernatural systems (slide 4). The greatest resource is salvation, which affects the inner core (Rice 2012a, slide 3). Soulical resources include spiritual disciplines and somatic resources including assessments of physical health, diet, and rest (Rice 2012b, slides 1-2; 2012c, slides 1-2). Finally, inquiries regarding external influences and synergistic components of self also assist in the discovery of solutions (Rice 2012d, slides 1-6; 2012e, slides 1-2). The purpose of the final project is to provide a practical application of solution based therapy informed by a primary goal. The paper encompasses four components of counseling, which include the setting, relational style, strategy, and summation within the context of a family in crisis. The outcome requires previous coursework to provide an integrative presentation. ## **References** Benner, David G. 2003. *Strategic pastoral counseling: A short-term structured model*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012a. *Hawkins’ pastoral assessment model.* [http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867905-dt-content-rid-84442501\_1/xid-84442501\_1](http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867905-dt-content-rid-84442501_1/xid-84442501_1) (accessed May 13, 2012). Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012b. *The counseling setting.* [http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867901-dt-content-rid-84442502\_1/xid-84442502\_1](http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867901-dt-content-rid-84442502_1/xid-84442502_1) (accessed May 13, 2012). Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012c. *The counselor’s relational style.* [http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867902-dt-content-rid-84442507\_1/xid-84442507\_1](http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867902-dt-content-rid-84442507_1/xid-84442507_1) (accessed May 13, 2012). Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012d. *The counseling structure/strategy.* [http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867903-dt-content-rid-84441962\_1/xid-84441962\_1](http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867903-dt-content-rid-84441962_1/xid-84441962_1) (accessed May 13, 2012). Hawkins, Ronald E. 2012e. *The counseling summation.* [http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867904-dt-content-rid-84442503\_1/xid-84442503\_1](http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867904-dt-content-rid-84442503_1/xid-84442503_1) (accessed May 13, 2012). Rice, Dwight C. 2012a. *Step 2 – Think spiritually.* Adapted from *Hawkins’ pastoral assessment model.* [http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867917-dt-content-rid-84442446\_1/xid-84442446\_1](http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867917-dt-content-rid-84442446_1/xid-84442446_1) (accessed May 13, 2012). Rice, Dwight C. 2012b. *Step 3 – Think soulically.* Adapted from *Hawkins’ pastoral assessment model.* [http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867918-dt-content-rid-84442442\_1/xid-84442442\_1](http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867918-dt-content-rid-84442442_1/xid-84442442_1) (accessed May 13, 2012). Rice, Dwight C. 2012c. *Step 4 – Think somatically.* Adapted from *Hawkins’ pastoral assessment model.* [http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867919-dt-content-rid-84442440\_1/xid-84442440\_1](http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867919-dt-content-rid-84442440_1/xid-84442440_1) (accessed May 13, 2012). Rice, Dwight C. 2012d. *Step 5 – Think systemically.* Adapted from *Hawkins’ pastoral assessment model.* [http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867920-dt-content-rid-84442444\_1/xid-84442444\_1](http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867920-dt-content-rid-84442444_1/xid-84442444_1) (accessed May 13, 2012). Rice, Dwight C. 2012e. *Step 6 – Think synergistically.* Adapted from *Hawkins’ pastoral assessment model.* [http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867921-dt-content-rid-84442453\_1/xid-84442453\_1](http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-15867921-dt-content-rid-84442453_1/xid-84442453_1) (accessed May 13, 2012). **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Textual Issue of 1 Samuel 13.1](https://www.livestransforming.com/textual-issue-of-1-samuel-13-1/) **Published:** February 8, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Textual Issue of 1 Samuel 13.1 **If someone in your church finds a study Bible footnote that describes the textual problem in 1 Samuel 13:1 and wants to know what the original text said, how would you answer them?** [The textual challenge of 1 Samuel 13:1](https://www.livestransforming.com/textual-challenge-1-samuel-131/) is particularly daunting due to the limited textual data. The BHS renders the verse as follows: בֶּן־שָׁנָ֖ה שָׁא֣וּל בְּמָלְכ֑וֹ וּשְׁתֵּ֣י שָׁנִ֔ים מָלַ֖ךְ עַל־יִשְׂרָאֵֽל. A literal translation of the Masoretic Text states, “Saul was a son of a year in his reigning and two years he reigned over Israel.” The BHS textual apparatus notes a number of Septuagint manuscripts omit the verse, a few Septuagint manuscripts replace “a year” with “30 years,” and the Peshitta replaces “a year” with “21 years” and omits “and two years.” Accordingly, the English translations vary widely in their interpretations. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 28 1 182x300 - Textual Issue of 1 Samuel 13.1](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-28-1-182x300.jpg "Textual Issue of 1 Samuel 13.1 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fWsAMO)The First Book of Samuel (New International Commentary on the Old Testament) Regarding 1 Samuel 13:1, Emanuel Tov suggests that, although an earlier text likely included the accurate numbers, it is correct to assume, “the received text contains a textual error,” not based on comparing manuscripts, but based on “content analysis.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Two specific errors appear to occur within the text based on the content of 1 Samuel. First, 1 Samuel 13:2 appears to be toward the beginning of Saul’s rule, and his son was already old enough to lead troops. Thus, the likelihood of Saul being a year old when beginning his reign is remote. Second, David Tsumura asserts that, based on the content of 1 Samuel 9-31, it is “almost certain that the actual length of Saul’s reign was more than two years.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Furthermore, Acts 13:21 implies that Saul ruled for approximately forty years. Tsumura notes that many scholarly explanations exist that attempt to solve the mystery by supplying the original numbers or justify the Masoretic text by assuming a poetic or ironic connotation.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) However, based on the current manuscript evidence, the explications appear forced and definitive answers appear elusive. Providing an answer to someone in church who wants to know what the original text said may be difficult. An important first step would be to affirm the inspiration of the *original autographs* with God as the source of inerrant Scripture. Next, an explanation of the extreme care that scribes took to maintain the integrity of the Bible would be appropriate, especially in light of the recent archeological finds of Qumran. Third, it is necessary to inform the member that just because God inspired the original autographs, does not mean that the transmission of the text by humans through thousands of years is without error. Finally, it may be helpful to reassure the member by explaining that the vast majority of the text exists without transmission error and that no significant doctrinal changes occur due to the error in 1 Samuel 13:1. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Emanuel Tov, *Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible*, 2nd ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001), 10–11. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) David Tsumura, *The First Book of Samuel*, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2007), 331. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 331–33. ## **Bibliography** - Tov, Emanuel. *Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible*. 2nd ed. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001. - Tsumura, David. *The First Book of Samuel.* The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2007.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Jeremiah 20: Literary Features](https://www.livestransforming.com/jeremiah-20-literary-features/) **Published:** January 11, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Jeremiah 20: Literary Features Prophetic rhetoric utilizes the structure and form of language to effectively communicate a message, and the prophet Jeremiah represents one of the finest rhetoricians of all time. A key question for interpretation is how literary features inform understanding. Without understanding the relationships between the literary features and the message, the reader risks misinterpretation. Specifically, the literary features associated with Jeremiah 20:7-18 stress that a true prophet cannot forsake God’s sovereign call, and a faithful God will not forsake His chosen prophet. First, a brief contextual and structural prelude is followed by an analysis that identifies and explains key literary and rhetorical features central to theological messaging. Within each poetic segment, connections are then made between the literary features and the message to inform understanding. A final section assimilates the data from the poetic analyses and provides a comprehensive connection between the literary and rhetorical features and the overall theological message of the text. ## **Identification and Explanation of Key Literary and Rhetorical Features** ### A Prelude to a Lament A nod to literary context alongside an overview of the literary structure of the passage provides a backdrop and framework for the text. After leaving Topheth, Jeremiah prophesied impending doom at the court of the temple (Jer 19:14-15). As a result, the priest Pashhur, a chief officer of the court, beat Jeremiah and placed him in the stocks (Jer 20:1-12). Upon release, Jeremiah lashed out at Pashhur and informed the priest he would die in exile (Jer 20:3-6). According to Robert Chisholm, the humiliation experienced by Jeremiah sets the stage for the following poem.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The shift to poetry in verse 7 sets the upper limit of the passage, and verse 18 completes the poetic unit prior to the resumption of the narrative. More challenging is the partitioning of the poem itself. Jack Lundbom suggests that rhetorical analysis, rather than form criticism, appropriately divides the passage into three poems by recognizing the change of tone and keyword groupings that segregate verses 7-10, 11-13, and 14-18, respectively.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Furthermore, although not perfectly symmetrical, the entire passage appears to provide a chiastic structure. Lundbom explains that a chiasmus is an inverted literary pattern whereby the center often exists as a climax or turning point.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The outermost segments communicate Jeremiah’s shame in verses 7 and 14-18 (A, A1), and then the poem moves inward to Jeremiah’s decisions regarding speaking to God in verses 9 and 13 (B, B1), which is followed by the topic of revenge and vengeance in verses 10 and 12 (C, C1). The climax of the chiasmus in verse 11 centers around the phrase, “Yahweh is with me” (D). As will be seen, the focal point of the chiastic structure informs the overall [theological message](https://www.livestransforming.com/theological-research/) of the passage, which is developed through the analysis of the three individual poems. ### You Enticed Me: Jeremiah 20:7-10 The literary genre of the first poem is an individual lament. Gary Smith explains that a lament is a prophetic utterance of mourning during a period of crisis.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Although beyond the scope of strict literary and rhetorical analysis, the Hebrew lemma, פָּתָה, is significantly debated, but in agreement with Michael Brown, the basic meaning is “to entice.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The immediate repetition of the lemma פָּתָה in verse 7 rhetorically emphasizes the idea that the prophet feels violated. According to scholarly consensus, the enticement recalls Jeremiah’s commissioning and God’s promise of deliverance in Jeremiah 1:4-8.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The repetition and intertextual reflection informs the theological message that God is in control. The prophet does not select his call, the call selects him under God’s sovereign rule. Jeremiah threatens no longer to speak the name of Yahweh, but through the use of simile, the prophet emphasizes that God’s words are like a burning fire within him (Jer 20:9). The combustive comparison is then enhanced through the use of paronomasia, which, according to Lundbom, is a play on words to gain attention.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The fire is locked (עָצַר) within Jeremiah’s bones (עֶ֫צֶם), thus, as Brown explains, even if Jeremiah shuts his mouth, the words will still burn inside his bones. [\[8\]](#_ftn8) In other words, the prophet’s commission appears to be irresistible. Regardless, the ironic language in verse 10, where friends are enemies gossiping and plotting Jeremiah’s demise, exposes the prophet’s deep anguish and despair. ### Yahweh is With Me: Jeremiah 20:11-13 The literary genre now shifts from a lament to a thanksgiving. Lundbom suggests that the poetic segment is a later addition.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) However, discontinuity is not necessary. Daniel Estes observes that profound emotional shifts from pain to praise often occur within individual Lament Psalms.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Accordingly, it is not unreasonable to discover a similar phenomenon within the prophetic laments. Furthermore, literarily, Lundbom asserts that chapter 20 concludes the First Edition of the book of Jeremiah.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Thus, the proclamation that Yahweh is still “with me” (Jer 20:11) not only stands at the center of the chapter 20 chiasm mentioned above, but it also makes an *inclusio* with chapter 1. Lundbom explains that an *inclusio* is a repetition of a beginning at the end of a segment and often functions to provide closure or emphasis.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) In the case of verse 11, Jeremiah proclaims that Yahweh is with him, will deliver him from the adversaries, which is reminiscent of Jeremiah 1:8 and 19 and provides both emphasis to the message of God’s faithfulness and an initial closure to the First Edition. Accordingly, the literary and rhetorical methodology informs the theological message that God is faithful to keep His promises. Within the immediate context, Brown notes that Jeremiah’s praise and thanksgiving need to be read not only in light of the rescue from Pashhur, but also with confidence in God’s faithfulness shared by the broader community in acts of communal praise (Jer 20:13). ### Cursed Be the Day: Jeremiah 20:14-18 The third poem reverts back to a lament from Jeremiah. In agreement with Lundbom, the two curses on the man and day announced in verses 14-15 necessitate the following reconstructive addition to verse 17 to highlight its rhetorical force: “\[Let that day be like ……..\].”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The reconstruction provides a chiasm of day (14), man (15), man (16), and day (17), which emphasizes the two curses and the utter despair of the prophet. [![Jeremiah among the Prophets 182x300 - Jeremiah 20: Literary Features](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Jeremiah-among-the-Prophets-182x300.jpg "Jeremiah 20: Literary Features - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fN5jgk)Jeremiah among the Prophets Figurative language abounds in the final poem to accentuate the prophet’s misery. For example, simile is used to compare the cursed man who is like the cities, which, according to Lundbom, represents Sodom and Gomorrah with the use of metonymy.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Furthermore, hyperbole and metaphor is used when Jeremiah references an eternally pregnant mother whose womb is a grave to further emphasize Jeremiah’s misery. However, a rhetorical question provides the finale, “Why this: from the womb came I forth?” (Jer 20:18). It appears the poem concludes without an answer. However, Lundbom explains the divine answer emerges in the form of a final *inclusio* to the First Edition of the book. Jeremiah came forth from the womb because Yahweh knew and called the prophet before he was formed in the womb (Jer 1:5).[\[15\]](#_ftn15) The theological message is reinforced by a chiasm of a call complaint in the first poem, praise for deliverance in the second poem, and a call complaint in the third poem, with deliverance standing at the center. In sum, God has been in control from even before the prophet’s conception. Again, the prophet does not select his call, but in God’s sovereignty, His creator selects him. ## **Connection Between Literary and Rhetorical Features and the Theological Message** Although numerous explanations regarding how the various literary and rhetorical features relate to the theological message of the text have been provided within the above analyses, the theological message of the entire passage, which pulls from all three individual poems, provides a final connection. Specifically, the original chiastic structure referred to in the prelude now takes on deep theological meaning and significance. The outermost segments convey the misery and despair of the prophet. However, the innermost segment provides the climactic center. Throughout all of Jeremiah’s pain, suffering, and misery, God is with Jeremiah. The theological message and significance are unmistakable: When called to preach to a faithless people, a prophet’s life is often intolerable, but a true prophet cannot forsake God’s sovereign call that burns in his bones, and a faithful God will not forsake His prophet who was known and commissioned before he was formed in the womb. ## **Conclusion** Without question, the masterful skills of the weeping prophet provide rhetorical and literary features that inform theological messaging. From the broad perspectives of genre analysis, chiasms, and *inclusios*, to the individual elements of repetition, metaphor, and paronomasia, each feature plays a role in communicating the significance of the prophet’s message. In the case of Jeremiah 20:7-18, the literary features inform a message that stress that a true prophet cannot forsake God’s sovereign call, and a faithful God will not forsake His chosen prophet. Although, at times, an individual’s call may seem intolerable, the promise that God will remain with His believers provides a message of hope during the crises of life. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Robert B. Chisolm, *Handbook on the Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Minor Prophets* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009), 178–179. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Lundbom, *Jeremiah 1-20*, 853. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Jack R. Lundbom, *The Hebrew Prophets: An Introduction*, 1st ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2010), 175. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Gary V. Smith, *Interpreting the Prophetic Books: An Exegetical Handbook* (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2014), 194. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Michael Brown, *Jeremiah–Ezekiel*, vol. 7 of *The Expositor’s Bible Commentary,* ed. Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland, rev. ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010), 286–288. According to Brown, the broad semantic range of פָּתָה includes the following possibilities: (1) to persuade, which is unlikely, (2) to seduce, which unnecessarily includes sexual overtones, and (3) to deceive, which is not convincing. However, in a sense, Jeremiah does appear to feel violated in some way by apparently not understanding the complete ramifications of his calling. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Lundbom, *Jeremiah 1-20*, 855. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Lundbom, *The Hebrew Prophets*, 197. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Brown, *Jeremiah–Ezekiel*, 7:289. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Jack R. Lundbom, *Theology in Language, Rhetoric, and Beyond* (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2014), 128. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Daniel J. Estes, “The Transformation of Pain into Praise: In the Individual Lament Psalms,” in *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, ed. Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr (Chicago: Moody, 2013), 151–153. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Lundbom, *Jeremiah 1-20*, 851. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Lundbom, *The Hebrew Prophets*, 172. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Lundbom, *Jeremiah 1-20*, 866–867. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Jack R. Lundbom, *Jeremiah among the Prophets* (Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2012), 61. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid., 62. ## Bibliography - Brown, Michael. *Jeremiah–Ezekiel*. Revised. Vol. 7 in *The Expositor’s Bible Commentary.* Edited by Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010. - Chisolm, Robert B. *Handbook on the Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Minor Prophets*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009. - Estes, Daniel J. “The Transformation of Pain into Praise: In the Individual Lament Psalms.” In *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, edited by Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr. Chicago: Moody, 2013. - Lundbom, Jack R. *Jeremiah 1-20 : A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary*. New Haven: Yale University, 2008. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. *Jeremiah among the Prophets*. Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2012. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. *The Hebrew Prophets: An Introduction*. 1st ed. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2010. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. *Theology in Language, Rhetoric, and Beyond*. Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2014. - Smith, Gary V. *Interpreting the Prophetic Books: An Exegetical Handbook*. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2014. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Background and Themes of Judges](https://www.livestransforming.com/background-and-themes-of-judges/) **Published:** January 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Background and Themes of Judges Engaging any literary masterpiece requires more than a simple reading of the text. In the case of biblical literature, and especially with regard to the fascinating historical narratives in the book of Judges, an understanding of the broader landscape of the ancient Near East, the thematic initiatives that bridge the meaning of the stories, and the debated scholarly issues that surround the book open limitless possibilities for interpretive engagement. However, the backdrop, themes, and interpretive conundrums remain open to debate. Without a proper understanding of a broad spectrum of interpretive clues, the reader risks missing the meaning and the significance of the text. The historical background, canonical placement, archaeological data, iconographical imagery, cultural milieu, biblical themes, and engagement with critical-interpretive issues all combine as necessary tools to support a deep, well-rounded understanding of the book of Judges. The following research first engages several background issues, relevant archaeological data, and ancient Near Eastern literature. Next, an overview of Israel’s culture and pertinent iconography commences, which is followed by a detailed thematic analysis that juxtaposes various motifs. Finally, a dive into the leading issues debated by modern scholars concludes the analysis. ## **Background Issues** ### Background Issues Introduction The riveting narratives within the book of Judges are some of the most well-known and beloved stories in all of Scripture. From the fascinating account of Gideon’s fleece to the intrigue of Samson’s escapades, the adventures in the book of Judges have mesmerized both children and adults alike. The question is what contextual, archaeological, and literary evidence exists to support an understanding of the meaning and historical realities of the texts. By ignoring the biblical and extra-biblical clues, the interpreter risks not only misinterpreting the content, but also ignoring the historical veracity of the texts. The historical and canonical context, relevant archaeological data, and ancient literary parallels enhance understanding of the text and support the historicity of the book of Judges within a framework of the ancient Near East. The following brief analysis first provides an overview of the book’s background along with an analysis of its historical and canonical context. Next, a survey of the major relevant archaeological material commences with an emphasis on the excavations at Tel Miqne, Tel Balata, and Tel Qasile. Finally, a survey of relevant ancient Near Eastern literary parallels completes the analysis, which focuses specifically upon the Merneptah Stela, the Amarna Letters, the Ugaritic collections, and the Great Karnak Inscription of Merneptah. ### Historical and Canonical Survey At the end of the book of Joshua, the Israelites had not conquered all of the land allocated to them by Yahweh. The book of Judges continues the story of the Israelites now residing in Canaan, a small strip of land west of the Mediterranean Sea and east of Mesopotamia. Unfortunately, the Canaanite influence upon Israel resulted in a downward spiral of apostasy. Although Yahweh chooses various judges or rulers to lead His people, the Israelites continue a circular pattern of apostasy, oppression, repentance, deliverance, and a generation of peace. At the conclusion of the book of Judges, the corruption of the people of Israel seems almost hopeless. Appropriately assessing the historical context of the book of Judges requires an investigation of both the compositional and referential historical context. First, regarding the compositional historical context, Mark Boda provides three developments: early critical scholarship, later critical scholarship, and modern literary unity.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Early critical scholarship leaned on the work of Julius Wellhausen’s documentary hypothesis, which suggests the original form of Judges arose from both the Jahwist (J) and Elohist (E) sources with redactions occurring by later editors.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) In a study from 1943, Martin Noth represents later critical scholarship by espousing a Deuteronomistic History (DtrH), which, Steven McKenzie explains, assumes that the books of Deuteronomy through 2 Kings were a single unified story written by an author around 562 BC through a process of compilation, editorialization, and composition.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) More recently, Barry Webb represents a form of modern literary unity by utilizing a synchronic approach that focuses on the final form of the text.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In other words, Webb makes a case for a coherent unity of the entire book of Judges. Regarding referential historical context, the debate regarding alternative views of the historicity of Judges is beyond the scope of a background introduction. However, according to Boda, a general consensus does exist among scholars regarding the rise of the Israelite monarchy around 1000 BC; thus the dating of the book of Judges must precede the time of David.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Accordingly, the likely timeframe of the events in the book of Judges occurred around the Early Iron Age. [![Joshua Judges Ruth 1 and 2 Samuel 245x300 - Background and Themes of Judges](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Joshua-Judges-Ruth-1-and-2-Samuel-245x300.jpg "Background and Themes of Judges - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gvcB9s)Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel: Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary However, at this point, attempting to establish the details of the chronology within the book of Judges becomes quite difficult. Although many of the place names in the book of Judges align with the geography of the ancient Near East, according to Daniel Block, not a single character within the narrative of Judges exists within the extra-biblical sources of the ancient Near East.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Thus, reliance upon internal evidence from the biblical account is necessary, which presents a significant challenge. By working through the narratives, the total number of years from the Exodus to the time Solomon began building the temple is approximately 590 years, but 1 Kings 6:1 states the timeframe is 480 years.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Boda’s explanation is that the book of Judges may not follow a strict chronology and that overlapping timeframes have occurred in the narrative.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In addition to the general dating and specific chronology of referential history, various possibilities exist regarding the nature of Israel’s conquest of the land, specifically due to lack of structure within a loose tribal confederacy. McKenzie asserts that since no archaeological evidence exists supporting an Israelite conquest, alternative methods of settlement including infiltration and peasant revolt models have been espoused.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Further, Boda acknowledges that some scholars avoid the subject altogether and consider the book of Judges a myth.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) However, alongside Boda, this research assumes the biblical account reconstructs Israel’s historical past. The book of Judges places itself within the canon of both the Jewish Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible directly after the book of Joshua. However, the Hebrew Bible assigns Judges to the Former Prophets alongside Joshua, Samuel, and Kings, while the Christian Bible assigns Judges to the Historical Books that include Ruth, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. In one sense, Judges is prophetic with regards to the warnings presented and, in another sense, the book of Judges is historical with regards to presenting the ongoing story of Israel. Judges also finds its place within the canon intertextually. According to Block, the reference to Sisera, the Philistines, and the king of Moab in 1 Samuel 12:9-11 clearly shows that the author was aware of the book of Judges.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Furthermore, the prophets Isaiah and Hosea both allude to the time frame of the Judges. Isaiah appears to reflect on Gideon by referring to the days of Midian (Isa 9:4), and Hosea refers to the corruption during the days of Gibeah (Hos 9:9, 10:9) as well as the evildoers of Gilead (Hos 6:8). Finally, Block also notes the potential allusions to the Song of Deborah in Psalm 68:7-14 and the list of Israelite oppressors in Psalm 83.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Without question, the book of Judges appropriately resides within the biblical canon. The compositional and referential historical and canonical context of the book of Judges not only enhances an understanding of the book of Judges but also supports the historicity of its events. ### Archaeological Survey Israel entered the land as a people group in covenant with Yahweh commissioned to drive out the Canaanites. However, many nations were left in the land during the time of the Judges “to test Israel” (Judg 3:1).[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Judges 3:3 lists the remaining nations and specifically refers to the five cities of the Philistines. Block explains that the Philistines were one of the groups of Sea Peoples who migrated into Canaan around 1200 BC and formed the Philistine Pentapolis of city-states, which included Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) All five sites have been excavated. One prominent site is Tel Miqne, which, according to Trude Dothan and Seymour Gitin, is associated with the city of Ekron.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) The Iron Age architecture confirmed the location of a major city during the time period of the events of Judges.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) The excavations, according to Dothan, suggest a large urban district associated with the Sea Peoples based on the evidence from pottery and cultic installations.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) In Judges 9, the notables from the Canaanite city of Shechem contributed 70 shekels to Abimelech, Gideon’s son, which he used to murder 70 of his half-brothers (Judg 9:1-21). Ultimately, the people of Shechem began to worry about their involvement, and a clan revolted, which led to Abimelech setting fire to the Shechem Temple killing about one thousand (Judg 9:22-49). According to Lawrence Stager, Tell Balata began excavation in 1913, and the Temple at Shechem was discovered in 1926.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Excavation resumed between 1956 and 1973 by American excavators who dated the construction of the temple before the events of Gideon between 1650 and 1550 BC.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) In contrast, Stager asserts that the temple adorned with an altar and pillars was not destroyed until around 1100 BC due to its nature and size, and thus was the temple referred to in Judges 9:46.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Another famous temple in the book of Judges is seen in the story of Samson. After Delilah cuts Samson’s hair, the Philistines capture him, gouge out his eyes, and put him to work (Judg 16:1-22). The Philistine noblemen brought Samson to the temple in Gaza where they had planned a sacrifice to their god, Dagon (Judg 16:23-27). Samson locates the two pillars of the temple and pushes them over killing the Philistines (Judg 16:28-31). According to Block, a Philistine temple to Dagon has not yet been located in the city of Gaza.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) However, a Philistine temple has been excavated at a site called Tell Qasile originally settled by the Philistines around 1100 BC.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) The main room of the temple measured approximately eighteen feet by twenty-four feet, and several bones were found at the site suggesting sacrificial offerings.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Importantly, the archaeological evidence reveals two support columns made of wood, which were set on stone footings to support the structure of the building providing evidence that Philistine temples such as the one toppled by Samson existed during the time of Judges.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Many additional excavations that potentially reflect sites referred to in Judges also exist. For example, the town of Laish (cf. Judg 18:7) is located at Tell Dan and demonstrates the presence of Aegeans, the town of Bethel (cf. Judg 4:5) is located at Tell Beitin, the town of Succoth (cf. Judg 8:5) is identified with Tell Deir Alla, and the town of Timnah (cf. Judg 14:1) is located at Tell Batash where evidence shows a transfer of power from Canaanites to the Philistines and then to the Israelites.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Furthermore, a treasure trove of archaeological artifacts have been uncovered that relate to the timeframe of Judges. For example, food-processing implements such as millstones (cf. Judg 9:53) were ubiquitous, looms have been found in domestic settings (cf. Judg 16:13-14), archaeology has uncovered an abundance of images of deities (cf. Judg 17:3-4), and slinging stones were also common in the archaeological finds (cf. Judg 20:16).[\[26\]](#_ftn26) The relevant archaeological data enhances understanding and supports the historicity of the book of Judges within a framework of the ancient Near East. ### Ancient Near Eastern Literature A survey of the relevant ancient Near Eastern literature to the book of Judges must commence with the Merneptah Stela, the Amarna letters, the Ugaritic collections, the Merneptah relief at Karnak, and a brief reference to Hittite literature. First, it is impossible to ignore the importance of the Merneptah Stela. The Egyptian Pharaoh, Merneptah, began his reign in 1213 BC and, according to Block, the Merneptah Stela was erected in approximately 1208 BC to commemorate the king’s victories in Canaan.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Importantly, the stela is the earliest attestation of Israel in extra-biblical literature.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) James Hoffmeier notes that many scholars observe a parallelism in the inscription between Hurru and Israel suggesting a significant presence of Israelites in the region.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) Furthermore, Hoffmeier continues, the writing of Israel on the stela appears to indicate an ethnic group rather than a region or city, which aligns with the image of Israel represented in the book of Judges.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) The Amarna letters are a collection of literary finds that may parallel the importance of the Merneptah Stela. Victor Matthews and Don Benjamin explain that in 1887 a woman found the collection of 382 tablets in Egypt that documented various diplomatic exchanges between rulers and vassal kingdoms in Canaan.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) The significance of the Amarna letters resides not in the identification of Israelites, but instead, in highlighting the social unrest during the fourteenth century BC that parallels a similar political landscape of the time of Judges.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) Many references to place names, individuals, and topics within the Amarna letters also occur in the book of Judges. For example, Block explains that the letters refer to the city of Jerusalem (cf. Judg 1:7) as a vassal of the Pharaoh at the time, the city of Ashkelon (cf. Judg 1:18) as a Canaanite city conquered by Merneptah, the city of Gezer (cf. Judg 1:29) as a flourishing economic and political center, and the Sidonians (cf. Judg 3:3) as a leading member of the anti-Egyptian coalition.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Other important parallels reference tribal confederations. Harry Hoffner notes that a Hittite text called “The Deeds of Šuppiluliuma” found within the Amarna letters identifies a number of tribes or tribal groups, which parallel the tribal confederacy involved in the conflicts recorded in the book of Judges.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) The discovery of a collection of Ugaritic texts from approximately the twelfth century provides another rich source of relevant ancient Near Eastern literature. According to Block, the Ugaritic collection, especially the poetry, has provided significant ritual and mythological texts referring to the Canaanite deities referenced in the book of Judges.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) For example, in the Ugaritic mythological literature, Block explains Astarte (Ashtaroth) is the spouse of Baal and the reference to Baals (cf. Judg 2:13) refer to local manifestations of the deity.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) The goddess named Asherah is associated with Baal in the book of Judges and is also referred to in Ugaritic poetry (cf. Judg 3:7). Nick Wyatt explains that in the Baal cycle, Asherah is the wife of the god El and the mother of seventy gods who intercedes for Baal.[\[37\]](#_ftn37) Although a comprehensive analysis of the parallels between Ugaritic literature and the book of Judges is beyond the scope of the analysis, one more example assists. The importance of a son as documented in Judges 13 also has parallels in Ugaritic poetic literature. In the story of *Aqhat*, a son not only was important for the wellbeing of the parent but had important implications for the afterlife.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) A major parallel comes from the Great Karnak Inscription of Merneptah. First, the inscription dated to the thirteenth century is the only extra-biblical reference to the Sea Peoples and states that the Egyptian forces defeated “the foreign countries \[or ‘peoples’\] of the sea.”[\[39\]](#_ftn39) Furthermore, the victory hymn of Tuthmosis III was also found in a temple at Karnak, which parallels Deborah’s victory hymn in Judges 5.[\[40\]](#_ftn40) Finally, although Hittite references are less prominent, a Hittite incarnation does reference both the country of Sidon and the country of Tyre when listing geographical names (cf. Judg 3:3).[\[41\]](#_ftn41) The ancient literary parallels enhance understanding of the text and support the historicity of the book of Judges within a framework of the ancient Near East. ### Background Issues Conclusion Although reading the biblical stories in Judges provides entertainment akin to the action and drama of modern motion pictures, by placing the book of Judges within its historical and canonical context, the interpreter can move beyond entertainment into illuminating understanding. Furthermore, by identifying relevant archaeological data, not only does the motion picture come alive, but its historicity also solidifies. Finally, the ancient Near Eastern literary parallels support the book’s historicity and also deeply immerses the reader into the cultural milieu of the ancient Israelites. Without question, the historical and canonical context, relevant archaeological data, and ancient literary parallels enhance understanding of the text and support the historicity of the book of Judges within a framework of the ancient Near East. From a personal perspective, by engaging the contextual, archaeological, and literary factors related to the book of Judges, not only does the content provide a deeper understanding of the text and a strong apologetic for historical veracity, but also, it provides a foundation for the enhancement of biblical exposition. ## **Iconography and Culture** ### Iconography and Culture Introduction The cultural milieu of any particular ancient society creates a retroactive version of empathy that places the reader inside the shoes of individuals from thousands of years ago. Iconography provides a similar experience but provides images that act as a time machine allowing readers to travel into the past through the use of virtual art galleries. The question is exactly what was the ancient culture of the Israelites that sets up the time period of the Judges, and how exactly does the extant ancient Near Eastern iconographical evidence support the thematic initiatives of the book of Judges? Without an understanding of the Israelite culture and iconographical evidence, the reader may miss crucial interpretive elements within the narrative. A recognition of the cultural elements of settlement, domestication, technology, and religion combined with an awareness of the iconography that supports the thematic initiatives of the book of Judges provide a framework for enhanced understanding of the famous narratives. Accordingly, the following analysis provides a brief summary of the pertinent cultural components of ancient Israel followed by a summary of the relevant iconographical data. ### Cultural Overview Sometime, likely in the early fourteenth century BC, Joshua’s conquest of Canaan came to an end. However, it was clear to the Israelites that despite the land allotment to the tribes, the entirety of the land had not been conquered. Specifically, Carl Rasmussen explains that the southwestern portion eventually controlled by the Philistines, the coastal plain, the Jezreel Valley, and the land of Canaan north of Dan all remained unconquered.[\[42\]](#_ftn42) Thus, the Israelite settlement consisted primarily of the extended hill country of Judah, Ephraim, and Manasseh, portions of Galilee, and parts of Gilead and Moab. The dating of the oppression of Israel, according to Robert Chisolm, likely began around 1330 BC and the final Samson narrative ends around 1130 BC.[\[43\]](#_ftn43) Domestically, the Israelites likely lived primarily as farmers among the more sparsely populated areas growing crops such as grapes, olives, figs, almonds, and wheat. Technologically, Rasmussen notes a recent invention of rock-hew, plaster-line cisterns that created the opportunity for families to live further away from springs, which opened the possibility of territorial expansion.[\[44\]](#_ftn44) However, without question, the most important aspect of the Israelites’ cultural milieu for purposes of evaluating the book of Judges was the religious beliefs of their neighbors. The Israelites struggled with the Canaanite religion from the start. and unfortunately, the threat lasted right up to the time of the Babylonian captivity in 586 BC. The risks associated with the Canaanite religion can be summarized into four categories: (1) polytheism, (2) Baalism, (3) fertility cults, and (4) syncretism. According to Joel Burnett, polytheism was particularly evident in the Transjordanian neighbors east of the Jordan, which included the Ammonites, Edomites, and Moabites who worshipped Baal, Bel, Mot, and Adad in addition to other national deities.[\[45\]](#_ftn45) Although polytheistic, Baalism was the most prominent opponent of Yahweh during the time of Judges. Wilhelm Herrmann describes the situation as an environment where the worship of Baal pervaded the entire Canaanite area spreading throughout the Mediterranean region.[\[46\]](#_ftn46) Baal appealed to the Israelites as the lord of the earth because Baalism promised blessings such as rain to nourish the crops. Likewise, according to Thomas Brisco, the fertility aspects of the Canaanite religion appealed to the Israelites, which, once again, promised blessing.[\[47\]](#_ftn47) Finally, the unfortunate temptation to some faithful Israelites was to engage both Yahwehism and Baalism, which led to various forms of syncretism. It was within a cultural environment of recently established rural settlements deeply influenced by the religious beliefs of its neighbors that Israel’s story engages Yahweh’s appointed judges. ### Iconography Overview An iconographic survey of the book of Judges first requires a brief definition and then an explanation of scope. First, according to Daniel Bodi, iconographical analysis examines visual representations such as ancient reliefs relevant to the book or time period under investigation.[\[48\]](#_ftn48) Next, the extent of ancient Near Eastern iconography pertaining to the Former Prophets and the book of Judges in particular prevents a comprehensive analysis of the visual representations. Accordingly, the following analysis focuses on iconography that supports the basic thematic framework of the book of Judges. ![Figure 1. Relief Luxor First court of columns first year of Ramses II 300x168 - Background and Themes of Judges](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-1.-Relief-Luxor-First-court-of-columns-first-year-of-Ramses-II-300x168.jpg "Background and Themes of Judges - Lives Transforming")**Figure 1. Relief: Luxor: First court of columns, first year of Ramses II.** The first visually represented motif in the ancient Near East is the power of God over enemies. The enemy oppressors of the Israelites during the time of Judges were numerous and included kings such as Cushan-Rishathaim of Aram-Naharaim, Eglon of Moab, Jabin of Hazor, as well as the Midianites, Ammonites, and Philistines. John Walton, Victor Matthews, and Mark Chavalas identify the time of Shamgar and Jael as a period of lawlessness characterized by dangerous roads requiring travelers to boycott normal thoroughfares and, instead, travel through the back woods and hillsides.[\[49\]](#_ftn49) The song of Deborah recognizes the risk in Judges 5:6-7 and states, “In the days of Shamgar, son of Anath, in the days of Jael, the highways were abandoned, and travelers kept to the byways. The villagers ceased in Israel; they ceased to be until I arose; I, Deborah, arose as a mother in Israel.”[\[50\]](#_ftn50) However, with the power of Yahweh on the side of Israel, it is not Israel running but, instead, Israel’s enemies as shown in the limestone relief (fig. 1) where, according to Othmar Keel, military troops from a Canaanite city are retreating into the woods.[\[51\]](#_ftn51) ![Figure 2. Cylindrical Seal Assyria 300x223 - Background and Themes of Judges](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-2.-Cylindrical-Seal-Assyria-300x223.jpg "Background and Themes of Judges - Lives Transforming")**Figure 2. Cylindrical Seal: Assyria.** The power of Yahweh over enemies extends beyond the foreign nations to beasts. Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas acknowledge that lion hunting was a sport for heroes and kings, and a relief from Tel Halaf pictorially displays an image of a warrior fighting a lion, and the story of the Sumerian king, Gilgamesh, killing a lion with bare hands was common knowledge.[\[52\]](#_ftn52) However, in Judges 14:5-6, Yahweh’s power is credited for Samson’s ability to tear a lion to pieces with his hands, a concept that is, according to Keel, similarly represented on an Assyrian cylindrical seal (fig. 2).[\[53\]](#_ftn53) ![Figure 3. Ivory carving Megiddo 300x133 - Background and Themes of Judges](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-3.-Ivory-carving-Megiddo-300x133.jpg "Background and Themes of Judges - Lives Transforming")**Figure 3. Ivory carving Megiddo.** The second visually represented motif is the power of God over Israel’s enemies in general, and more specifically, God’s power over a specific type of Canaanite weaponry. Although the cycle of disintegration continues throughout the book of Judges, the Israelites and, specifically, Deborah would have agreed with the Psalmist’s words, “Some trust in chariots and some in horses, but we trust in the name of the Lord our God” (Ps 20:7). In Judges 4:12-13, Sisera calls upon 900 chariots of iron as represented by the ancient Near Eastern ivory carving of the chariot likely leading captives into exile (fig. 3). According to Keel, war chariots had been used by the Canaanites for centuries, but the valuable weapons were no match for Yahweh (Judg 4:14; 5:23).[\[54\]](#_ftn54) ![Figure 4. Temple relief 300x222 - Background and Themes of Judges](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-4.-Temple-relief-300x222.jpg "Background and Themes of Judges - Lives Transforming")**Figure 4. Temple relief** **at Tell el-Retaba.** The third visually represented motif is God’s mercy and grace. In Judges 6:9-10, Yahweh reminds the Israelites just before exhorting them to not fear the gods of the Amorites that He had delivered them from the “hand of the Egyptians and from the hand of all who oppressed.” Block explains that the phrase “from the hand of Egypt” is appropriate in light of the prevalent use of the hand and the raised arm in iconographic portrayals of pharaoh’s control over his enemies such as represented in a temple relief at Tell el-Retaba (fig. 4).[\[55\]](#_ftn55) ![Figure 5. Basalt Relief Carchemish 300x244 - Background and Themes of Judges](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-5.-Basalt-Relief-Carchemish-300x244.jpg "Background and Themes of Judges - Lives Transforming")**Figure 5. Basalt Relief: Carchemish.** Moreover, Brent Strawn suggests that the outstretched arm represents military action and power; thus it is reasonable to conclude that the outstretched arm imagery also is applicable to Yahweh and the defeat of His enemies (cf. Exod 6:6).[\[56\]](#_ftn56) ![Figure 6. Terra cotta 140x300 - Background and Themes of Judges](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-6.-Terra-cotta-140x300.jpg "Background and Themes of Judges - Lives Transforming")**Figure 6. Terra-cotta** The fourth motif is God’s presence and victories represented by musical imagery. First, a horn or trumpet was a common instrument, along with tambourines and cymbals, in the ancient Near East. In Exodus 20:18, it is Yahweh who blows the trumpet and appears amid the lightning or torchlight, which announces to the Israelites they are to join Him on the mountain. However, in the book of Judges, Gideon provides trumpets and jars with torchlights to all his men (Judge 7:16). ![Figure 7. Relief Armana 300x165 - Background and Themes of Judges](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-7.-Relief-Armana-300x165.jpg "Background and Themes of Judges - Lives Transforming")**Figure 7. Relief Armana.** The horn is visually represented in ancient Near Eastern iconography in a basalt relief (fig. 5), and, according to Keel, similar to the event on the mountain, God’s “presence could be ensured by blowing the ram’s horn and burning torches.”[\[57\]](#_ftn57) Furthermore, music also played a celebratory role. Although a tragic ending ensues, after Yahweh intervenes, Jephthah comes home victoriously and his daughter celebrates with tambourines, represented by an ancient terra-cotta figure (fig. 6), and dancing, which is represented by an ancient relief from Armana (fig. 7) (Judg 11:34). Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas note that tambourines have been identified in archaeological reliefs as a small drum with leather stretched over a hoop without the modern-day rattle.[\[58\]](#_ftn58) ![Figure 8. Relief Karnak 300x209 - Background and Themes of Judges](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-8.-Relief-Karnak-300x209.jpg "Background and Themes of Judges - Lives Transforming")**Figure 8. Relief Karnak** The fifth motif is God’s safety and refuge as represented by rocks and mountains. For example, in Judges 20:44, the Benjamites seek safety by turning and fleeing “toward the wilderness to the rock of Rimmon.” Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas explain that the rock of Rimmon is likely with the el-Jaia cave in the Wadi es-Swenit about one mile outside of Gibeah, the location of limestone cliffs that could hide hundreds of men.[\[59\]](#_ftn59) Likewise, in Judges 6:2, when the Midianites defeated Israel, the Israelites hid in the mountains. According to Keel, mountaintops, represented by men climbing a mountain to safety on a limestone relief from Karnak (fig. 8), would not only have been understood practically by the Israelites but also would often have been understood spiritually as cosmic symbolism for Yahweh’s protection.[\[60\]](#_ftn60) ![Figure 9. Dolerite Zinjirli 300x285 - Background and Themes of Judges](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-9.-Dolerite-Zinjirli-300x285.jpg "Background and Themes of Judges - Lives Transforming")**Figure 9. Dolerite Zinjirli.** The final visually represented motif is God’s kingship. Granted, Israel has a bittersweet relationship with the concept of kingship, but, without question, Israel’s ancient Near Eastern neighbors influenced the nation’s ideology of kingship. The incompetence of rulers and the lack of kings is evident throughout the book of Judges (cf. 8:27-28; 9:7-15; 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). However, although Yahweh is ultimately the king of Israel, human kingship is never completely ruled out. Accordingly, Keel explains that not only does Israel finally move toward a monarchy, but also, Israelite kingship bears some resemblance to the divinized kings of Egypt and Akkad, which is reflected in ancient Near Eastern iconography such as the dolerite image from Zinjirli (fig. 9). ### Iconography and Culture Conclusion By imagining a travel through time into the ancient past, an opportunity arises to move the ancient cultural elements and iconographic data representing real people and places into the present. Culturally, the Israelites experienced an unconquered foreign people group within an agrarian society while, simultaneously, facing the daily temptation of the Canaanite religion. Iconographically, modern readers have access to imagery that represents many of the motifs within the book of Judges including God’s power, sovereignty, mercy, grace, presence, victory, safety, refuge, and kingship. A recognition of the cultural elements of settlement, domestication, technology, and religion combined with an awareness of the iconography that supports the thematic initiatives of the book of Judges provide a framework for enhanced understanding of the famous narratives. From a practical perspective, when a student, teacher, or expositor of the stories of the Judges engages in ancient empathy, he offers his listeners the opportunity to travel back through time into a deep river of understanding. ## **Biblical Themes** ### Biblical Themes Introduction Thematic analysis of the book of Judges provides an opportunity for the expositor to examine and identify meaningful patterns to guide the interpretive process. However, scholars disagree not only on which patterns of meaning create thematic initiatives but also on which themes take a primary versus a secondary or even tertiary role. By ignoring the patterns of meaning, the interpreter risks missing the glue that binds the author’s message together. By digging deep into the [biblical theological](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-interpretation/) themes and motifs within the book of Judges and identifying their place within the larger canonical context, the expositor enhances both theological awareness and interpretive acuity. The analysis that follows develops the themes of Judges by juxtaposing various scholarly perspectives that explore key topics that include the Canaanization of Israel, the covenantal relationship with Yahweh, human leadership, God’s sovereignty, and thematic breadth. Finally, the research concludes with an examination of the book of Judges place within the larger canonical context of Scripture. ## Idol Making or Covenant Breaking ### **Idolatry** The central theme of idolatry is evident not only within the content, but also within the structure of all three sections of Judges. Various structural elements of the book of Judges provide insights into the process of Canaanization. First, according to Block, the prologue (Judg 1:1-3:6) provides the military (1:1-36) and theological (2:1-3:6) context of the book with 2:23 functioning as the interpretive conclusion.[\[61\]](#_ftn61) The opening verse of the book asks who will go up and fight the Canaanites (1:1). However, the author explains in 2:22-23 that the Canaanites were left in the land to test Israel’s commitment to Yahweh. As Block explains, Yahweh purposely allowed the Canaanites to remain.[\[62\]](#_ftn62) Allowing the Canaanites to remain in the Promised Land provides the backdrop for Israel’s Canaanization throughout the entire book of Judges. Second, both internal and external patterns of unity surround the body of Judges (3:7-16:31). Internally, Judges 2:11-21 foreshadows a pattern of Canaanization within the body of the narratives where the Israelites pursue other gods and abandon Yahweh (2:12-13), but then Yahweh raises a judge who saves them (2:16). Barry Webb asserts that the repetitive pattern provides the structural glue that unites the book.[\[63\]](#_ftn63) Externally, the order of the narratives themselves provide evidence of Canaanization. Block explains that the order of the stories is not chronological but instead, rhetorical, which reflects a downward spiraling.[\[64\]](#_ftn64) Beginning with the paradigmatic judge, Othniel, the apostasy gradually develops and climaxes with the story of Samson. Finally, as the narrative progresses, Block notes the disappearance of structural markers such as the formula, “The people of Israel did what was evil in the sight of the Lord” (e.g. 2:11).[\[65\]](#_ftn65) The literary disintegration follows the decline of Israel into apostasy. Third, structural elements within the epilogue (17:1-18:31) also support the Canaanization of Israel. The first element is the repetition of the phrase, “In those days there was no king in Israel” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). Although scholars often assume the refrain points to a pro-Davidic polemic, Block disagrees and suggests that Israel recognized “no one, not even God, as king.”[\[66\]](#_ftn66) Second, the first section of the epilogue (17:1-18:31) describes the episodes of the Danites, while the second section describes the Benjamites (19:1-21:25). The relevance, according to Block, is that the former represents religious Canaanization and the latter represents moral Canaanization.[\[67\]](#_ftn67) The structure of all three sections of Judges, the prologue, body, and epilogue, support the thematic development of the Canaanization of Israel. ### **Covenant** Although the thematic emphasis placed on the Canaanization of Israel by Block has a close connection to Israel’s covenantal relationship with Yahweh, certain scholars assert that the Sinaitic covenant is the primary thematic element running through Judges. Paul Williamson highlights the bilateral nature of the Mosaic covenant that requires obedience (cf. Deut 11:13-17; Exod 19:5-6) and should result in the mediation of God’s blessing to the nations rather than Israel becoming like the nations.[\[68\]](#_ftn68) Steven McKenzie explains that it was Martin Noth who popularized the notion of a Deuteronomistic History, which assumes that the books of Deuteronomy through 2 Kings were a single literary work.[\[69\]](#_ftn69) Accordingly, Deuteronomy provides both the historical backdrop and the standards necessary for keeping the covenant relationship intact, which is clearly at risk in the book of Judges (cf. 2:20-23). Scholars, such as J. P. U. Lilley, recognize that a covenant motif exists in Judges, but they also contend that “it is not dominant.”[\[70\]](#_ftn70) Alternatively, Lauren A. S. Monroe posits that the cycle of covenant breaking in Judges 2 is the Deuteronomistic *Schema* that sets the “theological agenda for the book.”[\[71\]](#_ftn71) The placement of Judges within the original Deuteronomistic History provides support for the emphasis upon the covenantal theme. In the original Deuteronomistic History, Webb explains that Judges 2:6-10 and following was a continuation of Joshua 23, which served as the Deuteronomist’s introduction of the judgeships, while 1 Samuel 12 was the conclusion of the judgeships.[\[72\]](#_ftn72) In sum, the covenantal framework established in the Pentateuch and, specifically, within the theological scheme of Deuteronomy weaves its way through Joshua, into the book of Judges, and throughout the entirety of the Deuteronomistic History. ### Humanity’s Leadership or God’s Sovereignty ### **Leadership** All the major and minor judges of Israel along with many foreigners provide a form of leadership within the narratives of Judges. Unfortunately, the character and competency of the leaders were often, but not always, either lacking or completely absent. P. Deryn Guest more specifically delineates the theme of leadership into two subthemes: the satirization of kingship and the flawed judge.[\[73\]](#_ftn73) First, the satirization of kingship, specifically foreign kings, begins in earnest with the colorful Moabite king, Eglon (3:12-30). According to Guest, Eglon’s overstressed obesity is the most obvious satirical device, which may indicate gullibility and greediness that mock the Moabite monarchy.[\[74\]](#_ftn74) Second, the flawed judge subtheme focuses attention upon the Israelite judges. The half-hearted response of Barak to Deborah’s command (4:1-24), Gideon’s cold-blooded execution of two foreign kings (8:4-21), and Samson’s self-gratifying initiatives (14:1-16:31) all feed the flawed judge motif.[\[75\]](#_ftn75) The question that surrounds the theme of leadership asks why the author included such a myriad of flawed leaders. Marc Brettler answers the question using a literary-historical approach that posits that Judges is a political allegory with the purpose of encouraging the Davidic monarchy.[\[76\]](#_ftn76) In other words, during the time of the United Monarchy, a pro-Davidic redactor reconstructed the past for the purpose of providing legitimacy to a monarchial reality. The evidence supporting a political allegory centers around the southern tribe of Judah to which David belonged. Specifically, Brettler explains that the southern leaders are the only positive leaders; the northern leaders are often characterized negatively or with ambiguity.[\[77\]](#_ftn77) Similarly, Brian Neil Peterson notes that scholars have also recently further emphasized that the purpose of Judges was specifically tied to an anti-Saulide polemic.[\[78\]](#_ftn78) Although the etiological nature of the book of Judges remains debated, the theme of leadership remains at the center of the discussion. ### **Sovereignty** If leadership is influence, then the individual judges certainly qualified as leaders. However, the question remains as to the identity of the ultimate influencer. Accordingly, Michael Wilcock has singled out God’s sovereignty as a primary thematic initiative. During the time of the judges, Wilcock contends that it was not the human rulers who led, but it was God who was in complete control.[\[79\]](#_ftn79) Even the misguided Jephthah clearly understood that it was the Lord who was the Judge (11:27), a Judge behind the judges. However, in surprising twists and turns, it is the unsuspecting nature of God’s sovereign freedom that highlights God as the only Judge (cf. Gen 18:25; Pss 96:13; 98:9; Acts 17:3). God’s sovereign freedom reveals itself in unpredictable ways. For example, the Ehud narrative uses the troubling elements of deception, gore, humor, and even assassination to tell the story (3:12-30). Further, Guest asserts that God exhibits His sovereign freedom through literary ambivalence and the utilization of flawed characters as vehicles for theological conversation.[\[80\]](#_ftn80) Although God’s unpredictable sovereignty manifests itself throughout the judgeships, deeper meaning emerges as the reader digs into the topic of God’s sovereign freedom. The ambiguity, unpredictability, and surprise of the narratives accentuate the ironic importance of ignorance and bewilderment that unlocks theological meaning. The verb “to know” (ידע) is used multiple times during the Samson narrative. For example, Webb explains that Manoah does not know the visitor (13:6), and the secret to Samson’s strength is also not known (16:9).[\[81\]](#_ftn81) The Philistines use coercion and bribery to extract knowledge regarding Samson’s strength from Delilah (16:4-6). However, Webb points out that, although the Philistines obtain the knowledge they desire, they do not know that Yahweh, in His sovereign freedom, has given Samson to the Philistines to destroy them and their god, Dagon.[\[82\]](#_ftn82) The elusive knowledge may lead the readers to question God’s actions. However, God’s unpredictability is predictable. Ignorance and bewilderment are necessary to remove humanity’s ability to control outcomes and manipulate Yahweh because it is Yahweh, not the judges, who is in control. ## Singular Purpose or Multiple Intentions ### **Singularity** The debate surrounding thematic breadth of the book of Judges continues to rage. Certain scholars assume the original author had a singular agenda in mind. However, others contend that a single theme necessarily leads to reductionism. Tammi Schneider focuses a significant amount of effort on the role of several women in Judges both from a positive perspective, providing legitimacy to men, and a negative perspective, acting as foils.[\[83\]](#_ftn83) Unfortunately, the women in Judges also play a more tragic role. Three references to women in the final chapters of the book of Judges reveal the profound corruption of Israel. The first woman was the Levite’s concubine who was horrifically raped, abused, and dismembered (19:24-30). The second group included 400 women remaining from the destruction of Jabesh-gilead handed over to the Benjamites when Israel attempts to save them from extinguishment (21:12-14). The third group of women who were celebrating at a festival in Shiloh were also given to the Benjamites (21:19-21). Schneider observes that the nameless women were used as pawns and kept from protection to reveal the absolute corruption of Israel.[\[84\]](#_ftn84) Although the role of women in the book of Judges may provide a singular focus, the topic of women also effortlessly engages the broader thematic initiatives. First, it is difficult to disconnect the victimization of women from the continued idolatrous activity, which, by definition, risks the Israelites’ covenantal relationship with Yahweh. Second, regarding the theme of leadership, Schneider suggests the depravity associated with the abuse of women may point to a reason needed to legitimize the monarchy through the Davidic line.[\[85\]](#_ftn85) Third, although difficult to observe at any given point in time, God’s unpredictable sovereign freedom continues to reveal itself during the unimaginable episodes involving the abuse of women. Accordingly, even if a singular thematic emphasis appears to emerge, the variegated theological messaging requires the reader to engage the possibility of diversity. ### **Multiplicity** The diversity of content and biblical theological initiatives provides ample opportunity for scholars to insist on a multiplicity of themes in the book of Judges. Lee Roy Martin suggests that the thematic breadth of a work arises from several narrative mechanisms including repetition, the narrator’s text, the location of narrative elements, and narrative techniques such as plot and setting.[\[86\]](#_ftn86) Scholars recognize that narrowing the book of Judges to a single theme not only risks a reductionistic reading, but it also may thwart a wholistic examination of the narrative mechanisms. Cheryl Brown emphasizes multiple traditional thematic initiatives such as the covenant, disunity, and grace. [\[87\]](#_ftn87) The covenant theme clearly manifests itself in both the idolatry motif that risks undermining the covenantal relationship (2:20-23) and the concept of a Deuteronomistic History, which ties the book of Judges back to the Sinaitic covenant. The breakdown of the divine-human relationship is also revealed in the disunity observable in the civil war between the Benjamites and the Israelites that concludes the book (20:1-48). Finally, God continues to demonstrate His grace throughout the book by forgiving and restoring Israel and faithfully controlling the direction of the nation through His acts of sovereign freedom. Additionally, Robert O’Connell emphasizes the multiplicity of themes in less traditional thematic initiatives such as kingship, the priority of Judah, and social justice. [\[88\]](#_ftn88) The etiological nature of the themes of kingship and Judean priority are supported by the possibility of a pro-Davidic and anti-Saulide initiative. Also, the emphasis on the role of women certainly provides support for the thematic element surrounding the topic of social justice. In sum, the diversity of topics, assortment of biblical theological directives, and multifaceted narrative mechanisms require scholars to take seriously the potential thematic breadth of the book of Judges. ### Canonical Analysis Canonically, the book of Judges provides a bridge between the book of Joshua and the book of 1 Samuel. The bridge highlights the stark contrast between the unified nation of Israel at the end of Joshua and the complete breakdown of unity at the beginning of 1 Samuel. Martin summarizes the contrast by stating, “The Israelites moved from victory to defeat, from unity to fragmentation, and from faithfulness to idolatry.”[\[89\]](#_ftn89) The book of Judges also provides an explanation for the continued existence of foreigners. Accordingly, according to Martin, Israel’s archenemy at the end of Judges, the Philistines, remain intact at the beginning of 1 Samuel.[\[90\]](#_ftn90) Finally, the concept of monarchy looms large. Martin notes that, although kingship is not explicitly required, the idea is prevalent, and the conclusion prepares its way.[\[91\]](#_ftn91) The immediate canonical context of Judges engages important themes identified within the book. First, the contrast between Joshua and 1 Samuel exhibits the transition from faithfulness to faithlessness that highlights the theme of idolatry and covenant breaking. Second, the continuation of foreign influence at the end of Joshua and the beginning of 1 Samuel illuminate the theme of Israelite Canaanization. Finally, the prevalence of a monarchial setup for the books of Samuel provide support for an etiological explanation of the book of Judges, more specifically, a pro-Davidic and anti-Saulide polemic. The broader canonical context of the Old Testament addresses the important question of how Judges fits within the covenantal framework that extends blessings to all nations (Gen 12:1-3). According to J. Clinton McCann, nothing in the book of Judges undermines God’s will for His universal engagement of all nations, but the question is whether the Israelites will play their role in fulfilling their part.[\[92\]](#_ftn92) The answer to the question in the book of Judges is “no” (cf. 2:20-23). Next, the cycle of disobedience where Israel commits idolatry, calls to Yahweh, and receives His mercy both looks back to the Exodus (cf. Exod 32:1-14) and forward to the Latter Prophets (cf. Isa 40-55). McCann suggests that each deliverance in Judges provides a new mini-exodus event, events that also reflect a new exodus in the Latter Prophets, especially from the book of Isaiah upon the return from exile.[\[93\]](#_ftn93) In short, the broader canonical context, like the immediate context, sheds light on the thematic initiatives in the book of Judges. ### Biblical Themes Conclusion A deep thematic and canonical analysis of the book of Judges highlights an assortment of meaningful patterns. First, the Canaanization of Israel is evident in all three major sections of Judges and the covenantal theme weaves the Sinaitic covenant into the book of Judges as the Israelites risk destroying their relationship with Yahweh. Second, the leadership theme not only spotlights the flaws of the judges and prepares for a monarchial establishment, but also illuminates Yahweh’s sovereign freedom. Third, a singular thematic focus sheds light on important subthemes, but risks reductionism, while a multiplicity of themes broadens the thematic spectrum, but risks blurring the prominence of the varied motifs. Finally, an exploration of the canonical context of Judges looks backward to furnish exegetical nuance and looks forward to present thematic resolution. Certainly, digging deep into the biblical theological themes and motifs within the book of Judges and identifying their place within the larger canonical context enhances both theological awareness and interpretive acuity of the biblical expositor. The practical significance of digging deep into the thematic initiatives of Judges moves beyond the acquisition of knowledge and provides the expositor an opportunity to communicate a life-changing message. ## **Critical-Interpretive Issues** ## Critical-Interpretive Introduction An analysis of the critical-interpretive issues of the book of Judges allows the student to identify and engage in disparate views that inform coherent conclusions. Unfortunately, scholars not only disagree regarding the outcomes of the arguments, but they also disagree on which interpretive issues need debated. If the critical-interpretive issues are ignored, then the student risks the possibility of engaging in a discussion that does not exist. An identification of the primary critical-interpretive issues within the book of Judges provides the interpreter the opportunity to sharpen hermeneutical acumen while, simultaneously, joining an ongoing conversation surrounding relevant scholarly initiatives. The following analysis identifies three of the most debated topics in recent times by juxtaposing differing scholarly perspectives. First, a discussion regarding the methodology of Israel’s entrance into Canaan ensues followed by an analysis of the complex chronological issues surrounding the period of the Judges, and, finally, the research concludes with a brief assessment of the distinct views of judgeship. ## The Entrance ### **Invasion and Conquest** Scholarly debate continues around the relationship between the book of Judges and the settlement methods documented in Joshua. Conservative scholars often lean toward the conquest model. Joshua 10:40 is representative, which states, “Joshua struck the whole land…and all their kings. He left none remaining.” F. Albright championed the conquest model with the support of archaeological evidence, and, more recently, Yigael Yadin carries the baton.[\[94\]](#_ftn94) Iain Provan, V. Philips Long, and Tremper Longman recognize that the conquest model builds its case primarily upon archaeological evidence from the destruction of Canaanite cities such as Bethel, Debir, Eglon, Hazor, and Lachish during the Late Bronze Age.[\[95\]](#_ftn95) Yadin builds on Albright’s work by recognizing that the archaeological evidence does, at times, contradict the biblical account, but the excavations at sites like Hazor cannot be ignored (cf. Josh 11:10-11). Yadin explains that his excavations at Hazor provide evidence of the destruction and conflagration of a large Canaanite city in the late thirteenth century BC.[\[96\]](#_ftn96) Pottery provides an important key to the dating of the destruction of Hazor. Yadin explains that Mycenean IIIB pottery found in Hazor’s destruction layer was not used after about 1230 BC.[\[97\]](#_ftn97) However, the dating of the destruction of Hazor to the thirteenth century creates two additional chronological challenges. Judges 4:2 refers to the king of Hazor, which states, “And the Lord sold them into the hand of Jabin king of Canaan, who reigned in Hazor.” If Yadin is correct and Hazor was destroyed in the thirteenth century by Joshua (cf. Josh 11), then how is it possible for Deborah to be fighting against the king of Hazor in Judges 4? Some scholars, such as Benjamin Mazar, answer the question by reversing the chronological sequence of Joshua and Judges, but Yadin concludes the reference to the king of Hazor in Judges 4 is an editorial gloss assigned to a later date.[\[98\]](#_ftn98) The issues surrounding the dating continue with attempts to reconcile the destruction of Hazor in the thirteenth century with the dating of the Exodus. In Judges 11:26, Jephthah claims that Israel had possessed the Transjordan territory for 300 years. Provan, Long, and Longman place Jephthah in the eleventh century BC, which resolves the issue by putting the conquest in the fourteenth century.[\[99\]](#_ftn99) Alternatively, Wright discounts the round number of 300 years and, regardless, assumes that characters within a story may provide incorrect chronological data.[\[100\]](#_ftn100) In sum, although the conquest model continues to garner favor, many scholars disagree. ### **Infiltration and Revolt** Two popular alternative views to the conquest model also exist, the exogenous peasant infiltration model and the endogenous peasant revolt model. According to Provan, Long, and Longman, the peasant infiltration arose from the work of Albrecht Alt who asserted that the Israelites entrance into Canaan occurred over a long period in an environment of relative peace.[\[101\]](#_ftn101) Alt did not completely subvert the existence of military campaigns, but instead the military encounters were isolated.[\[102\]](#_ftn102) Martin Noth picked up Alt’s theory and, according to Larry James, expanded it by adding the concept of a twelve-tribe amphictyony, which is a union of people centered around a religious temple and common religious beliefs.[\[103\]](#_ftn103) Both Alt’s theory and Noth’s expanded version of Alt’s theory have faced criticism from the archaeological evidence provided by proponents of the conquest model. However, Provan, Long, and Longman point out that much of the archaeological evidence supporting a thirteenth-century destruction of cities occurred subsequent to Alt’s work, and regardless, Noth was not convinced the destructions were at the hands of the Israelites.[\[104\]](#_ftn104) Furthermore, James concludes that the genealogical reality of the tribal relationships as described in the Pentateuch provides the explanation for a common religion and language; thus Noth’s subjective theory of amphictyony is not necessary.[\[105\]](#_ftn105) The peasant revolt model is a hypothesis that provides another alternative to the conquest model. According to Provan, Long, and Longman, George Mendenhall differed from both the conquest and peasant infiltration models and argued that Israel emerged through a sociocultural transformation from within Canaan.[\[106\]](#_ftn106) Mendenhall did not believe that the Bible provided sufficient information for historical reconstruction for the activities of God seem “to modern man the very antithesis of history, for it is within the framework of economic, sociological, and political organization that we of today seek understanding.”[\[107\]](#_ftn107) Accordingly, Mendenhall assumes that the conquerors were indigenous people of Canaan who were mostly peasant farmers joining forces in religious solidarity through their relationship with Yahweh to challenge the dysfunction of the societal system’s oppressive taxation.[\[108\]](#_ftn108) Understandably, critics have accused Mendenhall of reductionism, and K. Lawson Younger identifies the following criticisms of the peasant revolt model: (1) nomadism does not require egalitarianism, (2) farmers and urban dwellers often live in an interdependent reality, (3) egalitarian, anti-imperialistic tendencies appear to contradict the worldview espoused in Joshua.[\[109\]](#_ftn109) Although grasping the historical realities of the Israelite people during the time of the Judges offers the opportunity to significantly enhance the interpreter’s understanding of the narratives, at the present time, no scholarly consensus exists regarding Israel’s entrance into Canaan. ## The Chronology ### **Overlapping Judgeships** The chronological conundrum revolves around 1 Kings 6:1, which states, “In the four hundred and eightieth year after the people of Israel came out of the land of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign over Israel … he began to build the house of the Lord.” To reconcile the 480 years with the narrative, the interpreter must first compile the events and sum them. Block uses the following formula: (1) the desert wanderings (40 years), (2) conquest (7 years), (3) the judges (410 years), (4) the period of Eli and Samuel (52 years), (5) the Saul and David monarchy (80 years), and (6) the years of Solomon’s reign (4 years).[\[110\]](#_ftn110) The sum of the time frame from the desert wanderings to the fourth year of the Solomonic monarchy is 593 years rather than the 480 years as documented in 1 Kings 6:1. Scholars have proposed a multitude of solutions to reconcile the perceived discrepancy. Although David Washburn provides the most straightforward approach by simply overlapping certain judgeships, the complexity resides in the details. For example, Judges 3:31 states that after Ehud was Shamgar; thus, the two judges are not contemporaries. However, Washburn asserts that, based on Judges 5:6, Deborah and Shamgar were contemporaries and their judgeships overlapped.[\[111\]](#_ftn111) Furthermore, Washburn notes that the introductory formula to the Jephthah narrative is not strictly sequential, and there is no rest period prior to the Jephthah narrative.[\[112\]](#_ftn112) Accordingly, Washburn claims that the judgeships of Jephthah and Gideon overlap. Finally, Washburn also suggests that Samson overlaps Jephthah and Gideon, and simultaneously, he asserts that the minor prophets of Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, Jair, and Tola are also contemporaries.[\[113\]](#_ftn113) Although Washburn does not claim chronological perfection, he does condense the timeframe. Gershon Galil takes a different tactic by examining the potential overlap between Judges and the Philistine oppression in Samuel and by viewing the chronological framework of Judges through the lens of Deuteronomistic History. First, regarding the former, twenty-one years prior to Samuel’s victory over the Philistines (cf. 1 Sam 6:1; 7:2) the battle of Eben-hezer was fought and since Eli died from the shock experienced as a result of the battle, “it is clear that the last 19 years of Eli overlapped the first period of the Philistine oppression.”[\[114\]](#_ftn114) In other words, the judgeships of Jephthah and Samson that faced the Philistine oppression overlapped with the period of Eli and the time of the exiled Ark that faced the same oppressive forces. Second, according to Galil, since the minor judges were not part of the deuteronomistic version of Judges, then they do not become part of the Deuteronomist’s chronology.[\[115\]](#_ftn115) In sum, according to Galil, the overlap of the period of Philistine oppression along with the exclusion of the minor judges provides the data necessary to reconcile the chronology of the narratives to 1 Kings 6:1. ### **Literary Parallels** Although overlapping the dates and events of judgeships provides the most common approach to reconciling the dates of the stories with 1 Kings 6:1, Robert Chisolm proposes an alternative approach that utilizes linguistic evidence. The solution revolves around the statement in Judges 3:7 and 6:1, “The people of Israel did what was evil in the sight of the Lord.” Chisolm identifies an ABB-ABB pattern where A represents Judges 3:7 and 6:1, and B represents the same phrase, but it commences with the verb וַיֹּסִפוּ, “and they added,” thus resulting in the statement, “The Israelites *again* did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 10:6; 13:1).[\[116\]](#_ftn116) In other words, the ABB-ABB literary pattern creates two panels where the Othniel, Ehud, and Deborah cycles run concurrently with the Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson cycles. Chisolm also applies the theory of literary panels to specific dates and recognizes the difficulty of reconciling Judges 11:26 with his hypothesis. First, regarding the dates, Chisolm begins panel one with the Cushan-Rishathaim oppression (Judg 3:8) at approximately 1336 BC and panel two with the Midianite oppression (Judg 6:1) at 1334 BC, and then he concludes panel one with the land resting after deliverance (Judg 5:31) at 1130 BC and panel two with Samson (Judge 15:20) at 1130 BC. By removing almost 200 years from the chronological sequence, Chisolm provides a potential resolution to the 1 Kings 6:1 dilemma.[\[117\]](#_ftn117) Second, Judges 11:26 asserts that Israel occupied the trans-Jordanian area for 300 years. The statement is problematic because Jephthah’s speech would have occurred only 185 years after the trans-Jordan invasion based on the literary reconstruction; thus Chisolm suggests that Jephthah was either using hyperbole or simply inaccurate.[\[118\]](#_ftn118) Although no consensus exists regarding the methodology to reconcile the narrative chronology of the book of Judges with 1 Kings 6:1, several viable options exist. ## The Definition ### **Leaders and Judges** The Hebrew term for judge (שׁפט) has a broad semantic range; thus, the nature of the judges referred to in the book of Judges (cf. 2:16) remains debated. Although the term certainly does not align with the modern courtroom perspective, Deborah does seem to render a type of judgement that may engage in settling disputes in Judges 4:4-5. Richard Schultz summarizes the semantic range of the term as follows: (1) a preservation of social justice, (2) a divine establishment of justice through deliverance or punishment, (3) an official of Israel, and (4) a human ruler or governor.[\[119\]](#_ftn119) The final category, according to Block, fits the cognate expressions found in Akkadian, Ugaritic, and Phoenician and support the concept that the verb to judge, שָׁפַט, refers to a human leading or ruling.[\[120\]](#_ftn120) In light of the possibility, Tomoo Ishida explains that, under the influence of Martin Noth, scholars have distinguished between major and minor judges and their respective functions.[\[121\]](#_ftn121) More specifically, Noth determined that the major judges were originally identified as judges, but the minor judges were a later redaction by the deuteronomistic historian who decided to identify them by the same title as the major judges even though their functions were different: the major judges led military campaigns, and the minor judges ruled the amphictyony.[\[122\]](#_ftn122) However, additional investigations into texts from Mari and Ugarit led Ishida ultimately to conclude that the judges were military leaders who “organized local tribal confederations called ‘Israel,’ and went to war as the commander of the arm of their confederations.”[\[123\]](#_ftn123) Although not conclusive, contextual clues from Judges 3:10 also support the basic construct of military rule, “The Spirit of the Lord was upon him, and he judged Israel. He went out to war, and the Lord gave Cushan-rishathaim king.” Finally, Richard Schultz identifies the common formula “and x judged Israel for y years” (cf. Judg 10:2, 3; 12:7, 8–9, 11, 13–14; 15:20; 16:31), which points to the meaning, “to lead.”[\[124\]](#_ftn124) ### **Saviors and Deliverers** Not all scholars agree that שָׁפַט means to strictly rule or lead within the context of the book of Judges. Judges 2:16 extends the semantic range to encompass the possibility of a savior or deliverer, “Then the Lord raised up judges, who saved them out of the hand of those who plundered them.” Accordingly, Block asserts that the salvific definition of the judges in verse 16 communicates three important facts: (1) the judges’ power came from Yahweh, (2) the judges’ purpose was soteriological, and (3) the judges’ function was instrumental.[\[125\]](#_ftn125) Furthermore, Schultz explains that Noth’s hypothesis that distinguishes between major and minor judges and applies the latter to duties relegated to the amphictyony lacks textual evidence and, besides, the minor judges, at times, engaged in military activity (cf. 3:31; 10:1, 3).[\[126\]](#_ftn126) Intertextual evidence also supports a nonjudicial use of the term. In 1 Samuel 8:5, the elder of Israel made the following request to Samuel and Ramah, “Appoint for us a king to judge us like all the nations.” The context of the request resides within a military threat from the Philistines; thus, it appears the elders are looking neither for judicial oversight nor merely a military ruler but instead, a military ruler that will deliver them from their enemy. Accordingly, Schultz correctly agrees with Block that the soteriological nature of the office pertained primarily to deliverance from foreign oppression.[\[127\]](#_ftn127) ## Critical-Interpretive Conclusion The critical-interpretive issues within the book of Judges illuminate just how much diversity of interpretation exists within scholarship. First, regarding the entrance into Canaan, the options range from a conquest to an infiltration as well as the possibility of an endogenous revolt. Next, the issue of reconciling the chronological narrative in Judges with 1 Kings 6:1 allows for numerous options, most of which land into various methods of judgeship overlap or the possibility of literary panels as a result of linguistic analysis. Finally, the nature and function of the judges rests on the result of semantic analysis of the term שׁפט, which could suggest a judicial function, a ruler or leader, or a savior or deliverer. Without question, the primary critical-interpretive issues within the book of Judges provides interpreters the opportunity to sharpen hermeneutical acumen and join the ongoing scholarly conversation. From a practical perspective, analyzing the interpretive options allows for deeper understanding and offers the possibility of integrating differing viewpoints into the work of the burgeoning student or expositor. ## **Conclusion** The broad spectrum of interpretive tools and content available to the modern student of the Bible provides a vast opportunity for engaging any biblical text on multiple levels; the book of Judges is no exception. Specifically, the compositional and referential context, archaeological data, and comparative ancient Near Eastern literature support the historicity of the book of Judges. Next, the cultural milieu of the ancient Israelites illuminates the domestic and religious setting, and the iconographic imagery supports various thematic elements of Judges. Third, exploring the canonical placement of Judges within the Testaments and examining the various potential biblical theological themes in Judges enhances theological awareness. Finally, entering the scholarly discussion around the various critical-interpretive issues within Judges provides interpretive options and increases interpretive acumen. Certainly, the historical background, canonical placement, archaeological data, iconographical imagery, cultural milieu, biblical themes, and engagement with critical-interpretive issues all combine as necessary tools to support a deep and well-rounded understanding of the book of Judges. From a practical perspective, by utilizing the extensive interpretive tools available, both the student and scholar alike have the ability to exposit the Scriptures, and specifically the book of Judges, in a way that informs and changes lives. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Mark J. Boda, *Numbers-Ruth*, vol. 2 of *The Expositor’s Bible Commentary*, ed. Tremper Longman and David E. Garland (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 1048–1049. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 2:1049. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Steven L. McKenzie, *Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2010), 14. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Barry G. Webb, *The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading* (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2008), 36–40. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Boda, *Numbers-Ruth*, 2:1050. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Daniel I. Block, *Judges*, vol. 2 of *Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary,* ed. John H. Walton (Zondervan, 2009), 97. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 2:99–100. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Boda, *Numbers-Ruth*, 2:1051. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) McKenzie, *Introduction to the Historical Books*, 51. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Boda, *Numbers-Ruth*, 2:1050. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Daniel I. Block, *Judges, Ruth: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*, vol. 6 of *The New American Commentary*, ed. Kenneth A. Mathews and David S. Dockery (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999), 26–27. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 6:26. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Block, *Judges, Ruth*, 6:137–138. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Trude Dothan and Seymour Gitin, “Ekron of the Philistines: How They Lived, Worked and Worshiped for Five Hundred Years,” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 16, no. 1 (January 1990): 20-25. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid., 20-25. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Trude Dothan, “Ekron of the Philistines, Part 1: Where They Came From, How They Settled Down and the Place They Worshiped In,” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 16, no. 1 (January 1990): 35-36. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Lawrence E Stager, “The Shechem Temple: Where Abimelech Massacred a Thousand,” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 29, no. 4 (July 2003): 26–29. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Ibid., 26–35. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Block, *Judges*, 2:203. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) “Philistine Temple Discovered Within Tel Aviv City Limits,” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 1, no. 2 (June 1975): 1, 6-9. See also Amihay Mazar, “Philistine Temple at Tell Qasile,” *The Biblical Archaeologist* 36, no. 2 (May 1973) and “Additional Philistine Temples at Tell Qasile,” *The Biblical Archaeologist* 40, no. 2 (May 1977). [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) “Philistine Temple Discovered,” 1, 6–9. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Ibid. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Steven M. Ortiz, “Judges” in *ESV Archaeology Study Bible,* ed. John D. Currid (Wheaton: Crossway, 2018), 337, 346, 355. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Ibid., 350, 358, 359, 364. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Block, *Judges*, 2:101. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Ibid. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) James K. Hoffmeier, *Context of Scripture: Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World*, ed. William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger, vol. 2 (Boston: Brill, 2003), 41. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Hoffmeier, *Context of Scripture,* 41. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Victor H. Matthews and Don C. Benjamin, *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East* (New York: Paulist Press, 2016), 155. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Ibid., 156. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Block, *Judges*, 2:107, 111, 114, 122. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Harry A. Hoffner, *Context of Scripture: Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World*, ed. William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger, vol. 1 (Boston: Brill, 2003), 185. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Block, *Judges*, 2:102. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Ibid., 2:119. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Nick Wyatt, *Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible*, ed. Karel van der Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst, and Bob Becking, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 99–100. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Simon B. Parker, *Ugaritic Narrative Poetry*, vol. 9, Writings from the Ancient World (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 52–53. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) Block, *Judges*, 2:103. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Block, *Judges*, 2:143. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) James Bennett Pritchard, *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*, 3rd ed. with Supplement. (Princeton: Princeton University, 1969), 351–352. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Carl G. Rasmussen, *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010), 121. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Robert B Chisholm, “The Chronology of the Book of Judges: A Linguistic Clue to Solving a Pesky Problem,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 52, no. 2 (June 2009): 252. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Rasmussen, *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible*, 121. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Joel Burnett, “Transjordan: The Ammonites, Moabites, and Edomites,” in *The World around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East*, ed. Bill T. Arnold and Brent A. Strawn (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016), 347–348. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) Wilhelm Herrmann, “Baal,” ed. Karel van der Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst, and Bob Becking, *Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Brill, 1999), 133. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) Thomas V. Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas*, Holman Reference (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1998), 91. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48) Daniel Bodi, “Mesopotamian and Anatolian Iconography,” in *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 165. [\[49\]](#_ftnref49) John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000), 251. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50) Ibid., 275. [\[51\]](#_ftnref51) Othmar Keel, *Symbolism of the Biblical World: Ancient Near Eastern Iconography and the Book of Psalms*, trans. Timothy J. Hallett (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1997), 101. [\[52\]](#_ftnref52) Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary*, 266–267. [\[53\]](#_ftnref53) Keel, *Symbolism of the Biblical World*, 58–59. [\[54\]](#_ftnref54) Ibid., 238. [\[55\]](#_ftnref55) Block, *Judges*, 2:151–152. [\[56\]](#_ftnref56) Brent A. Strawn, “‘With a Strong Hand and an Outstretched Arm’: On the Meaning(s) of the Exodus Tradition(s),” in *Iconographic Exegesis of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament: An Introduction to Its Theory, Method, and Practice*, ed. Isaak J. De Hulster, Brent A. Strawn, and Ryan P. Bonfiglio (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015), 107. [\[57\]](#_ftnref57) Keel, *Symbolism of the Biblical World*, 341. [\[58\]](#_ftnref58) Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary*, 263. [\[59\]](#_ftnref59) Ibid., 275. [\[60\]](#_ftnref60) Keel, *Symbolism of the Biblical World*, 181. [\[61\]](#_ftnref61) Block, *Judges, Ruth*, 6:77. [\[62\]](#_ftnref62) Ibid., 6:134. [\[63\]](#_ftnref63) Webb, *The Book of the Judges*, 30–32. See also Kenneth Gros Louis, “The Book of Judges: Elijah and Elisha,” in *Literary Interpretations of Biblical Narratives* (Nashville, 1974), 141–162. [\[64\]](#_ftnref64) Block, *Judges, Ruth*, 6:145. [\[65\]](#_ftnref65) Ibid., 6:149. [\[66\]](#_ftnref66) Ibid., 6:476. [\[67\]](#_ftnref67) Block, *Judges, Ruth*, 6:476. [\[68\]](#_ftnref68) *Paul R. Williamson, Sealed with an Oath: Covenant in God’s Unfolding Purpose,* vol. 23 of *New Studies in Biblical Theology* (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2007), 96–97. [\[69\]](#_ftnref69) McKenzie, *Introduction to the Historical Books*, 15. [\[70\]](#_ftnref70) J. P. U. Lilley, “A Literary Appreciation of the Book of Judges,” *Tyndale Bulletin* 18 (1967): 102. [\[71\]](#_ftnref71) Lauren A. S. Monroe, “‘They Behaved Even Worse than Their Ancestors’: Reconsidering the Deuteronomistic Origin of Judges 2:11-19,” *Revue Biblique* 119, no. 3 (July 2012): 347. [\[72\]](#_ftnref72) Webb, *The Book of the Judges*, 19. [\[73\]](#_ftnref73) P. Deryn Guest, “Judges,” in *Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible*, ed. James D. G. Dunn (Grand Rapids: WM. B. Eerdmans, 2003), 190–206. [\[74\]](#_ftnref74) Ibid., 191–192. Guest also recognizes the satirization of foreign kingship in the narratives of Deborah, Gideon, and Samson, see 193-206. [\[75\]](#_ftnref75) Guest, “Judges,” 194–201. [\[76\]](#_ftnref76) Marc Brettler, “The Book of Judges: Literature as Politics,” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 108, no. 3 (1989): 416. [\[77\]](#_ftnref77) Ibid. [\[78\]](#_ftnref78) Brian Neil Peterson, “The Book of Judges: An Apology for Kingship,” in *The Authors of the Deuteronomistic History: Locating a Tradition in Ancient Israel* (1517 Media, 2014), 197–198. [\[79\]](#_ftnref79) Michael Wilcock, *The Message of Judges*, The Bible Speaks Today (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1993), 15. [\[80\]](#_ftnref80) Guest, “Judges,” 192. [\[81\]](#_ftnref81) Webb, *The Book of the Judges*, 173. [\[82\]](#_ftnref82) Ibid. [\[83\]](#_ftnref83) Tammi J. Schneider, *Berit Olam: Judges* (Collegeville, MN: Michael Glazier, 2000), 287–289. [\[84\]](#_ftnref84) Schneider, *Berit Olam*, 289. [\[85\]](#_ftnref85) Schneider, *Berit Olam*, 289. [\[86\]](#_ftnref86) Lee Roy Martin, *The Unheard Voice of God: A Pentecostal Hearing of the Book of Judges*, *The Unheard Voice of God* (Netherlands: Brill, 2008), 95. [\[87\]](#_ftnref87) Cheryl A. Brown, “Judges,” in *Joshua, Judges, Ruth*, ed. W. Ward Gasque, Robert L. Hubbard, and Robert K. Johnston, Understanding the Bible Commentary Series (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2012), 132–133. [\[88\]](#_ftnref88) Robert H. O’Connell, *The Rhetoric of the Book of Judges* (New York: Brill, 1997), 1. [\[89\]](#_ftnref89) Martin, *The Unheard Voice of God*, 102. [\[90\]](#_ftnref90) Ibid. [\[91\]](#_ftnref91) Martin, *The Unheard Voice of God*, 102. [\[92\]](#_ftnref92) J. Clinton McCann, *Judges: Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching*, 1st ed. (Louisville: John Knox, 2002), 13–14. [\[93\]](#_ftnref93) Ibid., 15. [\[94\]](#_ftnref94) See W. F. Albright, “The Israelite Conquest of Canaan in the Light of Archaeology,” *Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research*, no. 74 (1939): 11–23 and Yigael Yadin, “Is the Biblical Account of the Israelite Conquest of Canaan Historically Reliable?,” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 8, no. 2 (March 1982): 16–21. [\[95\]](#_ftnref95) Iain Provan, V. Philips Long, and Tremper Longman, *A Biblical History of Israel*, 2nd ed. (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2015), 192. [\[96\]](#_ftnref96) Yadin, “Is the Biblical Account,” 19. [\[97\]](#_ftnref97) Ibid., 20. [\[98\]](#_ftnref98) Ibid., 23. [\[99\]](#_ftnref99) Provan, Long, and Longman, *A Biblical History of Israel*, 192. [\[100\]](#_ftnref100) Provan, Long, and Longman, *A Biblical History of Israel*, 192. [\[101\]](#_ftnref101) Ibid., 193–194. Note: The original German sources from Albrecht Alt are not readily accessible. [\[102\]](#_ftnref102) Yadin, “Is the Biblical Account,” 5. [\[103\]](#_ftnref103) Larry James, “An Evaluation of Martin North’s Idea of Amphictyony as Applied to Israel,” *Restoration Quarterly* 19, no. 3 (1976): 165. [\[104\]](#_ftnref104) Provan, Long, and Longman, *A Biblical History of Israel*, 194. [\[105\]](#_ftnref105) James, “An Evaluation of Martin,” 167, 174. [\[106\]](#_ftnref106) Provan, Long, and Longman, *A Biblical History of Israel*, 194. [\[107\]](#_ftnref107) George E. Mendenhall, “The Hebrew Conquest of Palestine,” *The Biblical Archaeologist* 25, no. 3 (1962): 66. [\[108\]](#_ftnref108) Ibid., 73–85. [\[109\]](#_ftnref109) K. Lawson Younger, “Early Israel in Recent Biblical Scholarship,” in *The Face of Old Testament Studies: A Survey of Contemporary Approaches*, ed. David W. Baker and Bill T. Arnold (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2004), 181–182. [\[110\]](#_ftnref110) Block, *Judges, Ruth*, 6:61. For purposes of the analysis, Solomon’s fourth regnal year is assumed to be around 966 BC, which would place the exodus event circa 1446 BC. [\[111\]](#_ftnref111) David L Washburn, “The Chronology of Judges: Another Look,” *Bibliotheca sacra* 147, no. 588 (October 1990): 419–420. [\[112\]](#_ftnref112) Washburn, “The Chronology of Judges,” 422–423. [\[113\]](#_ftnref113) Ibid., 423–425. [\[114\]](#_ftnref114) Gershon Galil, “The Chronological Framework of the Deuteronomistic History,” *Biblica* 85, no. 3 (2004): 419. [\[115\]](#_ftnref115) Ibid., 420–421. [\[116\]](#_ftnref116) Chisholm, “The Chronology of the Book of Judges,” 251. [\[117\]](#_ftnref117) Ibid., 252. [\[118\]](#_ftnref118) Chisholm, “The Chronology,” 255. [\[119\]](#_ftnref119) Richard Schultz, “שָׁפַט,” in *New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis*, ed. Willem A. VanGemeren, vol. 4 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997), 214–219. [\[120\]](#_ftnref120) Block, *Judges, Ruth*, 6:24–25. [\[121\]](#_ftnref121) Tomoo Ishida, “The Leaders of the Tribal Leagues: Israel in the Pre-Monarchic Period,” *Revue Biblique* 80, no. 4 (1973): 515. [\[122\]](#_ftnref122) Ishida, “The Leaders,” 515. [\[123\]](#_ftnref123) Ibid., 527. [\[124\]](#_ftnref124) Schultz, “שָׁפַט”, 215-216. [\[125\]](#_ftnref125) Block, *Judges, Ruth*, 6:23. [\[126\]](#_ftnref126) Schultz, “שָׁפַט”, 218. [\[127\]](#_ftnref127) Ibid. ## Bibliography - Albright, W. F. “The Israelite Conquest of Canaan in the Light of Archaeology.” *Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research*, no. 74 (1939): 11–23. - Block, Daniel I. *Judges*. Vol. 2 of *Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary*. Edited by John H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. *Judges, Ruth: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*. Vol. 6 of *The New American Commentary*. Edited by Kenneth A. Mathews and David S. Dockery. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999. - Boda, Mark J. *Numbers-Ruth*. Vol. 2 of *The Expositor’s Bible Commentary*. Edited by Tremper Longman and David E. Garland. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. - Bodi, Daniel. “Mesopotamian and Anatolian Iconography.” In *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, edited by Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018. - Brettler, Marc. “The Book of Judges: Literature as Politics.” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 108, no. 3 (1989): 395–418. - Brisco, Thomas V. *Holman Bible Atlas*. Holman Reference. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1998. - Brown, Cheryl A. “Judges.” In *Joshua, Judges, Ruth*, edited by W. Ward Gasque, Robert L. Hubbard, and Robert K. Johnston. Understanding the Bible Commentary Series. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2012. - Burnett, Joel. “Transjordan: The Ammonites, Moabites, and Edomites.” In *The World around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East*, edited by Bill T. Arnold and Brent A. Strawn. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016. - Chisholm, Robert B. “The Chronology of the Book of Judges: A Linguistic Clue to Solving a Pesky Problem.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 52, no. 2 (June 2009): 247–255. - Dothan, Trude. “Ekron of the Philistines, Part 1: Where They Came From, How They Settled Down and the Place They Worshiped In.” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 16, no. 1 (January 1990): 26–36. - Dothan, Trude, and Seymour Gitin. “Ekron of the Philistines: How They Lived, Worked and Worshiped for Five Hundred Years.” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 16, no. 1 (January 1990): 20–25. - Galil, Gershon. “The Chronological Framework of the Deuteronomistic History.” *Biblica* 85, no. 3 (2004): 413–421. - Guest, P. Deryn. “Judges.” In *Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible*, edited by James D. G. Dunn. Grand Rapids: WM. B. Eerdmans, 2003. - Herrmann, Wilhelm. “Baal.” Edited by Karel van der Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst, and Bob Becking. *Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Brill, 1999. - Hoffmeier, James K. *Context of Scripture: Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World*. Edited by William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger. Vol. 2. Boston: Brill, 2003. - Hoffner, Harry A. *Context of Scripture: Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World*. Edited by William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger. Vol. 1. Boston: Brill, 2003. - Ishida, Tomoo. “The Leaders of the Tribal Leagues: Israel in the Pre-Monarchic Period.” *Revue Biblique* 80, no. 4 (1973): 514–530. - James, Larry. “An Evaluation of Martin North’s Idea of Amphictyony as Applied to Israel.” *Restoration Quarterly* 19, no. 3 (1976): 165–174. - Keel, Othmar. *Symbolism of the Biblical World: Ancient Near Eastern Iconography and the Book of Psalms*. Translated by Timothy J. Hallett. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1997. - Lilley, J. P. U. “A Literary Appreciation of the Book of Judges.” *Tyndale Bulletin* 18 (1967): 94–102. - Louis, Kenneth Gros. “The Book of Judges: Elijah and Elisha.” In *Literary Interpretations of Biblical Narratives*, 141–162. Nashville, 1974. - Martin, Lee Roy. *The Unheard Voice of God: A Pentecostal Hearing of the Book of Judges*. *The Unheard Voice of God*. Netherlands: Brill, 2008. - Matthews, Victor H., and Don C. Benjamin. *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East*. New York: Paulist Press, 2016. - Mazar, Amihay. “Additional Philistine Temples at Tell Qasile.” *The Biblical Archaeologist* 40, no. 2 (May 1977): 82–87. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Philistine Temple at Tell Qasile.” *The Biblical Archaeologist* 36, no. 2 (May 1973): 42–48. - McCann, J. Clinton. *Judges: Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching*. 1st ed. Louisville: John Knox, 2002. - McKenzie, Steven L. *Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2010. - Mendenhall, George E. “The Hebrew Conquest of Palestine.” *The Biblical Archaeologist* 25, no. 3 (1962): 66–87. - Monroe, Lauren A. S. “‘They Behaved Even Worse than Their Ancestors’: Reconsidering the Deuteronomistic Origin of Judges 2:11-19.” *Revue Biblique* 119, no. 3 (July 2012): 347–365. - O’Connell, Robert H. *The Rhetoric of the Book of Judges*. New York: Brill, 1997. - Ortiz, Steven M. *ESV Archaeology Study Bible*. Wheaton: Crossway, 2018. - Parker, Simon B. *Ugaritic Narrative Poetry*. Vol. 9. Writings from the Ancient World. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997. - Peterson, Brian Neil. “The Book of Judges: An Apology for Kingship.” In *The Authors of the Deuteronomistic History: Locating a Tradition in Ancient Israel*, 165–198. 1517 Media, 2014. - “Philistine Temple Discovered Within Tel Aviv City Limits.” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 1, no. 2 (June 1975): 1, 6–9. - Pritchard, James Bennett. *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*. 3rd ed. with Supplement. Princeton: Princeton University, 1969. - Provan, Iain, V. Philips Long, and Tremper Longman. *A Biblical History of Israel*. 2nd ed. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2015. - Rasmussen, Carl G. *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010. - Schneider, Tammi J. *Berit Olam: Judges*. Collegeville, MN: Michael Glazier, 2000. - Schultz, Richard. “שָׁפַט.” In *New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis*, edited by Willem A. VanGemeren. Vol. 4. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997. - Stager, Lawrence E. “The Shechem Temple: Where Abimelech Massacred a Thousand.” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 29, no. 4 (July 2003): 26–35, 66–69. - Strawn, Brent A. “‘With a Strong Hand and an Outstretched Arm’: On the Meaning(s) of the Exodus Tradition(s).” In *Iconographic Exegesis of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament: An Introduction to Its Theory, Method, and Practice*, edited by Isaak J. De Hulster, Brent A. Strawn, and Ryan P. Bonfiglio. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015. - Walton, John H., Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas. *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000. - Washburn, David L. “The Chronology of Judges: Another Look.” *Bibliotheca sacra* 147, no. 588 (October 1990): 414–425. - Webb, Barry G. *The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading*. Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2008. - Weippert, Manfred. *The Settlement of the Israelite Tribes in Palestine: A Critical Survey of Recent Scholarly Debate*. Translated by James D. Martin. London: S.C.M., 1971. - Wilcock, Michael. *The Message of Judges*. The Bible Speaks Today. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1993. - Williamson, Paul R. *Sealed with an Oath: Covenant in God’s Unfolding Purpose*. Vol. 23 of *New Studies in Biblical Theology*. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2007. - Wyatt, Nick. *Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible*. Edited by Karel van der Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst, and Bob Becking. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999. - Yadin, Yigael. “Is the Biblical Account of the Israelite Conquest of Canaan Historically Reliable?” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 8, no. 2 (March 1982): 16–23. - Younger, K. Lawson. “Early Israel in Recent Biblical Scholarship.” In *The Face of Old Testament Studies: A Survey of Contemporary Approaches*, edited by David W. Baker and Bill T. Arnold. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2004. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [The Functions of Old Testament Law](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-functions-of-old-testament-law/) **Published:** January 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Functions of Old Testament Law The relationship between the two Testaments has been debated from a time even before Marcion made his infamous assertion that the Testaments must be referring to two completely different Gods. Questions remain regarding the exact meaning of the Old Testament law, its relationship to the Pentateuch, and its later association with the New Testament. Without a proper understanding of the relationship between the law and the Testaments, modern Christianity risks either overstating or ignoring the relevance of the Old Testament altogether. *The Old Testament legal functions provide a platform to apply the law to modern life in a co-identified relationship with God that is highlighted by the final shape of the Pentateuch, which points to a Messiah that restores people to God by grace through faith.* First, a brief analysis regarding how the Old Testament Law functions within the event space of ancient Israel highlights God’s character, covenant, wisdom, and mission. Next, an examination of progressive moral wisdom built upon the foundation of divine co-identification answers how the Old Testament law applies to modern life. A final section discusses the meaning of the Pentateuch within the canon of Scripture as a whole, which ultimately points to a Messiah, Jesus Christ. ## **The Function of the Old Testament Law in Ancient Israel** ### Character of God [![Old Testament Law for Christians 182x300 - The Functions of Old Testament Law](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Old-Testament-Law-for-Christians-182x300.jpg "The Functions of Old Testament Law - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/41WxENY)Old Testament Law for Christians: Original Context and Enduring Application The function of the Old Testament in the event space of ancient Israel is not only debated but also multi-faceted within each of the differing views. Roy Gane provides a traditional approach to the function of the [Old Testament law](https://www.livestransforming.com/hays-interpretation-of-old-testament-law/) and suggests that its function arises from its purpose.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) According to Moses, the purpose or at least one of the purposes of the Old Testament law was to set forth guidelines for the Israelites to follow so that they may live, multiply, and be blessed by God in the promised land (Deut 30:16). However, the multi-faceted nature of the Old Testament law moves beyond the setting of guidelines, and it functions to reveal God’s character, define the covenant relationship, teach wisdom, and encourage Israel to serve as a role model for other nations.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Each of these specific functions require further explanation. Furthermore, due to their foundational nature, the functions will also be periodically revisited throughout the remainder of the research. First, regarding God’s character, the relationship between the law’s attitudinal and behavioral direction and the character of God is wrapped in the concept of holiness. Foundational to the laws written in the Holiness Code is the command, “You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy (Lev 19:2).”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) To be sure, ancient Near Eastern law codes that regulated societal norms existed within Israel’s broader cultural milieu. However, John and Harvey Walton assert that the Old Testament law is not a list of rules or demands, but instead, a reflection of Yahweh that reveals to the Israelites what it means to image God.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The distinction is significant because holiness and morality, especially in the Old Testament, are often conflated. The Israelites are called to an ontological reality of “being” holy, rather than a behavioral reality of “doing” holy. In other words, as Walton and Walton explain, the holiness referred to by Leviticus 19 is about co-identification or a conferred holiness.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Accordingly, a function of the Old Testament law is to highlight God’s holy character and encourage the Israelites to become who they already are. It is through a covenantal relationship with Yahweh that co-identification with Israel occurs. ### Covenant of Grace It is difficult to overestimate the importance of God’s covenantal framework that encompasses the Old Testament law. Prior to Yahweh revealing the legal material to the Israelites, a covenantal relationship with the Israelites already existed within a framework of grace. In short, Yahweh and Abram entered a covenantal relationship in Genesis 12:1-3, which was ratified in Genesis 15 and extended to Israel in Exodus 6:6-7 with a promise of redemption. Furthermore, an ongoing relationship is offered to the Israelites as communicated by Yahweh to Moses, “If you indeed obey my voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my treasured possession among all peoples, for the earth is mine; and you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod 19:5-6). The extension of God’s covenant of grace to the chosen people of Israel, a nation without merit, is palpable. However, in order for the Israelites to obey, they needed to understand the rulership of their king. Accordingly, John Currid explains that Yahweh patterned the relational dynamics after the suzerain-vassal treaties common in the ancient Near Eastern culture between a king and his subjects.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The treaty format would have been familiar to the Israelites, and the collection of laws provided by Yahweh would have been understood as functioning as stipulations to the covenant. Two important questions remain that pertain to the function of the law. First, why did God think it necessary to provide additional laws at Mount Sinai in Exodus 20 if the Israelites already had a body of laws to administer justice in Exodus 18? Second, why were additional laws necessary if the relationship between Yahweh had already been established through faith with Abraham (cf. Gen 12:2-3; 15:5-6). A glimpse into the answer might arise from reflection on the Apostle Paul’s words to the Galatians when he states, “Why then the law? It was added because of transgressions, until the offspring should come to whom the promise had been made” (Gal 3:19). John Sailhamer applies compositional analysis to the narratives in Exodus 19 and concludes that “God’s initial intention at Mount Sinai was a relationship with Israel much like his covenant with Abraham, based on faith and having no laws.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Specifically, Sailhamer asserts that all the people were to meet God on the mountain, but instead, they remained fearful in their camp, they lacked faith.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Accordingly, without faith, nothing existed to keep the Israelites loyal to their covenant with Yahweh, thus the laws, the covenant stipulations, were required to keep the people loyal. The addition of the laws due to the sin of faithlessness confirms Paul’s assertion that the law was added because of transgressions. The fear of God’s presence due to the lack of faith, according to Sailhamer, shifted the relational focus from faith to the temple, and shifted Moses’s role from a prophet to a priestly mediator.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) In sum, the law functioned to keep the disbelieving Israelites loyal to the covenant. ### Teaching of Wisdom Another important function of the Old Testament law is to teach wisdom. According to Claude Cox, torah and wisdom have a reciprocal relationship: torah embraces wisdom and wisdom embraces torah.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Scholars often assert that the legal material in the Old Testament was not codified legislation, but instead, aligns with the genre of wisdom lists, similar to the book of Proverbs.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) More specifically, Gane notes that the New Testament asserts that the Old Testament law functioned to motivate the Israelites to use wisdom in following the divine principles and values established by Yahweh.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) A specific application of wisdom is evident within both the direct and indirect consequences articulated by the Old Testament laws. Additionally, the warnings provided by the laws (cf. Lev 18:26-29) impart practical advice for everyday living, another attribute of wisdom. Wisdom and its relationship with the law also find their way within the compositional structure of the Pentateuch, especially with regard to wisdom’s paradoxical nature. Wisdom is evident within the literary structure of the Pentateuch. First, wisdom applies to all parts of life from the mundane to the abstract and from the personal to the relational. Similarly, Sailhamer notes that the reason the Pentateuch recorded the law in considerable detail was to show the deep concern that Yahweh had for every detail of life.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Second, the law also functioned to show Israel that they failed to adequately keep the law, meaning that they did not keep the law by faith.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Paradoxically, Moses, who lived under the law (cf. Exod 20:1-20) could not enter the Promised Land, while Abraham, who lived prior to the law was said to have kept Yahweh’s law (Gen 26:5). Third, Sailhamer explains that the law functioned to paradoxically teach the readers of the Pentateuch that the laws were not added to stop the Israelites from sinning, an impossibility, but “to keep them from disappearing into the world of sin around them.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Finally, Sailhamer explains that the law functioned to teach its readers a spirit of justice in regards to the practical matters of life.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Without question, the Old Testament law and its relationship to the Pentateuch’s composition function to teach wisdom. ### Reclamation of Nations The final function of the law is to serve as a role model for other nations. Gane suggests that the well-being of the Israelites from following the law would be attractive to other nations and pull them toward the Source of their blessing.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Gane is not exactly wrong, but something beyond a modified version of the prosperity gospel is likely occurring, something more missiological in the spiritual sense. Michael Heiser explains that God disinherited the pagan nations to other gods (Deut 32:8) when He made Israel His own “portion” (Deut 32:9), thus God created the Abrahamic covenant to reclaim the pagan nations (Gen 12:3), and ultimately every nation is given the opportunity to be reconciled to Christ (Acts 17:30-31).[\[18\]](#_ftn18) The missiological aspect of the law that functions as part of Yahweh’s reclamation of the nations, also entails a messianic aspect. The angel of the Lord tells Abraham that “in your offspring (זֶ֫רַע) \[seed\] shall all the nations of the earth be blessed” (Gen 22:18). Sailhamer argues that the seed is a type of grammatical homonym that means both plural, the many physical descendants of Abraham, and singular, the one Christ (cf. Gal 3:16).[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Accordingly, the function of the Old Testament law has implications for the reclamation of the nations that include aspects of role modeling, missiology, and messiahship. In sum, the multi-faceted functions of the law illuminate the character of God, the covenant of grace, the teaching of wisdom, and the reclamation of the nations. Finally, the functions of the Old Testament law in ancient Israel provide the impetus for launching a discussion regarding the law’s modern application. ## **The Function of the Old Testament Law in Modern Life** ### Variegated Approaches The function of the Old Testament law within the current theological and experiential life of the church ranges from radical discontinuity to radical continuity. A brief analysis of the diverse approaches to applying the Old Testament law is in order. Gane references Christian Reconstructionism as an example of radical continuity, which espouses the idea that the Old Testament laws are permanently applicable to all areas of life.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Alternatively, the concepts of practical impossibility, dispensationalism, and traditional Lutheran theology provide examples of differing forms of discontinuity.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) For the purpose of the following analysis, a moderating position is taken. However, even within moderating positions, various options exist. Moderating positions find a combination of both continuity and discontinuity between the Old Testament law and modern life. A popular approach arises from Reformed theology, which attempts to categorize law as moral, ceremonial, and judicial to determine which directives continue to apply. Scott Duvall and Daniel Hays’s approach embraces the concept of principlism, which assumes the theological principles revealed in the Old Testament laws apply to both the original audience and to modern believers.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Numerous variations upon the theme of principlism also exist.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Additionally, Gane notes that Waldemar Janzen and Christopher J. H. Wright espouse a paradigmatic approach that focuses less on specific principles and more on a system of belief and value paradigms.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Finally, under the influence of the moderating approaches, Gane provides his own approach: progressive moral wisdom. ### Progressive Moral Wisdom Many approaches that apply Old Testament law to the current theological and experiential life of the church build upon the law’s function as a teacher of wisdom. The New Testament framework emerges from 2 Timothy 3:15-17 where Paul explains that all Scripture is profitable, and the sacred writings “make you wise for salvation.” According to Gane, moral maturity is achieved through progressing in wisdom, and the purpose of progressive moral wisdom is serving others.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Gane’s approach is progressive in four ways: it progressively enhances understanding, facilitates God’s will, fosters morality, and restores creation ideals.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) In general, when applying progressive moral wisdom to an Old Testament law, the interpreter first analyzes the function of the law to uncover the value it represents. Once the specific value is identified, then the scope of the analysis is broadened to larger contexts. Gane’s progressive moral wisdom consists of five steps.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) First, the specific law is analyzed. For example, Gane uses the law, “If you meet your enemy’s ox or his donkey going astray, you shall bring it back to him” (Exod 23:4). The law addresses the topic of stealing and seeks to limit hostility between two parties. Second, the context of the analysis broadens to the entire corpus of Old Testament laws. Although a parallel law exists in Deuteronomy 22:1-3 that needs analyzed, the return of property represents the value in the Decalogue that opposes theft. Furthermore, the law resides under the higher value of love, which includes both respecting life and helping others. Third, the context of the analysis now broadens to the ancient Near Eastern life setting. In the case of Exodus 23:4, comparisons can be made with ancient Hittite Laws and the Mesopotamian Laws of Eshnunna to provide a nuanced understanding of the values highlighted within the Old Testament law. Fourth, the contextual scope of the analysis then broadens within the process of redemption, which includes the New Testament. For example, due to the fall, the law necessarily leads people back to harmony and focuses the reader on wisdom principles as developed in passages such as Romans 12, which leaves vengeance to God and extends the value of love to anyone regardless of situational or cultural barriers. Fifth, the function of the law is applied to modern life. Exodus 23:4 encourages the return of any property not owned and, simultaneously, calls modern believers to assist individuals who are considered enemies. ### Creation Ideals Progressive moral wisdom’s approach to applying the Old Testament laws to modern life is built upon two important perspectives: vertical and horizontal. Gane explains that the vertical perspective assumes a hierarchy of values that flow from love using general systems theory.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Love provides the value at the top of the hierarchy. Subvalues include loving God and loving humans. Loving humans would include attributes such as sexual purity, honesty, or kindness to an enemy, which complete the pyramidal shape. The use of general systems theory allows for granular applications of love. Concurrent with the vertical perspective is a horizontal perspective. According to Gane, the horizontal perspective allows for value propositions to be placed on a progressive continuum starting from the creation ideals and moving chronologically through the Fall, the Old Testament period, and into the time of Christ.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) The example of divorce is used by Gane. Specifically, the creation ideal is a permanent union between a husband and wife, and the guidelines of separation throughout the Old Testament and New Testament are divine accommodations to the creation ideal.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Gane’s treatment of the creation ideal is the most important aspect of his analysis, and where his approach begins to breakdown. ### Co-identified Relationality Without question, Gane’s approach to applying the Old Testament law to modern life has much to offer. First, it connects Old Testament laws to divine values, the unchangeable values that reflect God’s character such as love. Second, progressive moral wisdom masterfully engages the broader context of the law. Third, Gane’s approach ultimately applies the law to modern life. The challenge for Gane’s approach is not so much his methodology as it is the foundation upon which progressive moral wisdom is built. As mentioned above, Sailhamer asserts that the Old Testament laws were added due to transgressions, the Israelite’s lack of faith. Alternatively, God’s original creation was setup to empower Abraham to obey by grace through faith, a faith credited to him as righteousness (Gen 15:6), and to keep the law without the law (Gen 26:5). Christ’s new cosmic reality inaugurates a new creation (2 Cor 5:17) that empowers New Testament believers to obey by grace through faith (Eph 2:8-10), a faith credited to them as righteousness (Rom 4:5), and fulfills the law without the law. It is not that the Old Testament law should not be applied to modern life; it is that the Old Testament law must be applied within a new cosmic reality inaugurated by Christ. In short, the Old Testament laws do not provide the empowerment to follow them. The Old Testament laws simply tell the reader what life would be like if the individual co-identified with Yahweh as exemplified by Abraham or co-identified with Christ as exemplified by the converted Paul. Accordingly, any approach to applying the Old Testament laws to modern life must entail a re-appropriation of the legal principles into a new cosmic reality in Christ. For illustration purposes, the principles of co-identification can be used to underpin Gane’s case study of Exodus 23:4. First, when addressing a morally hazardous life situation such as facing an enemy, Richard Bauckham states that we must find “our true selves in Christ, we identify with him who loved us.”[\[31\]](#_ftn31) The connection between identifying with Christ and the extension of value-based living is summarized by Michael Gorman who explains that “to be co-crucified with the Messiah entails severing any attachment to normal human values, even the most religious ones.”[\[32\]](#_ftn32) Practically speaking, the reason enemies are often hated is because they sullied a reputation, took something precious, or undermined a performance. However, if Bauckman is correct and the self is found in Christ, then the believer no longer finds the self in perceptions, possessions, or performance and can let go of the animosity toward the enemy and, instead, extend grace, a handshake, and even a donkey. In other words, Gane’s application of the law through progressive moral wisdom shows the believer what life may look like if he lives out of his co-identified relationship with God; it does not provide specific direction for application. In sum, Gane provides an adequate approach to applying the Old Testament law to modern life if, and only if, it is built upon a foundational first step of co-identification between the believer and God. An examination of the multi-faceted functions of the law and the application of the Old Testament legal values to current theological and experiential life naturally lead to the question of how the Old Testament law connects to the Pentateuch as a whole. ## **The Meaning of the Pentateuch** ### Meaning Determined Any effort to explore how meaning is determined, and more specifically, how the meaning of the Pentateuch is determined within a few short paragraphs borders on foolishness. However, in the simplest terms, the question may boil down to a rather abstract notion of whether meaning arises from words or from things. At the core of Sailhamer’s initiative is the quest for the original author’s intent, an assumption that the author meant to say what was said.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) However, finding authorial intent can be quite allusive. To be sure, scholarly consensus does not exist. Sailhamer advocates the “historical-grammatical” method, which seems at first as the standard protocol for evangelical scholarship, which consists of two parts: the historical, which affirms the narratives as real history, and the grammatical, which emphasizes the semantic and grammatical relevance of the original languages.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) However, Sailhamer accuses modern evangelical scholarship of straying from the original intention of the historical-grammatical method. The shift occurs when scholars move away from the historical accounts of the events and toward the events themselves.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) Said differently, instead of the words giving meaning to history, history gives meaning to the words, and thus, the meaning of the words inside the Pentateuch arise from the data outside the text. The data may include historical reconstructions, archaeological discoveries, and ancient Near Eastern literature, which may or may not undermine the historical-grammatical methodology.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) The rise and influence of historical-critical scholarship likely contributed significantly to the evangelical shift. The downside, according to Sailhamer, was that the process of historical development took precedence over the final shape of the Pentateuch. In Sailhamer’s words, when “it comes to the meaning of the biblical texts as historical narrative, the evangelical view of history is such that historical reconstructions of the biblical events and narratives cannot and should not be allowed to take the place of the close study of the written texts and the meaning they give to the events they recount.”[\[37\]](#_ftn37) In short, meaning arises from the words. ### Pentateuch Making The relationship between the Old Testament laws and the Pentateuch continues to be debated. Sailhamer sees a clear distinction between the two. To understand Sailhamer’s perspective, one must first examine how the Pentateuch was made. Sailhamer aligns with conservative scholars by asserting that Moses is the author of the Pentateuch, which was primarily a singular composition, Pentateuch 1.0.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) However, in opposition to some profoundly conservative scholars such as William Barrick, who claims that Sailhamer’s views lack evidence, Sailhamer’s compositional approach espouses a Pentateuch 2.0.[\[39\]](#_ftn39) The Pentateuch 2.0 was a prophetic rewrite of the Pentateuch 1.0 with the purpose of preserving the “original Mosaic Pentateuch by recasting and positioning it within the growing body of Scriptural literature.”[\[40\]](#_ftn40) Accordingly, the retrofit became a decisive step toward final canonization. The payoff is that the additions preserved in the composition point to important links between version 1.0 and 2.0, while simultaneously taking Mosaic authorship seriously and acknowledging the reality of later content. The reader can discern the words of Moses alongside the inspired prophetic additions, which provide commentary and redactional glue for the canon as a whole.[\[41\]](#_ftn41) Finally, Sailhamer claims that Moses used various sources and provided commentary when writing 1.0, but an intelligent design informed the literary and canonical shaping by later prophets that resulted in its final form, the form that must be studied.[\[42\]](#_ftn42) ### Messianic Reality The redactional glue that occurred from prophetic shaping has its most significant impact on the Pentateuch’s messianic message, the core construct of Sailhamer’s analysis. Multiple points of contact provide evidence of unity and purpose. Sailhamer asserts that the Pentateuch’s compositional strategy suggests that four primary themes contribute to its meaning: land, faith, messiahship, and the new covenant.[\[43\]](#_ftn43) The key is to identify exactly how the compositional strategy of the Pentateuch relates to the four themes, which occurs as follows: Much of the Pentateuchal content focuses on the land promised to the Israelites, blocks of narrative surround the theme of faith, the arrangement of narratives occur around several important messianic poems, and the arrangement of the law collections around the golden calf incident points to the need for a circumcised heart reflective of the new covenant.[\[44\]](#_ftn44) The Pentateuch’s compositional structure is further illuminated when placed within the context of the messianic poetry. Sailhamer’s compositional approach to the Pentateuch is found within the following formula: narrative + poetry + epilogue.[\[45\]](#_ftn45) The larger narratives within the Pentateuch are connected by the shorter poems and epilogues that follow. The compositional pattern is first explored within Genesis 1-11. Each of the narratives in the first eleven chapters ends with a poem, which provides an interpretive summary, and an epilogue, which prepares the reader for the next narrative.[\[46\]](#_ftn46) The poems in Genesis 1-11 are the glue holding the narratives together that provide explanation and commentary. The climax of Sailhamer’s compositional approach is the utilization of the four major poems within the Pentateuch: Genesis 4:1-28, Exodus 15:1-18, Numbers 23-24, and Deuteronomy 32-33. The common themes and the language “in the last days,” which introduces all but the Exodus poem, supports a common authorship emphasizing the eschatological message of a future king.[\[47\]](#_ftn47) Cross-referencing and intertextuality also support Sailhamer’s perspective. Specifically, the poems cite each other, reference other parts of the Pentateuch, and highlight the themes of kingship, dominion, and eschatology through both editorializing and commentary.[\[48\]](#_ftn48) Ultimately, the compositional seams of the final version of the Pentateuch point to a messianic hope and the reality of a New Covenant, a viewpoint of the prophetic authors. The question remains as to whether Sailhamer’s compositional approach adequately explains the meaning of the Pentateuch. On the one hand, Joe Sprinkle accuses Sailhamer of proof texting.[\[49\]](#_ftn49) On the other hand, Kevin Warstler states that Sailhamer provides “more than sufficient proofs and discussions for everything he asserts.”[\[50\]](#_ftn50) Without question, Sailhamer provides two valuable contributions: (1) a focus on the text and (2) a focus on the compositional structure. Sailhamer’s conclusions answer apparent discrepancies, resolve potential conflicts, and reconcile the Pentateuch with the prophets and the New Testament. When the canon is taken as a whole, Sailhamer’s view not only appears coherent, but also reasonable. Whether one agrees with Sailhamer or not, any serious study of the Pentateuch’s meaning must engage his analysis. ### Blessed Nations Although the compositional structure of the Pentateuch is at the core of Sailhamer’s work, it would be difficult to complete the examination without addressing the ultimate implications of his analysis. Sailhamer’s compositional approach makes little distinction between the Abrahamic covenant and the Sinai covenant, the basis of both was “obedience by faith exhibited by faith.”[\[51\]](#_ftn51) Furthermore, each of the covenants directly relate to the nations. The Abrahamic covenant reaches out to the nations and the Sinai covenant makes a distinction between the nations, while both highlight the divine commitment to share in a relationship with Israel.[\[52\]](#_ftn52) The angel of the Lord promises Abraham that “*in* your offspring \[seed orזרע \] shall all the nations of the earth be blessed” (Gen 22:18, emphasis added). Sailhamer uses intertextual analysis to link Genesis 15 with Genesis 14, Exodus 2-3, and Deuteronomy 33 to support the hypothesis, as mentioned above, that the “seed” is a grammatical homonym that means both Abraham’s descendants and an individual heir.[\[53\]](#_ftn53) Accordingly, the authorial intent encompasses the poetic seams within the narratives of the Pentateuch that point to the king of Judah, Jesus Christ, as confirmed by the Apostle Paul in Galatians 3:19-29.[\[54\]](#_ftn54) Sailhamer confirms the assertion that the nations will be blessed in Him in the prophetic works of Jeremiah 4, 23, Psalm 72, and Hosea 11 that all look back to the Pentateuch and forward to a messianic eschatological reality.[\[55\]](#_ftn55) In other words, the seed is not the church and the seed is not Israel, the seed is Jesus, and in Him all the nations are reclaimed as the church and Israel participate in Christ. Accordingly, although the law is part of the Pentateuch, the meaning of the Pentateuch transcends the law, which his secondary. The meaning of the Pentateuch is found in its final compositional shape that not only encompasses but also points to a seed, a person, a king, a Messiah, who has already, but not yet, reclaimed and restored all nations in Himself to Yahweh by grace through faith. ## **Conclusion** The multi-faceted functions of the law specifically illuminate the character of God, the covenant of grace, the teaching of wisdom, and the reclamation of the nations. The functions of the law in the event space of ancient Israel provide the basis for their application. Although Gane provides an adequate approach to applying the Old Testament law within the current theological and experiential life of the church, his progressive moral wisdom must build upon a foundation of co-identified relationality between God and the believer that re-appropriates the legal principles into a new cosmic reality in Christ. Finally, the compositional seams of the final version of the Pentateuch point to a messianic hope and a reality of a New Covenant. Accordingly, the meaning of the Pentateuch is found in its final shape that points to a Messiah that will reclaim and restore all nations in Him. Without question, the functions of the Old Testament law provide a platform to apply the law to modern life in a co-identified relationship with God that is highlighted by the final shape of the Pentateuch, which points to a Messiah that restores all people to God by grace through faith. Finally, opportunities for further research abound, which include expanded intertextual research, inter-disciplinary studies, and soteriological considerations. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Roy E. Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017), 17. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 39. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) John H. Walton and J. Harvey Walton, *The Lost World of the Torah: Law as Covenant and Wisdom in Ancient Context* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2019), 204. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 204–205. Note that Walton and Walton’s observation regarding co-identification becomes a critical aspect of the critique of Gane’s progressive moral wisdom. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) John D. Currid, *A Study Commentary on Deuteronomy.* (Darlington, England: Evangelical Press, 2006), 13–14. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) John H. Sailhamer, *The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition, and Interpretation* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2009), 379. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 383. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 398. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Claude E Cox, “When Torah Embraced Wisdom and Song: Job 28:8, Ecclesiastes 12:13, and Psalm 1:2,” *Restoration Quarterly* 49, no. 2 (2007): 71. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) See John H Walton, “Understanding Torah: Ancient Legal Text, Covenant Stipulation, and Christian Scripture,” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 29, no. 1 (2019): 5–7. See the fusion of Torah and wisdom through the exploration of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Ben Sira, and Tobit in John J. Collins, “Torah as Narrative and Wisdom,” in *The Invention of Judaism*, 1st ed., Torah and Jewish Identity from Deuteronomy to Paul (Oakland: University of California Press, 2017), 80–96. See also the Torah viewed as wisdom in Deuteronomy in John J. Collins, “Wisdom and Torah,” in *Pedagogy in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity*, ed. Karina Martin Hogan, Matthew Goff, and Emma Wasserman (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2017), 59–80. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 49. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Sailhamer, *The Meaning of the Pentateuch*, 559. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid., 559–60. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Sailhamer, *The Meaning of the Pentateuch*, 561. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid., 561–62. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 54. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Michael S. Heiser, *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible*, First Edition. (Lexham Press, 2015), 120. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Sailhamer, *The Meaning of the Pentateuch*, 442. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 163–64. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Ibid., 168–73. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) J. Scott Duvall and J. Daniel Hays, *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible*, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 41–42. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) See Walter Kaiser’s principalizing model, William Webb’s redemptive-movement model, Kevin Vanhoozer’s drama-of-redemption model, and Daniel Doriani’s redemptive-historical model, all of which attempt to apply Scripture to contemporary culture in Gary T. Meadors, ed., *Four Views on Moving beyond the Bible to Theology*, Zondervan Counterpoints Collection (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009), 100. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 181–87. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Ibid., 198–99. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Ibid., 201. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, see Gane’s full analysis of his five steps on pages 202–14 and Gane’s detailed case study of Exodus 23:4 on pages 219–35. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians,* 147–55. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Ibid., 155–61. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Ibid., 160. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Richard Bauckham, *The Bible in the Contemporary World: Hermeneutical Ventures* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2015), 143. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Michael J. Gorman, *Participating in Christ: Explorations in Paul’s Theology and Spirituality* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2019), 133. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Sailhamer, *The Meaning of the Pentateuch*, 69. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Sailhamer, *The Meaning of the Pentateuch*, 100. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Ibid. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Ibid., 101. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Ibid., 104. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Sailhamer, *The Meaning of the Pentateuch*, 200. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) William D Barrick, “The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition and Interpretation,” *The Master’s Seminary Journal* 23, no. 1 (2012): 154. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Sailhamer, *The Meaning of the Pentateuch*, 203. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) Ibid., 223. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Ibid., 207–09. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Sailhamer, *The Meaning of the Pentateuch*, 242–43. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Ibid. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Ibid., 304. Also, for a more recent analysis that extends Sailhamer’s work especially with regard to how structure informs understanding through the narrative, poetry, and epilogue formula, see Kevin S. Chen, *The Messianic Vision of the Pentateuch* (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2019). [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) Sailhamer, *The Meaning of the Pentateuch*, 305–15. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) Sailhamer, *The Meaning of the Pentateuch*, 332–35. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48) Ibid., 335–41. [\[49\]](#_ftnref49) Joe M. Sprinkle, “The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition and Interpretation,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 53, no. 4 (December 2010): 810. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50) Kevin Warstler, “The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition and Interpretation,” *Criswell Theological Review* 9, no. 1 (2011): 117. [\[51\]](#_ftnref51) Sailhamer, *The Meaning of the Pentateuch*, 354. [\[52\]](#_ftnref52) Ibid., 368–369. [\[53\]](#_ftnref53) Ibid., 442–54. [\[54\]](#_ftnref54) Ibid., 479–81. [\[55\]](#_ftnref55) Ibid., 481–521. ## Bibliography - Barrick, William D. “The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition and Interpretation.” *The Master’s Seminary Journal* 23, no. 1 (2012): 154–156. - Bauckham, Richard. *The Bible in the Contemporary World: Hermeneutical Ventures*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2015. - Chen, Kevin S. *The Messianic Vision of the Pentateuch*. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2019. - Collins, John J. “Torah as Narrative and Wisdom.” In *The Invention of Judaism*, 80–96. 1st ed. Torah and Jewish Identity from Deuteronomy to Paul. Oakland: University of California Press, 2017. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Wisdom and Torah.” In *Pedagogy in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity*, edited by Karina Martin Hogan, Matthew Goff, and Emma Wasserman, 59–80. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2017. - Cox, Claude E. “When Torah Embraced Wisdom and Song: Job 28:8, Ecclesiastes 12:13, and Psalm 1:2.” *Restoration Quarterly* 49, no. 2 (2007): 65–74. - Currid, John D. *A Study Commentary on Deuteronomy.* Darlington, England: Evangelical Press, 2006. - Duvall, J. Scott, and J. Daniel Hays. *Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible*. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. - Gane, Roy E. *Old Testament Law for Christians*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017. - Gorman, Michael J. *Participating in Christ: Explorations in Paul’s Theology and Spirituality*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2019. - Heiser, Michael S. *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible*. First Edition. Lexham Press, 2015. - Meadors, Gary T., ed. *Four Views on Moving beyond the Bible to Theology*. Zondervan Counterpoints Collection. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. - Sailhamer, John H. *The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition, and Interpretation*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2009. - Sprinkle, Joe M. “The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition and Interpretation.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 53, no. 4 (December 2010): 809–811. - Walton, John H. “Understanding Torah: Ancient Legal Text, Covenant Stipulation, and Christian Scripture.” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 29, no. 1 (2019): 1–18. - Walton, John H., and J. Harvey Walton. *The Lost World of the Torah: Law as Covenant and Wisdom in Ancient Context*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2019. - Warstler, Kevin. “The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition and Interpretation.” *Criswell Theological Review* 9, no. 1 (2011): 114–118. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Living Life In Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/living-life-in-christ/) **Published:** January 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Living Life In Christ ## Propositions Exegetical Proposition: In Galatians 3:19-29, Paul asserts that the law points to a Messianic age where believers are transferred into a new realm through their participation in Christ. Theological Proposition: Christians no longer live under the law but, instead, live in a new cosmic reality in Christ Jesus. Homiletical Proposition: Believers are to live life based on their new position in Christ to fulfill the law of love. ## Introduction In Galatians 3:19-29, the Apostle Paul explains the relationship of the law to the new realm inaugurated by Christ, a realm where Christians no longer live under the law. The question remains as to how a believer practically appropriates Paul’s message. The homiletical proposition is that believers are to live life based on their new position in Christ to fulfill the law of love. The research is divided into three sections categorized under the general headings of the purpose of the law, the transference of Christians into a new realm, and the participation of believers in Christ. Each section of the research first provides a brief exegetical analysis of the passage and then explains the application. ## **Law** In Galatians 3:19-22, Paul addresses the [purpose of the law](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-perspective-on-works-of-the-law/), the mediation of the law, and whether the law contradicts the promise of the Spirit through Christ that fulfills the covenant with Abraham (Gen 12:1-3). Scripture supports multiple purposes of the law including the ability to restrain sin, to increase awareness of sin (Rom 3:20), to provide a vehicle to deal with sin, to prove the impossibility of keeping the law (Gal 3:10), and even to increase sin (Rom 5:20). Thomas Schreiner explains that Paul shows that the law is subordinate to the promise by arguing that the former required the mediation of multiple parties, while the latter came directly from God to Abraham.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Finally, Paul asserts that the law does not contradict the promise, but each plays a different role.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The temporary nature of the law ultimately leads to the consummation of the promise inaugurated by Christ in a new epoch. It is odd to suggest that the law exacerbates sin, especially with the worldview of an ancient Jew. However, Tim Keller explains more than one way to reject God. It is possible to reject God through irreligion, as represented by Gentile paganism in antiquity, but it is also possible to reject God through religion, where the individual presents a moral righteousness to God to either earn salvation or receive reciprocation.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Moralism can result in self-reliance and pride. In this way, the law can increase transgressions. Schreiner points out that although laws and rules may curb unhealthy behavior they cannot solve the human condition.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) As Timothy Ralston notes, application moves beyond behavior and into the realm of knowledge, belief, and direction.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Rules may lead to rebellion, or alternatively, to compliance, but what is necessary is a transformation of the heart, where beliefs, emotions, and the will align with godly behavior. The law does not have the power to create a heart transformation; its power is subordinate to the promise of the Spirit through faith in Christ. According to Keller, a restructuring of identity is required as following the rules of the old system will be short term and superficial.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) A new heart and new spirit is necessary for believers to follow God’s ordinances (Ezek 36:25-27). Believers are transported into a new cosmic reality that no longer exists under the law, but exists in Christ Jesus. Living within the new epoch inaugurated by Christ removes the need of rule-following and reciprocation, and opens the possibility of extending love to God and others without requiring anything in return. ## **Transfer** In Galatians 3:23-25, Paul explains that the custodial nature of the law ultimately removes the necessity of life under the law. F. F. Bruce points out that believers are transferred from the old epoch under the law to a new realm with the arrival of Christ.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Accordingly, the law played the part of a pedagogue, which, according to Richard Longenecker, acts as a supervisor and points to a justification that is not obtained by following the law, but by faith in Christ.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) According to the *New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology,* the word to justify, δικαιόω, is semantically pregnant, which not only juxtaposes nicely with the law’s forensic meaning, but also has a participatory connotation and ethical implications.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Finally, Paul concludes the short pericope by summarily restating that believers are no longer under the law. Living in the new realm of Christ rather than under the law eliminates the necessity of performance driven righteousness. Larry Crabb asserts that every human being has one basic need, personal worth, that is resolved with two types of inputs, security and significance.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Believers naturally attempt to fulfill the need of personal worth externally rather than internally by using the inputs of performance and other people’s opinions to validate their worth. Accordingly, Richard Lovelace explains that often believers attempt to “rely on their sanctification for justification.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) In other words, believers rely on their religious performance and lack of conscious sin to rest in the assurance of God’s acceptance instead of believing that Christ’s righteousness is the ground for God’s acceptance.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Paradoxically, living under the realm of the law where performance and other people’s opinions define reality, rather than living under the new realm of Christ’s righteousness, removes the believer’s ability to extend love. More specifically, when believers attempt to find their personal worth in their performance, the focus remains on self rather than on God or others. Furthermore, when a believer attempts to find their personal worth in the opinion of others, the focus turns from God, and towards controlling other people’s responses. In both cases, loving others is replaced with loving self. However, living in the new realm of Christ’s righteousness where the believer is fully accepted allows the individual to focus on loving others rather than meeting the need of personal worth that has already been fulfilled in the gift of Christ’s righteousness (Rom 5:15-17). ## **Participation** [![Paul and Union with Christ 182x300 - Living Life In Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Paul-and-Union-with-Christ-182x300.jpg "Living Life In Christ - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fCkvfX)Paul and Union with Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study In Galatians 3:26-29, Paul identifies believers as sons of God baptized into Christ, which results in a oneness of all believers in Christ. Because of believers’ participation in Christ, Bruce explains that they take on the status of sonship through adoption.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Furthermore, although baptism is not a rite that confers justification, Constantine Campbell recognizes that baptism represents a spiritual reality where the believer participates in Christ’s death and resurrection.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Finally, the new “in Christ” position of believers creates a oneness that has the opportunity to unite all of humanity and bless all nations (Gen 12:1-3). Believers living life based on their new position are called to fulfill the law of love (Gal 5:14). John Barclay notes that central to Pauline theology is the ultimate gift of righteousness, which is given “regardless of worth.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) In other words, personal worth based on racial ethnicity, gender, or cultural status is completely shattered by Paul’s message. The implications are staggering because as James Samra recognizes, the more that believers identify themselves with Christ, the more Christlike they become.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) The practical ramifications of Paul’s theology again addresses humanity’s largest need, personal worth, and humanity’s most important activity, love. Paul’s message allows believers to accept themselves, which in turn, empowers love for others. If personal worth and acceptance is determined by ethnicity, race, and status, then external society controls the believer’s view of self. Accordingly, the individual will attempt to either accommodate the peer-pressure of culture or experience a life of shame due to a perceived lack of personal worth. The former eliminates the ability to love because the focus turns outward to obtain love for self. The latter eliminates the ability to love because the focus turns inward to medicate the feelings about self. Alternatively, when believers identify with Christ, they become Christlike as Christ’s work empowers love. Instead of focusing on fulfilling the need of personal worth, believers rest in the fact that they are already fully accepted and deeply loved sons of God due to the gift of Christ’s righteousness. The believer no longer needs to focus on fulfilling the need of personal worth. Instead, the believer is empowered by Christ’s work to love others as they live within a new cosmic reality in Christ. ## **Conclusion** Paul’s message has significant practical implications. First, removing rule-following and reciprocation extends the power of unconditional love. Second, living in the new realm, believers are fully accepted based on Christ’s righteousness, which empowers believers to focus on loving others rather than love extraction. Third, participation in Christ forms the identity of the believer, which eliminates the need of finding personal worth in achievement or others that stifles love. Without question, believers are to live life based on their new position in Christ, not under the law, to fulfill the law of love. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Thomas R. Schreiner, *Galatians*, Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament, ed. Clinton E. Arnold (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010), 242-43. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 244. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Tim Keller, *Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 63. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Schreiner, *Galatians*, 251. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Timothy Ralston, “Showing the Relevance: Application Ethics, and Preaching,” in *Interpreting the New Testament Text*, ed. Darrell L. Bock and Buist M. Fanning (Wheaton: Crossway, 2006), 305. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Tim Keller, *The Prodigal Son: Recovering the Heart of the Christian Faith* (New York: Riverhead, 2008), 133. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) F. F. Bruce, *The Epistle to the Galatians*, The New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1982), 181. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Richard N. Longenecker, *Galatians*, vol. 41 of *Word Biblical Commentary*, ed. Ralph P. Martin (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1990), 148. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) *New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology*, s.v. “δικαιόω” ed. Verlyn D. Verbrugge, abr. ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 143–44. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Larry Crabb, *Effective Biblical Counseling: A Model for Helping Caring Christians Become Capable Counselors* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 62–63. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Richard F. Lovelace, *Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1979), 101. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Lovelace, *Dynamics of Spiritual Life*, 101. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Bruce, *The Epistle*, 184. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Constantine R. Campbell, *Paul and Union with Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 207–8. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) John Barclay, *Paul and the Gift* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015), 435, 567. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) James G. Samra, *Being Conformed to Christ in Community: A Study of Maturity, Maturation and the Local Church in the Undisputed Pauline Epistles* (New York: T&T Clark, 2008), 113. ## **Bibliography** - Barclay, John. *Paul and the Gift*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015. - Bruce, F. F. *The Epistle to the Galatians*. The New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1982. - Campbell, Constantine R. *Paul and Union with Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. - Crabb, Larry. *Effective Biblical Counseling: A Model for Helping Caring Christians Become Capable Counselors*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013. - Keller, Tim. *Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. *The Prodigal Son: Recovering the Heart of the Christian Faith*. New York: Riverhead, 2008. - Longenecker, Richard N. *Galatians*. Vol. 41 in *Word Biblical Commentary*. Edited by Ralph P. Martin. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1990. - Lovelace, Richard F. *Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1979. - Ralston, Timothy. “Showing the Relevance: Application Ethics, and Preaching.” In *Interpreting the New Testament Text*, edited by Darrell L. Bock and Buist M. Fanning. Wheaton: Crossway, 2006. - Samra, James G. *Being Conformed to Christ in Community: A Study of Maturity, Maturation and the Local Church in the Undisputed Pauline Epistles*. New York: T&T Clark, 2008. - Schreiner, Thomas R. *Galatians*. Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Edited by Clinton E. Arnold. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010. - Verbrugge, Verlyn D., ed. *New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology*. Abr. ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Fleece Praying](https://www.livestransforming.com/fleece-praying/) **Published:** February 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Fleece Praying [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 15 182x300 - Fleece Praying](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-15-182x300.png "Fleece Praying - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BUCkcx)Prayer: The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders Since first hearing about the famous story of Gideon in Sunday School, many believers have likely considered putting out a fleece to determine the will of God. In a reference to Judges 6:36-38, Dave Earley (2008, 118) appears to support fleece praying by explaining that before Gideon moved to rescue Israel from the Midianites, he prayed for confirmation, and God answered. However, the question remains as to whether fleece praying is appropriate for modern Christians. First, the literary context surrounding the story of Gideon’s fleece suggests that God had already revealed His will to Gideon when He stated, “Go in this your strength and deliver Israel from the hand of Midian” (Judg 6:14 \[NASB\]). Accordingly, K. Lawson Younger (2002, 187) explains that “contrary to popular interpretation, these fleecings have nothing to do with discovering or determining God’s will. The divine will is perfectly and absolutely clear in Gideon’s own mind (note the wording in v. 36).” Furthermore, God provided plenty of evidence regarding His will through the appearance of an angel, a miraculous fire, divine speech, and protection for Gideon and his men after destroying the altar of Baal (Judg 6:11-27). However, none of these occurrences satisfied Gideon, who found it necessary to request two additional tests of God. Daniel Block (1999, 272-273) recognizes that Gideon’s additional requests were “not a sign of faith but of unbelief,” and that Gideon used “every means available to try to get out of the mission to which he had been called.” The context of Judges 6 suggests that Gideon used fleece praying because of his lack of faith. Therefore, encouraging congregations in the Church Age to follow the example of Gideon’s fleece praying, when God’s will is already evident, would be ill-advised. Earley (2008, 118) also compares Judges 6 to Jesus’s teaching in Luke 11 by suggesting that Gideon’s prayer requesting “one wet fleece” was “exactly as Jesus would later instruct” when Jesus advised His hearers to pray for “three loaves.” Earley is correct that both prayers assert numerical specificity, but that is where the similarity ends. Gideon’s prayer was built on questionable motives and a lack of faith. Alternatively, Norval Geldenhuys (1952, 324) explains that in Luke’s story of the friend at midnight, Jesus encourages praying with good motives and strong faith. The distinction is palpable. At this point, the question remains as to whether fleece praying would be appropriate if built on pure motives and a strong faith. Nothing in Jesus’s teaching in Luke 11 seems to preclude a believer, who has good motives and a strong faith, from praying for guidance from God for a specific situation, and then asking God to reveal a sign in response to that prayer. Accordingly, fleece praying within the context of the story of Gideon should be avoided, but fleece praying within the context of Jesus’s teaching about the friend at midnight may be appropriate in [certain circumstances in the Church Age](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-believers-church-a-natural-resource-worth-conserving/). However, the utmost caution must be taken as a fine line appears to exist between appropriately seeking God’s will and inappropriately testing God (Luke 11:9-10, 4:12). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Block, Daniel Isaac. 1999. *The New American Commentary*. Vol. 6, *Judges, Ruth*. Nashville: Broadman & Holman. - Earley, David. 2008. *Prayer: The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders*. Chattanooga: Living Ink. - Geldenhuys, Norval. 1952. *Commentary on the Gospel of Luke: The English Text with Introduction, Exposition, and Notes*. The New International Commentary on the Old and New Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans. - Younger, K. Lawson. 2002. *Judges and Ruth*. The NIV Application Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Incarnational Apologetics](https://www.livestransforming.com/incarnational-apologetics/) **Published:** February 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Incarnational Apologetics ## **PART 1** This discussion board post is a reaction to David Wheeler’s article, “Incarnational Apologetics.” Wheeler defines Incarnational Apologetics as the “public and private lifestyle of a Christian that validates to the world the absolute truths of the Bible.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Teaching evangelism has historically focused on training individuals on what to say. However, incarnational apologetics would affect the traditional teaching of evangelism by emphasizing living a Christian lifestyle with the intention of showing a non-Christian world the genuineness of Christianity. Theoretically, an incarnational apologetic approach to evangelism would cause Christians to be more aware of daily behaviors and align them with Scripture to reach the lost. However, theory and practice may be quite difficult to discern. In other words, authentically living a life beyond oneself by joining God’s activity and serving others as the Spirit leads will assuredly result in a powerful and supernatural apologetic when grace leads to obedience. Alternatively, if Christians attempt to modify outward behavior in order to evangelize the world through human effort, then [the entire apologetic](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-apologetics/) fails and becomes nothing more than a tool for Christians to manipulate others to join an agenda and feel proud that God is using them. The lack of integrity will undermine the apologetic. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 10 182x300 - Incarnational Apologetics](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-10-182x300.png "Incarnational Apologetics - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3C61i8M)Center Church Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City The idea of balance between incarnational and informational may do more harm than good. Of course, a relationship exists between the two, but considering that less than 10 percent of Christians share the information of the Gospel in a given year, and the significant majority of church attenders believe that church is a passive activity on Sunday morning, it is difficult to think in terms of balancing an overemphasis. Instead, it appears that a significant increase in both incarnational and informational evangelism is necessary. Accordingly, a more pertinent question is how to increase both informational and incarnational evangelism. Timothy Keller supplies a helpful construct that he coins an “every-member gospel.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Specifically, Keller suggests a concurrent increase of informational and incarnational evangelism requires a framework that is organic, meaning outside church programming; relational, meaning performed within personal relationships; Word deploying, meaning connecting the Gospel to the lives of people; and active, meaning each believer becomes responsible for producing rather than consuming.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) ## **PART 2** The evangelistic barriers identified by McRaney that I struggle with the most are false stereotypes, isolation, and the absence of a realistic system.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) First, I must admit I fall into the category of individuals that have negative perception of religiously constipated evangelism that arrogantly pushes to build a personal empire rather than God’s kingdom. The second barrier I encounter is isolation. My introverted personality explains, but does not excuse my desire for isolation. Although close intimate relationships are more natural, engaging strangers with small talk is a significant weakness of mine. Finally, I spent most of my young life in churches influenced by Wesleyanism, which focused more on staying away from the evil of the world than engaging a lost world. In fact, I do not remember anyone in over twenty years of church involvement who ever taught me a system of personal evangelism. Sadly, William Fay’s book was my first encounter with a full-blown evangelistic system. In response to my three barriers, David Wheeler suggests volunteering in areas of personal interest, which I believe will help me overcome my challenge of engaging strangers.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Specifically, I have an interest in golf that could easily become an intentional way to relationally engage the lost in a non-threatening way. Furthermore, Wheeler provides a number of ideas for intentionally developing relationships in a casual, non-offensive way, which will assist me in overcoming negative stereotypes.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Will McRaney states, “the highest level of motivation for evangelism is love for God.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Since the significant majority of Christians do not share their faith, one may conclude that Christians simply do not love God enough. Thus, in order to extend effective evangelistic efforts, believers must work harder to love God more so they can be more effective. However, the logic is backwards. When Christianity is reduced to a hell avoidance, morality enhancement, try harder religion, the energy around evangelism wanes. Alternatively, when a believer understands the Gospel as reconciliation with Christ where a new identity supernaturally forms through a relationship with the Creator, a detachment of identity from the world occurs, and a natural outward concern for those who rely on the world for their identity results (Ephesians 4:20-29). In other words, God empowers the love necessary to love both others and Him. The impact on my perspective of personal evangelism has dramatically changed, which will certainly influence my daily life. Although I have joined God in leading a number of people to Christ, I am not intentional about personal evangelism. In fact, it has only been within the last few weeks I have begun to seriously address the issue of personal evangelism in my life. Historically, the type and style of personal evangelism exposed to me seemed controlling and argumentative, and at times, completely unbiblical. However, in my daily life I believe I can now follow McRaney’s lead by engaging a postmodern society with questions, stories, dialogue, and listening.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Furthermore, I believe I can patiently answer questions without the need to argue, which immediately relieves unnecessary pressure.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) It is a little embarrassing that at my age, my progress is just beginning, but I am at least finding myself thinking about people in elevators, on airplanes, and at work much differently and beginning to ask initial questions to open dialogue about spiritual matters. **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). David Wheeler, “Incarnational Apologetics,” Liberty University Web site, 1, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 18, 2013). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). Timothy J. Keller, *Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City* (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2012), 280. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3). Ibid. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4). Will McRaney Jr., *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003), 195-200. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5). Dave Earley and David Wheeler, *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010), 297. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6). Ibid., 299-305. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7). McRaney, *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture*, 198. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8). Will McRaney Jr., *The Art of Personal Evangelism* (Nashville, TN: B&H, 2003), 166. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9). Dave Earley and David Wheeler, *Evangelism Is: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010), 268-71. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Earley, Dave, and David Wheeler. *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010. - Keller, Timothy J. *Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City*. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2012. - McRaney, Will Jr. *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003. - Wheeler, David. “Incarnational Apologetics.” 1-7. http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 18, 2013).[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Jonah: Literary Features](https://www.livestransforming.com/jonah-literary-features/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Jonah: Literary Features [The book of Jonah](https://www.livestransforming.com/theology-of-jonah/) is a literary masterpiece. The use of repetitions, word plays, and literary features abound in Jonah 1, which structurally support the meaning of the words. Although not comprehensive, several literary devices will be identified with a brief explanation of their impact on interpretation moving verse-by-verse through the chapter. The author uses asyndeton in verse 2. YHWH’s command “get up, go” omits the conjunctions and provides a hurried effect that supports the message that Jonah ought to respond rapidly. In Jonah’s response to YHWH’s call in verse 3, a relatively complex use of repetition occurs. Kevin Youngblood identifies a chiastic structure that begins with Jonah fleeing, going down, and procuring a ship and then reverses order using the repetition of two key words: Tarshish and descended.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) [![Rhetorical Criticism Context Method and the Book of Jonah 182x300 - Jonah: Literary Features](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Rhetorical-Criticism_-Context-Method-and-the-Book-of-Jonah-182x300.jpg "Jonah: Literary Features - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3PlDj8H)Rhetorical Criticism: Context, Method, and the Book of Jonah (Guides to Biblical Scholarship Old Testament) The chiasm highlights the contrast between YHWH’s call to obedience and Jonah’s response of disobedience. Furthermore, the presence of YHWH that sandwiches the verse provides irony since Jonah is literarily stuck inside the presence of YHWH, which he is attempting to flee. Phyllis Trible identifies three wordplays in verse 4: prosopopoeia, onomatopoeia, and assonance.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The prosopopoeia occurs when the inanimate ship “feels” threatened and the onomatopoeia and assonance occur when pronouncing לְהִשָּׁבֵֽר חִשְּׁבָ֖ה, which sounds like water crashing against the ship with a similar internal vowel structure. The wordplay emphasizes the dangerous nature of the storm. A larger chiastic structure encompasses the preponderance of the chapter. Youngblood identifies the chiasm beginning with YHWH’s involvement, the futility of ignoring YHWH, and the recognition of YHWH’s power followed by a reversal that highlights YHWH’s mercy and sovereignty.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Aristotle suggests that literary resolution occurs through reversal and discovery.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Accordingly, within the chiastic structure, the repetition of the lemma טוּל identifies important potential reversals or turning points. For example, YHWH flings a great wind attempting to turn Jonah, the mariners fling the equipment attempting to stop the storm, and finally, the mariners fling Jonah to reverse the course of the storm. Furthermore, the repetition of the lemma יָרֵא is used of the mariners three times, which provides both an irony, as the pagan mariners rather than the Israelite feared YHWH, and Aristotelian discovery, whereby the mariners fear in verse 16 provides literary resolution. Several additional literary devices are evident. First, asyndeton occurs a second time in verse 6 and mirrors the same structure as in verse 1, “get up, call out,” which again conveys urgency. Second, the mariners cast lots in verse 7 and the final phrase, “fell on Jonah,” provides emphasis by placing the culprit at the end of the clause. Third, Trible notes alliteration that expresses urgency in verse 8 in the “particles *mah* and *m* in the four questions.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Fourth, irony is evident in verse 9, as Jonah acknowledges the power of YHWH as creator of the sea and land, yet simultaneously attempting such power. Fifth, Trible also identifies an interesting, more difficult to recognize, play on consonants in verse 13 between the words לְהָשִׁ֛יב (l, h, s, y, b) and אֶל־הַיַּבָּשָׁ֖ה (l, h, y, b, s), which lays stress upon the sailors attempt to land safely.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Finally, Youngblood recognizes a more sweeping literary feature of contrast between the mariners and Jonah.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) For example, the mariners fear YHWH, and Jonah flees from YHWH; the mariners attempt to live, and Jonah attempts to die; the mariners pray, and Jonah remains silent; and the pagan mariners end up worshipping YHWH, and Jonah the Israelite ends up rejecting YHWH. The contrast between the mariners and Jonah provides tension that accentuates YHWH’s sovereignty and mercy. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Kevin J. Youngblood, *Jonah: God’s Scandalous Mercy*, ed. Daniel I. Block, 2nd ed., Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 129. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Phyllis Trible, *Rhetorical Criticism: Context, Method, and the Book of Jonah*, ed. Gene M. Tucker, Old Testament Series (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1994), 132. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Youngblood, *Jonah*, 70. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Aristotle, *Poetics*, vol. 23 of *Aristotle in 23 Volumes,* trans. W. H. Fyfe (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1932), 1452a–2b. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Trible, *Rhetorical Criticism*, 140. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Trible, *Rhetorical Criticism*, 145–46. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Youngblood, *Jonah*, 70. ## Bibliography - Aristotle. *Poetics*. Vol. 23 of *Aristotle in 23 Volumes*. Translated by W. H. Fyfe. Cambridge: Harvard University, 1932. - Trible, Phyllis. *Rhetorical Criticism: Context, Method, and the Book of Jonah*. Edited by Gene M. Tucker. Old Testament Series. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1994. - Youngblood, Kevin J. *Jonah: God’s Scandalous Mercy*. Edited by Daniel I. Block. 2nd ed. Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Ecclesiastes and Psychoanalysis](https://www.livestransforming.com/ecclesiastes-and-psychoanalysis/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Ecclesiastes and Psychoanalysis The book of Ecclesiastes has a long and storied history of interpretation. From the arguments at the Council of Jamnia over canonicity, Jerome’s Neoplatonic allegorical reading, and the literal and theological readings of Luther and Melanchthon during the Reformation, to more recent historical-critical approaches and psychoanalytic readings, certainty of interpretation only exists in its uncertainty. However, an important question remains to the canonically conscious reader, which is whether the message of Ecclesiastes, as certain scholars espouse, is an alternative vision or negative witness to the gospel of Christ. Without a clear understanding of Ecclesiastes through an exploration of the inner workings of Qohelet, the value and even canonicity of the book may be undermined. However, *a proper theological-psychological reading of Ecclesiastes not only points to the gospel, but it is also paramount to understanding and appropriating the gospel of Christ*. To pursue the argument, the research engages two unlikely conversation partners: Carl Jung’s psychoanalytic theory and Karl Barth’s forensic apocalyptic theology. The research begins by engaging the inflated and alienated ego in Jungian psychology and applying these concepts to the experience of Qohelet. At this point, the topics of sacred objects and the meaning of הֶ֫בֶל are also addressed. Next, the analysis moves into an exploration of the unconscious Self in Jung’s psychoanalytic theory as well as an examination of the shadow and divine imaging as they relate to Qohelet. The natural next step is a dive into Jung’s process of individuation, or what the Apostle Paul refers to as sanctification. Finally, the analysis concludes by pulling Barth’s forensic apocalyptic theology into the conversation and applying it not only to the difficult concept of עוֹלָם in Ecclesiastes 3:11, but also to the controversial content surrounding the concept of righteousness in Ecclesiastes 7:15-20. ## **Prolegomena** Even in the briefest studies of discipline integration, such as the one that follows, the immediate and obvious critique is that the work inappropriately imposes modern concepts and structures anachronistically upon the biblical text. Although the assertion is intuitively obvious, Qohelet knew nothing of Carl Jung or any form of modern psychological or psychoanalytic theories. From a broad conceptual perspective, Robin Scroggs points in the right direction by explaining that a “psychological interpretation of the biblical text can best be seen as a handmaiden to a better understanding of God’s acts of salvation: the servant of, not the substitute for, theology.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Furthermore, to suggest that one particular psychological model necessarily trumps all others with regard to engaging biblical texts misses the point. Accordingly, the direction of the research utilizes Carl Jung’s psychoanalytic concepts to assist the modern reader in understanding the original intended meaning of the Preacher whereby psychology acts as a servant to the text rather than its master. ## **Inflated Ego in Ecclesiastes** The internal exasperation reflected within the first two verses of the book of Ecclesiastes begs for an examination of the inner working and turmoil of the Preacher: “Vanity of vanities, says the Preacher, vanity of vanities! All is vanity” (Eccl 1:2).[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, to understand Qohelet’s encounter, it is not unreasonable to engage the psychological aspects of the Preacher. According to psychologist Carl Jung, the human soul or psyche consists of two parts: the conscious and unconscious. Zacharias Kotzé explains that the conscious consists of various parts of the personality including the ego, which is the core of consciousness.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Craig Bartholomew expands the conversation by noting that the ego is considered the subjective identity, and the Self is considered the objective identity. [![Ecclesiastes and Psychoanalysis 182x300 - Ecclesiastes and Psychoanalysis](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Ecclesiastes-and-Psychoanalysis-182x300.jpg "Ecclesiastes and Psychoanalysis - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BTa6i9)Ecclesiastes and Psychoanalysis: Baker Commentary on the Old Testament Wisdom and Psalms [\[4\]](#_ftn4) In general, from a developmental perspective, the ego develops in the first half of life, and the Self develops in the second half of life.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Specifically, the following analysis addresses the development of the ego and the Self reflected in Qohelet’s journey in Ecclesiastes. Although, in reality, it is impossible to separate the ego from the Self, for purposes of analysis, issues surrounding the ego are primarily addressed in this section while the next section addresses issues surrounding the Self. Within the first few chapters of Ecclesiastes, it is difficult to miss the length that Qohelet goes to find meaning through various aspects of ego inflation to overcome the angst associated with הֶ֫בֶל. Edward Edinger points out that the inflated ego is an ego that is blown up beyond the proper size; it is “unrealistically large and unrealistically important.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The inflated ego arrogates itself to the Self; thus, at this stage, the ego and Self are unhealthily indistinguishable.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) In other words, the conscious, subjective identity, attempts to become what it is not on par with the status of the essence of humanity, the objective Self. Jung explains that the “ego stands to the Self as the moved to the mover…The Self…is an *a priori* existent out of which the ego evolves.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) One might call the Self the true self, the true unconscious Self. Although the ego is part of the conscious Self, it informs the individual’s *persona*. The *persona* is informed by cultural expectations and societal norms and manifests itself through the ego, which presents to the world the person the individual wants to project to others. The ego uses the *persona* to represent the overblown, inflated sense of the individual. Stories pertaining to the ego’s self-inflation began long before Qohelet. In the Garden, Peter Rollins asserts that God did not prohibit Adam and Eve from eating fruit that would satisfy them, but instead, Adam and Eve “were faced with a prohibition that made them think that the fruit would satisfy them.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) In other words, the ego attempted to inflate itself by finding the object that would rid itself from dissatisfaction. Rollins calls the object a “sacred object,” which is the “thing” that the ego is convinced will remove its lack.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Unfortunately, the sacred object is an illusion. The moment the ego obtains the sacred object, the ego recognizes its nonexistence, its inability to satisfy. Accordingly, Edinger explains that the inflated state ultimately leads to a fall that results in alienation, which occurs when the ego detaches from the Self, and the individual feels unworthy and unacceptable.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) In sum, when the ego recognizes the sacred object does not solve its lack, the result is disillusionment and despair. The ego’s next step is often to reach for another sacred object, which then leads to further alienation as discussed below. It is here that the conscious ego’s relevance to the book of Ecclesiastes begins to emerge. The words of Qohelet, the Preacher, begin the book of Ecclesiastes by immediately listing several sacred objects. The first sacred object identified by Qohelet is labor or toil (Eccl 1:3). According to Bartholomew, the context of Ecclesiastes clearly conveys that Qohelet attempts to find meaning from work, but he cannot (Eccl 2:18-23, 3:9-13, 4:4).[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Based on the accomplishments of the Preacher, which included building houses, vineyards, gardens, parks, and pools, as well as obtaining slaves, herds, silver, gold, singers, and concubines, it appears the Preacher’s conscious ego pursued numerous sacred objects in an effort to find meaning (Eccl 2:1-8). Unfortunately, all Qohelet’s efforts failed to satisfy; his toil was הֶ֫בֶל. The meaning of the Hebrew word, הֶ֫בֶל, is heavily debated among scholars. Several scholars suggest a multivalent meaning. Choon-Loong Seow proposes ephemeral, incomprehensible, or of little consequence.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) However, the multivalent view faces logical challenges. Michael Fox states that if “X is transitory; Y is futile; and Z is trivial,” then the assertion that all is הֶ֫בֶל in Ecclesiastes 1:14 becomes meaningless.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Bartholomew provides an omnivalent definition and asserts that הֶ֫בֶל means enigmatic.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Unfortunately, the ambiguity of Bartholomew’s definition leaves the interpreter puzzled. Eric Ortlund explains that outside of Ecclesiastes the term means empty, breath, or idols.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) The semantic range and depth of the extrabiblical meanings have one thing in common: lack. The word “empty” suggests that all the sacred objects identified by Qohelet lack meaning, the word “breath” suggests that the sacred object is elusive because its potential immediately disappears the moment the individual grasps the object, and the word “idol” properly defines the nature of the sacred object, which is a thing other than God that the individual believes will provide wholeness and satisfaction. Importantly, the omnivalent approach does not suggest a lack in degree, but instead, a lack in kind. The lack referred to by the Preacher is not a lack that needs a little more success or toil or sex to find wholeness, but, as will be shown, the lack points to the need for a new kind of life, a new kind of being, a completely new kind of reality. In sum, everything under the sun that Qohelet utilizes to feed the inflated ego to find satisfaction, personal meaning, worth, and value lacks the ability to satisfy: It is all הֶ֫בֶל. Importantly, the items described as הֶ֫בֶל are not necessarily negative in Ecclesiastes. As mentioned above, Qohelet exhibited hard work and apparently obtained material rewards in response to his toil, which is often commended in biblical wisdom literature (see Prov 14:23). Other examples of positive sacred objects include the natural world, such as the sun, wind, and streams (Eccl 1:5-11), wisdom and knowledge (Eccl 1:12-18), and even God-given wealth, possessions, and honor (Eccl 6:1-3). Regardless of whether the sacred objects pursued to fulfill the ego’s inflationary needs have a negative connotation, such as concubines and self-indulgence, or a positive connotation, such as wisdom and knowledge, each one lacks the ability to provide meaning and significance. Ultimately, Qohelet’s pursuit of sacred objects resulted in a misalignment of the ego from the Self also known as a dis-integration of being, which leads to what Jungian psychology refers to as ego alienation. ## **Alienated Ego in Ecclesiastes** The disillusionment experienced by Qohelet upon realizing the significant limitations of sacred objects to inflate the ego allows for the Preacher to enter the next, quite painful, stage of soul formation: alienation. Once the ego perceives it has exhausted the idea that any of the sacred objects provide the solution, only one option remains. The only way out of הֶ֫בֶל is for the inflated, idolatrous ego to be decentered from the Self through alienation. Although Kierkegaard predates Jung, he sums up the painful, but necessary process that Jung points to as follows: “Man’s life is wasted who lived on, so deceived by the joys of life or by its sorrows that he never became eternally and decisively conscious of himself as spirit…before this God, which gain of infinity is never attained except through despair.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Moving from the inflated ego to the alienated ego is a painful process precisely because the ego desires to clinch onto its inflated state, holding on to the illusion of control, which explains why the ego, at times, may move from one sacred object to another for an entire lifetime. Kierkegaard recognizes the wasted lives of those who stick with a life driven by the ego and avoid the necessity of despair, alienation, and death of the ego. Movement from an inflated ego to an alienated ego is a prerequisite for soul formation that provides a foundation for moving toward a healthy ego-Self relationship. Accordingly, a brief analysis of ego alienation within the book of Ecclesiastes is necessary. Examples of movement from inflated ego to alienated ego, which is a process required of all individuals experiencing soul formation, abound in the words of the Preacher. The disillusionment and despair drip from the words of Qohelet. Scholars, at times, assume the language of alienation is nefarious, but, as Kierkegaard notes, despair and disillusionment is an absolutely necessary step in the process of the ego’s demise. Qohelet thought that education would work (Eccl 1:18), or pleasure would work (Eccl 2:1-3), or affairs (Eccl 2:8), or prosperity (Eccl 2:9-10) or hard work (Eccl 2:11), or accomplishments (Eccl 2:18-19), or wisdom (Eccl 2:26), or money (Eccl 5:8-17). Nothing worked. Nothing solved the problem. At the end of each day, the ego felt empty, completely unworthy, unable to accept himself…alienated. Accordingly, an exasperated Qohelet declares that one might as well just eat, drink, and enjoy life (Eccl 2:24-25). As Peter Enns explains, Qohelet’s *carpe diem* passages are far from promoting hedonism, and instead, they suggest a deep resignation as the Preacher ends the passage admitting that this too is also הֶ֫בֶל (Eccl 2:26).[\[18\]](#_ftn18) In other words, food, drink, and enjoyment do come from the “hand of God” (Eccl 2:25), but the point is not that God encourages nothing more than eating, drinking, and being merry. Instead, the point is that God is in control of all aspects of הֶ֫בֶל. It appears that Qohelet recognizes that God desires for him to experience disillusionment, which causes even more consternation. However, the disillusionment, alienation, and despair are exactly what is necessary for the ego to become disoriented or repositioned in relation to the Self. Although disorientation or detachment from the Self ultimately leads to soul formation, the process encompasses a more comprehensive disengagement. Morton Kaplan broadens the concept of detachment by explaining that alienation occurs as the individual recognizes that his status, lifestyle, relationships, work, and all other identifications are no longer correlated in any meaningful way.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) In other words, it is not just recognizing that these sacred objects do not satisfy; it is recognizing that these sacred objects have attached to the personhood of the individual. Freedom can only occur through extraction. Unfortunately, painful metaphors may be the only explanation: It is like ripping off a band-aid or pulling a leach from the skin. The sacred objects have, in some way, “become” the person thus forging an ontological reality. Accordingly, Karl Haden concludes that the alienation faced by Qohelet is timeless and universal and requires a comprehensive “detachment from the universe at large, from society, and from one’s own self.”[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Although many of Qohelet’s attachments have already been discussed, two more require attention. First, the attachment to control, and second, the attachment to life itself, which are two highly correlated topics. Ecclesiastes 9:12 spotlights Qohelet’s alienation when his exasperation leads him to compare humanity with birds caught in a snare because man does not have control over anything including the method and time of his death. The detachment of the ego from the Self ultimately includes a detachment from control and detachment from life itself, which, paradoxically, will eventually point to relief, freedom, life, and the lack of lack. However, at this stage in Qohelet’s soul formation, only extreme disillusionment and despair are powerful enough to loosen the grip of the conscious, alienated ego from these two forces of identity. Various modern solutions have been proposed to rid individuals from the alienated state. Haden provides a list of these potential solutions: (1) individual effort in the form of willpower, (2) Marxist economic determinisms, (3) various forms of social transformation, and (4) psychoanalytic treatment, to name a few.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Although psychoanalytic treatment does assist in explaining the process of ego inflation and alienation within the book of Ecclesiastes, on its own, it ultimately has little to offer as a remedy. Accordingly, Qohelet would render all these solutions הֶ֫בֶל. Finally, before moving forward, a further analysis of the Self is necessary to understand the importance of the process of detachment of the inflated and alienated ego from the Self. ## **Self in Ecclesiastes** In light of Qohelet’s crisis of meaning, the only path forward is the defeat of the alienated ego, which entails a realignment of the conscious ego with the unconscious Self. As Jung explains, “The Self, in its efforts at self-realization, reaches out beyond the ego-personality on all sides…and confronts it with problems which it would like to avoid…for this reason the experience of the Self is always a defeat for the ego.”[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Accordingly, a further exploration of the Self in Jungian psychology is necessary to open the pathways of growth for the Preacher. As mentioned above, the ego is part of the human conscious, and, in Jungian psychology, the human psyche consists of two parts: the conscious ego and unconscious Self. Helen Efthimiadis-Keith explains that, for Jung, the unconscious Self consists of both the personal unconscious, formed experientially, and the collective unconscious, formed by timeless archetypes.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Finally, and importantly, within the unconscious Self is the individual’s shadow, which houses the reprehensible qualities that are repressed and denied.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Repression occurs when the ego pushes down the ugliness, and projection occurs when individuals blame others for the ugliness inherent within. In sum, the unconscious Self is at the core of human psyche and the key to Qohelet’s connection to God. The unconscious Self is the location of all divine activity. Edinger goes so far as to assert that “the Self is most simply described as the inner empirical deity and is identical with the *imago Dei*.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Divine image bearing separates humanity from animals, but it is not related to human abilities. Instead, according to Michael Heiser, the image of God is a status, an ontological reality whereby God intends humans to *be* Him.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Edinger boldly states that “the aim of all religious practices is to keep the individual (ego) related to the deity (Self).”[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Edinger’s deification is not a form of pantheism, theosis, or idolatry. Instead, as Bartholomew explains, it is the realization that the Self is dependent upon God, and thus soul formation is primarily about an encounter with the true Self.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) In other words, as Edinger observes, after an intense alienation of the ego, the Self breaks into the conscious and the ego becomes experientially aware of the need to subordinate itself to the Self.”[\[29\]](#_ftn29) When the conscious recognizes that the Self is the being of reality, the defeat of the ego allows the conscious to face the shadow. As Nietzsche states, “One becomes Two,” and, per Jung, “the greater figure \[Self\], which one always was but which remained invisible, appears to the lesser personality \[ego\] with the force of a revelation.”[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Without question, the process of ego subordination is evident within the words of the Preacher in the book of Ecclesiastes. Unlike Job, the events that may have precursored Qohelet’s existential crisis are not unequivocally known. However, it is apparent that Qohelet has entered what Jungian psychologists might call a mid-life crisis. In Jung’s words, “We cannot live the afternoon of life according to the programme of life’s morning; for…what in the morning was true will at evening have become a lie.”[\[31\]](#_ftn31) The second chapter of Ecclesiastes encompasses both timeframes of life. Qohelet appears to have first looked back and boasted that he had accomplished great works, built beautiful houses, and planted luscious vineyards (Eccl 2:4), while he simultaneously looked forward to the second half of life, considered what he had done, and realized that it was all הֶ֫בֶל (Eccl 2:11). The crisis is not only evidence of alienation, but an opportunity for the ego to realign with the unconscious Self. Bartholomew suggests that the source of the conflict within Qohelet may be evident in Ecclesiastes 5:3 and 5:7.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) These verses refer to Qohelet’s recurring dreams regarding business affairs that imply that the events leading to the crisis may have come from the effect of certain business transactions or possibly workaholism. Qohelet’s reference to dreams is an important piece of Jungian psychology. Bobroff explains that, for Jung, listening to dreams is a method for accessing the unconscious Self.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Accordingly, Ecclesiastes 5 provides clear evidence that Qohelet’s unconscious Self is being tapped. John Welch explains that in Jungian psychology disturbing dreams are the unconscious demanding to be heard because “there is more to our meaning than the ego would have us believe.”[\[34\]](#_ftn34) The obvious encounter with the unconscious Self within the words of Qohelet reveals the clash between the Preacher’s epistemology and his quest for an inner, but yet apparently still unknown, reality. Enns asserts that Qohelet is a no-nonsense “evidentialist,” not in the modern sense, but in the sense that knowledge obtains results from experience.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) In other words, Qohelet’s knowledge arises not from revelation, but from his experience “under the sun” (Eccl 1:3). It is not that Qohelet has experienced everything, but, as Enns continues, there are no new event categories.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) This is like that…once one recognizes that “this” does not satisfy, then it becomes obvious that “that” does not satisfy even if “that” has not been directly experienced. Accordingly, as Bartholomew points out, Qohelet is initially limited to only what the ego knows through experience, and the Preacher’s pain is part of a journey toward a “growing awareness of the Self of which ego is only a part.”[\[37\]](#_ftn37) In short, the crisis of meaning occurs precisely because all things meaningful are now suspect of meaning. At this point, in light of Jungian psychoanalytic theory, Qohelet currently faces two choices: (1) he can repress the experiences and the pain, or (2) he can surrender and enter into the frightening realm of life where control takes a backseat to uncertainty.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) Because Qohelet is willing to face the pain and disillusionment, he opens the possibility of not only a detachment of the ego from the Self, but also a realignment of the ego with the Self through a process that Jung calls individuation. ## **Individuation in Ecclesiastes** In Christian vernacular, individuation is most closely aligned with the concept of sanctification. Bradford Mullen explains that sanctification is a state of functioning properly or even flawlessly, which ultimately means to be like God, which can only occur as the individual lives according to his or her new identity in Christ (Rom 4:12-21).[\[39\]](#_ftn39) With similar overtones, Darrell Smith explains that individuation is a Jungian concept whereby the individual becomes an “indivisible unity or whole.”[\[40\]](#_ftn40) Importantly, individuation is a life-long process where, as Efthimiadis-Keith states, “each human being is driven to become the indivisible whole that she or he potentially is.”[\[41\]](#_ftn41) More specifically, it is the process in Jungian psychology of the conscious subordinating itself to the unconscious, which in turn supplies the conscious with content that expands human consciousness.[\[42\]](#_ftn42) In a Hegelian dialectic, the conscious ego aligns with the thesis, the unconscious Self aligns with the antithesis, and the new Self that results from the ego realigning to the Self is the synthesis.[\[43\]](#_ftn43) According to Jung, the individuation process occurs in five stages. Efthimiadis-Keith succinctly summarizes the stages: (1) complete identification with society, (2) separation from the other, (3) differentiation of moral properties, (4) realization of social reality and individual consciousness, and (5) individual identity or self-realization.[\[44\]](#_ftn44) The first stage occurs when the individual is not aware of his identity apart from society. Qohelet’s reflections upon the material success of his earlier years (Eccl 2:4-8) in light of his later disillusionment highlights his assumption that societal norms should have satisfied and proves that the Preacher’s original identification of personhood was attached to society. The painful process of separation from sacred objects in stage two is also seen in Qohelet’s exasperated responses. For example, the Preacher metaphorically throws up his hands and states that there must be “nothing better for a person than he should eat and drink and find enjoyment” (Eccl 2:24). Next, according to Terence Dawson, stage three consists of “testing the collective morality of society.”[\[45\]](#_ftn45) Although controversy surrounds Ecclesiastes 7:15-16, it appears possible that Qohelet is testing his own moral code when equating the righteous with the wicked and then exhorting his readers: “Be not overly righteous, and do not make yourself too wise. Why should you destroy yourself?” Stage four is the moment when the collective norms lose their power. Qohelet’s stage four experience occurs when he faces ego alienation, as discussed above. The final stage of individuation occurs when the conscious has the ability to question the ego, face the shadow, and ultimately reintegrate into society. It is this topic of individual identity and self-realization that now needs developed. In order for the realization of individual identity to occur at stage five of individuation, a breakthrough, turning point, or revelation must occur. Bartholomew believes that the turning point for Qohelet starts at Ecclesiastes 11 and continues through chapter 12.[\[46\]](#_ftn46) Qohelet seems to acknowledge or at least hint at the possibility of a new reality when stating, “Light is sweet, and it is pleasant for the eyes to see the sun” (Eccl 11:7). Welch explains that by moving away from the ego, the contrary pole of the Self “represents new life and would allow more of the Self to come to *light*.”[\[47\]](#_ftn47) Bartholomew suggests that the shift in Qohelet is the ego reaching for realignment with the Self on its way to health.[\[48\]](#_ftn48) Jungian psychology, according to Welch, would see the process occurring in two steps: (1) the conscious hearing the unconscious and then (2) the conscious relating the content from the unconscious back to the conscious.[\[49\]](#_ftn49) Accordingly, in Ecclesiastes 11:7-12:7 the reader witnesses Qohelet’s gradual unpacking of the unconscious Self being revealed to the conscious. The importance of Ecclesiastes 12:1 must not be underestimated when the Preacher states, “Remember also your Creator.” Although the verses following the exhortation to “remember” address the stark reality of physical death, Bartholomew argues that with these words Qohelet has had a “profound realization that the ego is not God.”[\[50\]](#_ftn50) The verses that follow (Eccl 12:2-8), which acknowledge the inability to control death, speak to and support Qohelet’s new realization. Qohelet’s epistemology has its limitations, and he now recognizes those limits. Ultimately, Qohelet’s experience of realignment not only occurs because the ego aligns with the Self, but also occurs because of the divine nature of the Self. God desires an ontological transformation at the deepest level of being, a transformation that Qohelet has already recognized but his ego wants to avoid. The potential ontological shift is addressed in one of the most pivotal verses in Ecclesiastes. Ecclesiastes 3:11 is considered one of the most difficult verses for interpreters: “He has made everything beautiful in its time. Also, he has put eternity (עוֹלָם) into man’s heart, yet so that he cannot find out what God has done from the beginning to the end.” The challenging verse may be a key to unlocking the door to Qohelet’s enigmatic search for meaning. Francis Brown, Samuel Driver, and Charles Briggs (BDB) identify two primary definitions of עוֹלָם: (1) of past time such as an ancient time and (2) of future time such as a continuous existence.[\[51\]](#_ftn51) Tremper Longman identifies four competing scholarly positions: “(1) eternity, (2) world, (3) course of the world, and (4) knowledge or ignorance.”[\[52\]](#_ftn52) Within the immediate context of Ecclesiastes, scholarly consensus focuses on the first, eternity, and the fourth, knowledge and ignorance.[\[53\]](#_ftn53) In light of the contextual clues in Ecclesiastes 3:14 where Qohelet admits that God’s work lasts forever, or for eternity (עוֹלָם), it seems most reasonable to conclude that the meaning of עוֹלָם points in the direction of a continuous existence of some sort. However, exactly how the עוֹלָם can inhabit the heart remains unanswered. James Williams asserts that עוֹלָם is whatever lies “at the core of existence” that makes man distinctive and moves man towards God.[\[54\]](#_ftn54) Accordingly, Longman suggests that placing עוֹלָם into the heart of man may be analogous to the inhabitation of the *imago Dei*.[\[55\]](#_ftn55) Finally, in the same vein, BDB returns the possibility that עוֹלָם means “of divine existence” (cf. Gen 21:33; Isa 40:28; Deut 32:40; Dan 12:7).[\[56\]](#_ftn56) However, the challenge the interpreter faces is the positive nature of the definition. Although in the first half of the verse Qohelet appears to suggest that עוֹלָם in the heart of man might be part of God’s beautiful creation, in the second half of the verse the Preacher is once again disillusioned and frustrated. Haden agrees with Williams by suggesting that עוֹלָם is the source of “man’s deepest yearning for meaning.”[\[57\]](#_ftn57) However, the splash of eternal divinity within the individual that yearns for meaning, according to Qohelet, cannot be truly grasped by human creatures: “He cannot find out what God has done from the beginning to the end” (Eccl 3:11b). Longman explains the meaning of the verse by asserting that, according to the Preacher, God is toying with His creation by instilling a desire for something that is beyond the reach of humanity, which exasperates Qohelet.[\[58\]](#_ftn58) Paradoxically, Longman is exactly right. Qohelet’s frustration comes from not being able to control עוֹלָם. The ego cannot control God on its own terms. God cannot be controlled any more than any of the other sacred objects the ego worships. Any apparent control of sacred objects is illusory. Qohelet is now face to face with the reality that his problem is placed deep within (עוֹלָם), which causes a yearning for significance that has only one solution – divine existence (עוֹלָם). In other words, the divine existence placed within Qohelet is both the problem and the solution. Williamson goes so far as to assert that עוֹלָם is the opposite of הֶ֫בֶל, “the mystery of the whole…the deepest source of human striving….And perhaps God does not want man to attain (control) this עוֹלָם.[\[59\]](#_ftn59) The solution is not a human solution that can be figured out, controlled, or even grasped by human knowledge, which frustrates Qohelet’s ego. It is only when Qohelet’s ego decides to subordinate itself to the divine existence (עוֹלָם) within the Self that healthy ego alignment with the Self occurs – the process of Jungian individuation and Christian sanctification. At this point, the connection between the book of Ecclesiastes and the gospel of Christ begins to unfold. ## **Apocalypticism in Ecclesiastes** Throughout Ecclesiastes’ history of interpretation, many prominent scholars have suggested that Qohelet’s message is the antithesis to the gospel. Referencing Ecclesiastes, Francis Watson states, “Nowhere else in holy scripture is there so forthrightly set out an alternative vision to that of the gospel, a rival version of the truth.”[\[60\]](#_ftn60) Furthermore, J. A. Loader argues that Ecclesiastes actually provides a negative witness to the gospel message.[\[61\]](#_ftn61) To make such assertions misses the point of Ecclesiastes. Qohelet’s journey is a search for becoming human where the ego and Self are aligned, where the unconscious becomes conscious, and where thoughts, emotions, and actions arise from the unconscious Self. Accordingly, Hendrick Rookmaaker asserts that Christ died “in order that we might be living human beings.”[\[62\]](#_ftn62) Christ’s death was more than the forgiveness of sins extended to humanity as a precursor to entering heaven; it was about making a new humanity (Romans 6:1-14) where freedom, love, and meaning are possible.[\[63\]](#_ftn63) The transformation moves well beyond the ego, well beyond conscious beliefs, willpower, thoughts, emotions, or experiences and occurs deep within humanity, within the Self. As Bartholomew states, “God is concerned to transform us at our deepest level of *being*, and He does that through the painful journey of loosening our attachments on what makes our life meaningful so that we can find true meaning *in Him*.”[\[64\]](#_ftn64) The process of unionization is crucial for understanding how Ecclesiastes not only points to, but also synthesizes the gospel. One way of understanding the connection between the divine existence (עוֹלָם) in Ecclesiastes 3:11 and the gospel of Christ is through the apostle Paul’s cosmic-apocalypticism. The direction of the relationship is critical. In one sense, the only way to understand Ecclesiastes is by looking forward. Without question, Qohelet deeply identified humanity’s colossal problem, which is man’s search for meaning, and the Preacher points to the need for a solution. However, in another sense, the only way to understand Ecclesiastes is by looking backward. As Douglas Campbell explains, telling the story of Jesus solely in light of the problem dictates who Jesus is prior to His arrival, a concept known as theological foundationalism.[\[65\]](#_ftn65) In other words, only in the rear-view mirror can humanity attempt to understand the message of the gospel. In sum, both the message of Ecclesiastes and the message of the gospel inform each other. Both directions, forward and backward, are required to facilitate a proper interpretation. Numerous prominent scholars support the school of an apocalyptic perspective of Paul. For this very brief engagement with Ecclesiastes, Karl Barth and J. Louis Martyn, under the influence of Barth, will be the primary interlocutors. Martyn’s apocalyptic eschatology and Barth’s forensic apocalyptic theology both inform the discussion.[\[66\]](#_ftn66) Starting with definitions, J. Louis Martyn explains that the focus of Pauline apocalyptic eschatology centers on “God’s liberating invasion of the cosmos” enacted in Christ as the old creation is crucified (Gal 2:20) and the new creation breaks into reality via the Holy Spirit.[\[67\]](#_ftn67) Immediately, the connections to Qohelet and Jung begin to emerge. The old creation points to an inflated and alienated ego-driven life, a life disjoined from the Self, that ultimately leads to the exasperation and frustration experienced by Qohelet. Paul explains that Qohelet’s frustration was divinely determined and necessary for individuation (sanctification) when stating, “For the creation was subjected to futility, not willingly, but because of Him who subjected it, in hope that the creation itself will be set free from bondage” (Rom 8:20-21). Qohelet also recognizes the necessity of a new creation that must break into reality, a divine presence or eternity (עוֹלָם) (Eccl 3:11) that must be placed into the heart of man even though the process is both humanly incomprehensible and completely outside of his control. Accordingly, Martyn asserts that the invasion causes an “epistemological crisis” because it upends the ego and worldview of the individual.[\[68\]](#_ftn68) Without question, Qohelet’s evidentialist epistemology is being deconstructed. Importantly, Martyn adds that the new cosmic reality creates an apocalyptic confrontation where the anti-God (evil) powers highlight the real problem that needs solved and causes the individual to see with bifocals “both the evil age and the new creation simultaneously.”[\[69\]](#_ftn69) In Jungian parlance, when the apocalyptic event occurs not only does the Holy Spirit infuse into the divine container of the Self, but the individual is able to simultaneously see and face the unconscious shadow within the Self. In sum, Qohelet’s endless frustration developed from an intentional subjection to futility of the inflated and alienated ego (the old creation) and from the recognition that an apocalyptic confrontation with the Self would be the only solution, a confrontation that Qohelet could not control. It is difficult to engage any modern discussion of the gospel without also addressing the doctrine of justification in light of the Reformation. For Calvin, humanity’s sin was transferred to Christ and Christ’s righteousness was transferred to humanity via Christ’s sinless obedience. Specifically, God declared humanity righteous by grace through faith (Eph 2:8-9). The innocent declaration or righteous status of the believer was viewed from a legal perspective by the Reformers, a forensic righteousness. The challenge, according to Smythe, regarding the forensic nature of Calvin’s perspective is that he cannot completely refute the charge that his theology proposes a form of “legal fiction.”[\[70\]](#_ftn70) In other words, the answer to how exactly the sinner becomes innocent is missing. Granted, Calvin does assert a process of sanctification to solve the problem, but a cleaned-up sinner is still a sinner. Accordingly, Smythe contends that the advantage that Barth has over Calvin comes in the form of a dual mandate: Not only does Barth assert an alien righteousness granted as a gift to the believer (Rom 5:17), but he also requires the destruction of the sinner to effectuate the sinner’s innocence (Gal 2:20).[\[71\]](#_ftn71) For Barth, the apocalyptic breakthrough of the new creation is not restorative; it is “*creatio* *ex nihilo*.[\[72\]](#_ftn72) Once again, the connections between the gospel, Ecclesiastes and Jungian psychology are unmistakable. In Jungian terms, the process of individuation cannot occur without the pain and suffering associated with the destruction of the sinner, the death of the ego. However, the o*nly* path to destruction is the cross, for even if an individual successfully destroys the ego without the regenerative work of God placing His divine substance within man’s heart (Eccl 3:11), then the only remaining force is the anti-God influence of the shadow within the unconscious Self to arise to power. Accordingly, Barth necessarily places a strong emphasis on both the eschatological and forensic aspects of justification, for justification “is a forward-looking sovereign declaration that makes us to be, in a moment’s time, that which we are not yet but will be.”[\[73\]](#_ftn73) The inaugurated eschatology in Barth’s theology points to an actualization of the apocalyptic Christ-event appropriated only through faith. For Barth, the justification accomplished in Christ is an *objective* reality, “we are really made to be righteous,” and the individual’s appropriation of the gift of righteousness is a *subjective* outworking of the Spirit’s placement within man’s heart.[\[74\]](#_ftn74) As mentioned above, for Jung, the unconscious Self is the *objective* identity, while the conscious ego is the *subjective* identity. Accordingly, as the conscious ego admits defeat through crucifixion, the objective divinity within the Self not only reveals its will to the conscious ego, but it also frees the ego to face his shadow, stop attempting to be what he is not, and instead be who he is. Not only did Qohelet recognize the necessity of a new creation that must break into reality (Eccl 3:11), but he also deeply understood the need for righteousness. However, like a[ young Martin Luther](https://www.livestransforming.com/martin-luthers-righteousness-of-god/), the whole idea of righteousness frustrated the Preacher. A passage that scholars continue to debate is Ecclesiastes 7:15-20 where Qohelet admits that the righteous are not always rewarded and the wicked are not always punished. The Preacher then controversially states, “Be not overly righteous, and do not make yourself too wise….Be not overly wicked, neither be a fool…for the one who fears God shall come out from both of them….Surely there is not a righteous man on earth who does good and never sins.” Eric Ortlund asserts that Qohelet provides a warning in these verses not only against wickedness, but against a righteousness that does not fear God.[\[75\]](#_ftn75) Qohelet deeply understands that a man-made righteousness is not the solution for two reasons. First, as Ortlund explains, a type of man-made, self-focused righteousness that believes it can control God for personal blessing is actually the opposite of righteousness, and it leads to הֶ֫בֶל.[\[76\]](#_ftn76) Second, as Qohelet notes, even if a perfect righteousness would be efficacious, it is impossible because no man on earth has a track record of not sinning (Eccl 7:20). However, the question that Qohelet leaves unanswered is profoundly important: What if there was a perfectly righteous man? In other words, is it possible that a perfect righteousness may be the key to solving Qohelet’s ultimate problem of lack (הֶ֫בֶל)? Ortlund observes the connection by noting that a righteousness that fears God, a righteousness with no ulterior motives, and a righteousness that demands nothing from others certainly sounds very much like the righteousness of Christ that solves the problem of lack (הֶ֫בֶל) in the gospel message of the New Testament.[\[77\]](#_ftn77) The question that remains is exactly how living with an ego crucified on the cross and realigned with a newly created Self, which is inhabited by both the forces of עוֹלָם and righteousness that undermine הֶ֫בֶל, might impact daily life. Williams suggests that it would mean that a man could toil but forever have new opportunity; it would mean man could enjoy success without fearing futility; it would mean greed would no longer be necessary because no lack would exist.[\[78\]](#_ftn78) For Jung, it would mean individuation; for Paul, it would mean sanctification; and for Qohelet, it would mean freedom from הֶ֫בֶל. ## **Conclusion** Far from being the antithesis of the gospel of Christ, the book of Ecclesiastes expertly synthesizes the experiential reality that every human must face to encounter Christ. The experience of an inflated ego driven by sacred objects, the experience of an alienated ego when the realization occurs that all is הֶ֫בֶל, the experience of knowing that deep within exists an unconscious Self where divinity needs awakened, and an experience of individuation that attempts to manifest through human effort but recognizes the impossibility are all part of man’s appropriation of the gospel of Jesus Christ to which the Preacher points. Qohelet knew he had a desperate need for עוֹלָם and righteousness. He desperately needed something to solve the lack (הֶ֫בֶל). The solution was on the tip of the Preacher’s tongue, but more poignantly, proleptically deep within. Paradoxically, Qohelet’s problem did not point to a solution, but instead, the solution of Christ on the cross points to his problem. Qohelet’s problem could not be seen because his problem was that he was alive and needed to die, a problem only visible after the solution is found. Fortunately, for Qohelet, Yahweh, a name avoided by the Preacher, did not just effectuate his death on the cross with Christ, but Yahweh also broke into the world and created a new cosmic reality, a new self that unites humanity with God and ironically vaporizes הֶ֫בֶל via the indwelling Breath (πνεῦμα, רוּחַ). Without question, a proper theological-psychological reading of Ecclesiastes not only points to the gospel, but also is paramount in understanding and appropriating the gospel of Jesus Christ. Finally, opportunities for further research abound. First, interdisciplinary studies continue to be a wide-open field within the area of theological studies. Second, much more work is needed around the concept of the potential ontological realities of apocalyptic eschatology. Third, the exact nature of the Holy Spirit’s role within the conversation also remains fertile soil for exploration. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Robin Scroggs, “Psychology as a Tool to Interpret the Text: Emerging Trends in Biblical Thought,” *The Christian Century* 99, no. 10 (March 24, 1982): 336. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Zacharias Kotzé, “Jung, Individuation, and Moral Relativity in Qohelet 7:16-17,” *Journal of Religion and Health* 53, no. 2 (April 2014): 514. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Craig G. Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes*, ed. Tremper Longman III, *Baker Commentary on the Old Testament Wisdom and Psalms* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2014), 377. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) The term “Self” is capitalized in Jungian psychology as standard practice. However, the capitalization does not infer that God is identical with the Self, which Jung acknowledges is heretical. See C. G. Jung, “Dogma and Natural Symbols,” in *Psychology and Religion* (New Haven: Yale University, 1938), 78–79. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Edward F. Edinger, *Ego and Archetype* (Boston: Shambhala, 1992), 7. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) C. G. Jung, “The Psychology of the Mass,” in *Collected Works of C. G. Jung: Psychology and Religion: West and East*, ed. R. F. C. Hull and Gerhard Adler, vol. 11 (Princeton: Princeton University, 1958), 259. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Peter Rollins, *The Divine Magician: The Disappearance of Religion and the Discovery of Faith* (New York: Howard, 2015), 15. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 21. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Edinger, *Ego and Archetype*, 40, 62. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes*, 145. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) *Choon-Leong Seow, Ecclesiastes, vol. 18C, The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries* (New York: Doubleday, 1997), 102. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Michael V. Fox, *A Time to Tear Down and a Time to Build Up: A Rereading of Ecclesiastes* (Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2010), 36. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes*, 106. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Eric Ortlund, “The Gospel in the Book of Ecclesiastes,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 56, no. 4 (December 2013): 700. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Søren Kierkegaard, *The Sickness unto Death: A Christian Psychological Exposition of Edification & Awakening by Anti-Climacus*, trans. Alastair Hannay (New York: Penguin Classics, 1989), 26–27. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Peter Enns, *Ecclesiastes*, *The Two Horizons Old Testament Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011), 49–50. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Morton A. Kaplan, *Alienation and Identification* (New York: Free Press, 1976), 119. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) N Karl Haden, “Qoheleth and the Problem of Alienation,” *Christian Scholar’s Review* 17, no. 1 (September 1987): 54–55. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Ibid., 54-55. Haden also notes that certain existentialists assert that alienation is not only unavoidable but permanent. Furthermore, certain structuralists and post-structuralists, such as Peter Rollins, suggest a dialectic that avoids solving the problem of alienation, and instead, advocate embracing the alienation as the only solution to an unsolvable quandary. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) C. G. Jung, “The Conjunction,” in *Collected Works of C. G. Jung: Mysterium Coniunctionis*, ed. R. F. C. Hull and Gerhard Adler, vol. 14 (Princeton: Princeton University, 1963), 545–546. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Helen Efthimiadis-Keith, “Genesis 2:18-25 from a Jungian and Feminist-Deconstructionist Point of View,” *Old Testament Essays* 23, no. 1 (2010): 48. Although timeless archetypes are allusive, one might consider the metaphor of a mother goose mourning the loss of a gosling as a representation of a deeply embedded cognitive, rather than physical, instinct. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Ibid., 511. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Edinger, *Ego and Archetype*, 3. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Michael S. Heiser, *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible* (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2015), 43. Italics mine. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Edinger, *Ego and Archetype*, 63–64. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes*, 379. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Edinger, *Ego and Archetype*, 69. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) C. G. Jung, “Concerning Rebirth,” in *Collected Works of C. G. Jung: Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious*, ed. R. F. C. Hull and Gerhard Adler, vol. 9 (Princeton: Princeton University, 1959), 121. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) C. G. Jung, “The Stages of Life,” in *Collected Works of C. G. Jung: Structure & Dynamics of the Psyche*, ed. R. F. C. Hull and Gerhard Adler, vol. 8 (Princeton: Princeton University, 1960), 399. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes*, 379. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Bobroff, *Knowledge in a Nutshell*, 72. Although dream interpretation is not the solution to Qohelet’s search, Bobroff notes that from the Jacob of the Bible to the *Epic of Gilgamesh* a respect for dream interpretation has an ancient and respected history. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) John Welch, *Spiritual Pilgrims: Carl Jung and Teresa of Avila* (New York: Paulist, 1982), 81. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Enns, *Ecclesiastes*, 118. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Ibid. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes*, 380. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) See C. G. Jung, *Memories, Dreams, Reflections*, Revised. (New York: Vintage, 1989), 170–199. In the chapter entitled “Confrontation with the Unconscious,” Jung explores his unconscious pain, emotional breakdown, and eventual madness that occurs as he addresses similar fears to that of Qohelet. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) Bradford A. Mullen, “Sanctification,” *Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology*, Baker Reference Library (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1996), 708–712. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Darrell Smith, “Individuation,” *Baker Encyclopedia of Psychology & Counseling*, Baker Reference Library (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1999), 619. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) Efthimiadis-Keith, “Genesis 2,” 49. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) C. G. Jung, “The Function of the Unconscious,” in *Collected Works of C. G. Jung: Two Essays in Analytical Psychology*, ed. R. F. C. Hull and Gerhard Adler, vol. 7 (Princeton: Princeton University, 1953), 184. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Smith, “Individuation,” 619. Importantly, the synthesis in a Hegelian dialectic is not reconciliation, but movement that occurs where the tension of contradiction remains. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Efthimiadis-Keith, “Genesis 2,” 50–51. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Terence Dawson, “Jung, Literature, and Literary Criticism,” in *The Cambridge Companion to Jung*, ed. Polly Young-Eisendrath and Terence Dawson (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1997), 267. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes*, 381. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) Welch, *Spiritual Pilgrims*, 151. Italics mine. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48) Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes*, 381. [\[49\]](#_ftnref49) Welch, *Spiritual Pilgrims*, 154. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50) Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes*, 381. [\[51\]](#_ftnref51) Francis Brown, Samuel Rolles Driver, and Charles Augustus Briggs, “עוֹלָם,” *The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon* (Oxford: Clarendon, 1977), 761–763. [\[52\]](#_ftnref52) *Tremper Longman III, The Book of Ecclesiastes, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 121. [\[53\]](#_ftnref53) Ibid. [\[54\]](#_ftnref54) James G. Williams, “What Does It Profit A Man?: The Wisdom of Koheleth,” *Judaism* 20, no. 2 (Spring 1971): 182. [\[55\]](#_ftnref55) Longman III, *The Book of Ecclesiastes*, 119. [\[56\]](#_ftnref56) Brown, Driver, and Briggs,”עוֹלָם,” 762. [\[57\]](#_ftnref57) Haden, “Qoheleth and the Problem of Alienation,” 61. [\[58\]](#_ftnref58) Longman III, *The Book of Ecclesiastes*, 119. [\[59\]](#_ftnref59) Robert Williamson, *The Forgotten Books of the Bible: Recovering the Five Scrolls for Today* (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2018), 182. [\[60\]](#_ftnref60) Francis Watson, *Text, Church, and World: Biblical Interpretation in Theological Perspective* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), 283–287. [\[61\]](#_ftnref61) Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes*, 39. [\[62\]](#_ftnref62) Hendrik Roelof Rookmaaker, *Our Calling and God’s Hand in History*, ed. Marleen Hengelaar-Rookmaaker (Carlisle, UK: Piquant, 2003), 171. [\[63\]](#_ftnref63) Ibid. [\[64\]](#_ftnref64) Ibid. Italics mine. [\[65\]](#_ftnref65) Douglas A. Campbell, “Romans and the Apocalyptic Reading of Paul,” in *Preaching Romans: Four Perspectives*, ed. Scot McKnight and Joseph B. Modica (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2019), 42. [\[66\]](#_ftnref66) See Shannon Nicole Smythe, *Forensic Apocalyptic Theology: Karl Barth and the Doctrine of Justification* (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2016), 6-9. Alongside Douglas Campbell, Nicole Smyth identifies the following scholars integral to an apocalyptic reading of Paul: Karl Barth, Ernst Käsemann, J. Christiaan Beker, J. Louis Martyn, Leander Keck, and Beverly Gaventa. [\[67\]](#_ftnref67) J. Louis Martyn, “The Apocalyptic Gospel in Galatians,” *Interpretation* 54, no. 3 (July 2000): 254–255. [\[68\]](#_ftnref68) J. Louis Martyn, *Galatians* (New Haven: Yale University, 2004), 104. [\[69\]](#_ftnref69) Ibid. [\[70\]](#_ftnref70) Smythe, *Forensic Apocalyptic Theology*, 146. [\[71\]](#_ftnref71) Ibid. [\[72\]](#_ftnref72) Karl Barth, *The Epistle to the Romans*, trans. Edwyn C. Hoskyns, 6th ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 101–102. Later, Ernst Käsemann also expands on the concept of *creatio ex nihilo* in the context of the doctrine of justification. See Ernst Käsemann, *Commentary on Romans* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), 35. [\[73\]](#_ftnref73) Smythe, *Forensic Apocalyptic Theology*, 148. [\[74\]](#_ftnref74) Ibid., 158. Emphasis mine. [\[75\]](#_ftnref75) Ortlund, “The Gospel in the Book of Ecclesiastes,” 705. [\[76\]](#_ftnref76) Ibid. [\[77\]](#_ftnref77) Ibid., 705–706. [\[78\]](#_ftnref78) Williams, “What Does It Profit A Man?,” 183. # Bibliography - Barth, Karl. *The Epistle to the Romans*. Translated by Edwyn C. Hoskyns. 6th ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1968. - Bartholomew, Craig G. *Ecclesiastes*. Edited by Tremper Longman III. *Baker Commentary on the Old Testament Wisdom and Psalms*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2014. - Bobroff, Gary. *Knowledge in a Nutshell: Carl Jung*. London: Arcturus, 2020. - Brown, Francis, Samuel Rolles Driver, and Charles Augustus Briggs. “עוֹלָם.” *The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon*. Oxford: Clarendon, 1977. - Campbell, Douglas A. “Romans and the Apocalyptic Reading of Paul.” In *Preaching Romans: Four Perspectives*, edited by Scot McKnight and Joseph B. Modica. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2019. - Dawson, Terence. “Jung, Literature, and Literary Criticism.” In *The Cambridge Companion to Jung*, edited by Polly Young-Eisendrath and Terence Dawson, 255–280. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1997. - Edinger, Edward F. *Ego and Archetype*. Boston: Shambhala, 1992. - Efthimiadis-Keith, Helen. “Genesis 2:18-25 from a Jungian and Feminist-Deconstructionist Point of View.” *Old Testament Essays* 23, no. 1 (2010): 44–65. - Enns, Peter. *Ecclesiastes*. *The Two Horizons Old Testament Commentary*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011. - Fox, Michael V. *A Time to Tear Down and a Time to Build Up: A Rereading of Ecclesiastes*. Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2010. - Haden, N Karl. “Qoheleth and the Problem of Alienation.” *Christian Scholar’s Review* 17, no. 1 (September 1987): 52–66. - Heiser, Michael S. *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2015. - Jung, C. G. “Concerning Rebirth.” In *Collected Works of C. G. Jung: Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious*, edited by R. F. C. Hull and Gerhard Adler, 9:112–147. Princeton: Princeton University, 1959. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Dogma and Natural Symbols.” In *Psychology and Religion*, 40–77. New Haven: Yale University, 1938. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. *Memories, Dreams, Reflections*. Revised. New York: Vintage, 1989. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “The Conjunction.” In *Collected Works of C. G. Jung: Mysterium Coniunctionis*, edited by R. F. C. Hull and Gerhard Adler, 14:457–553. Princeton: Princeton University, 1963. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “The Function of the Unconscious.” In *Collected Works of C. G. Jung: Two Essays in Analytical Psychology*, edited by R. F. C. Hull and Gerhard Adler, 7:173–187. Princeton: Princeton University, 1953. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “The Psychology of the Mass.” In *Collected Works of C. G. Jung: Psychology and Religion: West and East*, edited by R. F. C. Hull and Gerhard Adler, 11:247–296. Princeton: Princeton University, 1958. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “The Stages of Life.” In *Collected Works of C. G. Jung: Structure & Dynamics of the Psyche*, edited by R. F. C. Hull and Gerhard Adler, 8:387–403. Princeton: Princeton University, 1960. - Kaplan, Morton A. *Alienation and Identification*. New York: Free Press, 1976. - Kierkegaard, Søren. *The Sickness unto Death: A Christian Psychological Exposition of Edification & Awakening by Anti-Climacus*. Translated by Alastair Hannay. New York: Penguin Classics, 1989. - Kotzé, Zacharias. “Jung, Individuation, and Moral Relativity in Qohelet 7:16-17.” *Journal of Religion and Health* 53, no. 2 (April 2014): 511–519. - Longman III, Tremper. *The Book of Ecclesiastes*. *The New International Commentary on the Old Testament*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997. - Martyn, J. Louis. *Galatians*. New Haven: Yale University, 2004. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “The Apocalyptic Gospel in Galatians.” *Interpretation* 54, no. 3 (July 2000): 246–266. - Mullen, Bradford A. “Sanctification.” *Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology*. Baker Reference Library. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1996. - Ortlund, Eric. “The Gospel in the Book of Ecclesiastes.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 56, no. 4 (December 2013): 697–706. - Rollins, Peter. *The Divine Magician: The Disappeaarance of Religion and the Discovery of Faith*. New York: Howard, 2015. - Rookmaaker, Hendrik Roelof. *Our Calling and God’s Hand in History*. Edited by Marleen Hengelaar-Rookmaaker. Carlisle, UK: Piquant, 2003. - Scroggs, Robin. “Psychology as a Tool to Interpret the Text: Emerging Trends in Biblical Thought.” *The Christian Century* 99, no. 10 (March 24, 1982): 335–338. - Seow, Choon-Leong. *Ecclesiastes*. Vol. 18C. *The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries*. New York: Doubleday, 1997. - Smith, Darrell. “Individuation.” *Baker Encyclopedia of Psychology & Counseling*. Baker Reference Library. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1999. - Smythe, Shannon Nicole. *Forensic Apocalyptic Theology: Karl Barth and the Doctrine of Justification*. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2016. - Watson, Francis. *Text, Church, and World: Biblical Interpretation in Theological Perspective*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994. - Welch, John. *Spiritual Pilgrims: Carl Jung and Teresa of Avila*. New York: Paulist, 1982. - Williams, James G. “What Does It Profit A Man?: The Wisdom of Koheleth.” *Judaism* 20, no. 2 (Spring 1971): 179–193. - Williamson, Robert. *The Forgotten Books of the Bible: Recovering the Five Scrolls for Today*. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2018. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Law of Moses, Deuteronomy 4:35, 32:17, and Daniel 7](https://www.livestransforming.com/law-of-moses-deuteronomy-435-3217-and-daniel-7/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Law of Moses, Deuteronomy 4:35, 32:17, and Daniel 7 ## **Law of Moses** In Hebrew, two side-by-side nouns form a construct chain, which may express a possessive relationship between two nouns, where the first is the construct noun and the second is the genitive noun. However, a construct chain has a broad semantic range. Accordingly, the following explores a number of potential meanings for the construct chain “law of Moses.” Modern readers may be tempted to assume that the construct chain, “[law of Moses](https://www.livestransforming.com/law-of-moses/),” means that Moses wrote all the law. In fact, Bruce Waltke and M. O’Connor explain that within the subjective genitive category, a possible meaning is the “genitive of authorship,” which could mean, “Moses wrote the law.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) However, authorship does not necessarily mean “all” and the possibility does not necessarily mean definiteness – o**t**her options exist. Another option is the “possessive genitive” that may translate the construct chain as “Moses has or possesses the law.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Waltke and O’Connor provide a second adverbial genitive category, which includes both the possibility of the “genitive of a mediated object” and “the genitive of advantage.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The former may translate the construct chain “the law given to Moses,” and the latter may mean the “law for Moses.” Neither is conclusive in all contexts, but may be possibilities. Finally, Waltke and O’Connor offer a final category, the adjectival genitive, which includes the “topical genitive” and the “attributive genitive.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The former may translate the phrase as the “law about Moses,” and the latter suggests the meaning, “Mosaic Law,” which may designate the Torah. Regardless of modern assumptions, multiple semantic options certainly exist. ## **Deuteronomy 4:35** The Hebrew word אֱלֹהִים has a number of potential translation options. Deuteronomy 4:35 reads in the MT (BHS) as follows: אַתָּה֙ הָרְאֵ֣תָ לָדַ֔עַת כִּ֥י יְהוָ֖ה ה֣וּא הָאֱלֹהִ֑ים אֵ֥ין ע֖וֹד מִלְבַדּֽוֹ. A wooden literal translation may be, “You were shown to know that Yahweh, He is Elohim, there is not anyone else from to alone him.” An attractive translation is “to you it was shown that you might know that the Lord, He is God (אֱלֹהִים); there is no other besides Him” (Deut. 4:35 \[NASB\]). The following study shows that אֱלֹהִים in verse 35 denotes Yahweh, the God of Israel. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 28 182x300 - Law of Moses, Deuteronomy 4:35, 32:17, and Daniel 7](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-28-182x300.jpg "Law of Moses, Deuteronomy 4:35, 32:17, and Daniel 7 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4jatVlY)The Book of Deuteronomy (New International Commentary on the Old Testament (NICOT)) The context of what was shown in Deuteronomy 4:35 hearkens back to the “signs and wonders” Yahweh performed delivering the Israelites from the oppression of Egypt (Deut. 4:34). Additionally, the following verse reminds Israel of Yahweh’s miraculous self-disclosure from Mount Saini and the burning bush (Deut. 4:36). In other words, the writer highlights and refers to the uniqueness of the one and only Yahweh, the God of Israel. At first, the verse’s meaning seems straightforward. However, the underlying semantic risk associated with verse 35 is the phrase, “there is no other besides Him” (אֵ֥ין ע֖וֹד מִלְבַדּֽוֹ). Often modern readers assume the phrase denies that other gods exist. For example, Peter Craigie asserts that the monotheism of Israel affirmed the existence of one God and “the reality of all other gods was denied.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) However, elsewhere in Scripture it appears that Israel clearly recognized the reality of other gods. For example, the Psalmist states, “God has taken his place in the divine council, in the midst of the gods (אֱלֹהִים) he holds judgment” (Ps. 82:1). Accordingly, although the context of the verse dictates that no other gods compare to the uniquely powerful one and only אֱלֹהִים, which in this verse is Yahweh, the God of Israel, it does not deny the existence of other gods. ## **Deuteronomy 32:17** The ESV renders Deuteronomy 32:17, “They sacrificed to demons that were no gods, to gods they had never known….” The question at hand is whether the ESV is an accurate translation of Deuteronomy 32:17. The first half of the verse is the one in focus, and it reads in the MT (BHS) as follows, יִזְבְּח֗וּ לַשֵּׁדִים֙ לֹ֣א אֱלֹ֔הַ אֱלֹהִ֖ים לֹ֣א יְדָע֑וּם. A literal translation may be, “They sacrificed to the demons not God (אֱלֹ֔הַ), gods (אֱלֹהִ֖ים) they had not known.” The following analysis shows that the ESV is not an accurate translation due to the incorrect rendering of אֱלֹ֔הַ. The lemma for the Hebrew word אֱלֹ֔הַ is אֱלוֹהַּ and a broad word search notes that it occurs 58 times in the Old Testament. However, Michael Heiser explains there are “no occasions in the Hebrew Bible where אֱלוֹהַּ is contextually plural or used as a collective noun.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Accordingly, unlike the ESV, the proper translation of Deuteronomy 32:17a includes the singular “God” (אֱלֹ֔הַ) in the first phrase and the plural “gods” (אֱלֹהִ֖ים) in the second phrase. The question remains as to the reason the ESV translators would render אֱלֹ֔הַ in the plural. Heiser explains that one possibility is that the translator wanted to deny the existence of other gods by suggesting that the demons were not gods.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) However, the ESV inexplicably refers to the reality of gods (אֱלֹהִ֖ים) in the next phrase. Heiser suggests another reason the ESV may render אֱלֹ֔הַ in the plural is due to syntactically parallel verses.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) However, this approach does not reconcile the fact that Scripture has no attestation to אֱלוֹהַּ in the plural. Regardless, other Scripture passages attest to the reality of other gods (See Ex. 15:11). Accordingly, the ESV translation of Deuteronomy 32:17 is incorrect. ## **Daniel 7** In Daniel 7, verses 14, 18, 21-22, and 27 all reference potential recipients of the Most High’s kingdom. An examination of pronouns assists in identifying the recipients. The following analysis shows that the Most High’s kingdom belongs to a plurality of subjects. The Son of Man is one recipient of the Most High’s kingdom in light of Daniel 7:14, which states, “And to him (Son of Man) was given dominion and glory and a kingdom.” However, other recipients may exist. Bruce Waltke and M. O’Connor identify two primary classes of personal pronouns: independent personal pronouns and attached pronominal suffixes.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Furthermore, Paul Joüon and Takamitsu Muraoka explain that the personal pronoun “agrees almost always in number and generally in gender with the noun it represents.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) In Daniel 7:18, the holy ones (קַדִּישֵׁ֖י) of the Most High also receive (יקַבְּלוּן֙) and possess (יַחְסְנ֤וּן) the kingdom. Here, the tsere yod ending on the word “holy ones” indicates a masculine plural noun, which agrees with the masculine plural Aramaic pronominal suffixes. Indeed, all noun and verb references to “holy ones” in the Daniel verses are masculine plural indicating a plurality of subjects. John Goldingay suggests the Aramaic word “holy ones” (קַדִּישֵׁ֖י) could represent supernatural beings or humans.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) More specifically, Heiser notes קַדִּישֵׁ֖י “can refer to the members of the divine council.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Accordingly, in light of the evidence, the Most High’s kingdom appears to belong to all three, the Son of Man, human followers, and the supernatural divine council.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Bruce K. Waltke and M. O’Connor, *An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax* (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 143. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 145. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 146–47. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 149–52. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Peter C. Craigie, *The Book of Deuteronomy*, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1976), 143. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Michael Heiser, “Does Deuteronomy 32:17 Assume or Deny the Reality of Other Gods?” (2008), *Faculty Publications and Presentations,* Paper 322: 138, accessed September 15, 2015, http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/lts\_fac\_pubs/322. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 138–39. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 139–40. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Waltke and O’Connor, *An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax*, 291. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Paul Joüon and Takamitsu Muraoka, *A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew* (n.p.: Pontificio Istituto Biblico, 2003), 550. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) John E. Goldingay, *Daniel*, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 30 (Dallas: Word, 1998), 176. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Michael S. Heiser, *The Unseen Realm* (Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015), 257. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 258. ## **Bibliography** - Craigie, Peter C. *The Book of Deuteronomy*. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1976. - Goldingay, John E. *Daniel*. Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 30. Dallas: Word, 1998. - Heiser, Michael. “Does Deuteronomy 32:17 Assume or Deny the Reality of Other Gods?” (2008). *Faculty Publications and Presentations.* Paper 322. Accessed September 13, 2015. http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/lts\_fac\_pubs/322. - *The Unseen Realm*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2015. - Joüon, Paul, and Takamitsu Muraoka. *A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew*. n.p.: Pontificio Istituto Biblico, 2003. - Waltke, Bruce K., and M. O’Connor. *An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax*. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Genesis 4.1 and Procreation](https://www.livestransforming.com/genesis-4-1-and-procreation/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Genesis 4.1 and Procreation **Do you think procreation is a possible interpretive option for qanah in Genesis 4:1 (i.e., “I have procreated a man…”)? Why or why not?** [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 27 182x300 - Genesis 4.1 and Procreation](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-27-182x300.jpg "Genesis 4.1 and Procreation - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/429E5wU)Genesis Unbound: A Provocative New Look at the Creation Account The narrator of [Genesis states](https://www.livestransforming.com/evangelical-perspectives-of-genesis-1-2/), “Now the man had relations with his wife Eve, and she conceived and gave birth to Cain, and she said, ‘I have gotten a manchild with the help of the Lord’” (Gen. 4:1 \[NASB\]). The last phrase is the one in focus: קָנִ֥יתִי אִ֖ישׁ אֶת־יְהוָֽה, which literally translates, “I have קנה a man with Yahweh.” The question is whether “procreated” is a possible interpretive option for קנה. In short, the answer is yes. The following analysis briefly explains the rationale behind the answer. The verb קנה has a number of different potential connotations. The verb occurs 84 times and most often aligns with the idea of “purchasing” as in a commercial business transaction. In Proverbs, קנה most often means “acquiring” as in “Acquire wisdom!” (Prov. 4:5). Although none of these meanings readily fit with the context of Genesis 4:1, five remaining verses employ the verb קנה. Each may reasonably subsume a creative force within the context of the passage, which leaves open the possibility of “procreate” as an interpretive option (See Gen. 14:19, 22; Deut. 32:6; Ps. 139:13; Prov. 8:22). The word analysis naturally leads one to determine how exactly Yahweh participated in the procreation process with Eve. One option would be to suggest that God engaged in a form of sexual activity with Eve. Two points render the assertion inaccurate. First, Genesis 4:1a clearly states, “The man had relations with his wife Eve.” Second, Eve is the subject of the phrase, and קנה is the verb. The likelihood of potential sexual activity with Yahweh would increase if the deity was the subject: Yahweh procreated with Eve. Regardless, the clarification is already made earlier in the verse. In light of the word usage and context, what remains is to determine how one may logically interpret the meaning of the possible translation: “I have procreated a man with Yahweh.” The verb’s usage in Psalm 139 appears to provide the answer. The Psalmist states, “For You formed (קנה) my inward parts; You wove me in my mother’s womb…wonderful are Your works” (Ps. 139:13-14). In other words, the Psalmist thanks God for His work *with* his mother in the procreation process (See also Gen. 29:33; Ps. 127:3; Isaiah 44:2, 24; Jer. 1:5). Accordingly, since God is actively involved in the procreation process, but not sexually active with Eve, then a possible interpretive option for קנה in Genesis 4:1 could be: I have procreated (קנה) a man with Yahweh. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Views of Creation](https://www.livestransforming.com/views-of-creation/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Views of Creation [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 27 182x300 - Views of Creation](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-27-182x300.jpg "Views of Creation - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/429E5wU)Genesis Unbound: A Provocative New Look at the Creation Account Historical creationism asserts that God created the universe, which lasted for an indeterminate amount of time, prior to God preparing the land for habitation in six days.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Historical creationism appears to be the most appropriate interpretation of the Creation account for three reasons. First, John Sailhamer explains that a proper interpretation of the word *reshit*, which is the Hebrew word for “beginning,” supports historical creationism.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) In the Bible, the term *reshit* “always refers to an extended, yet indeterminate duration of time – not a specific moment…which precedes an extended series of time periods.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) In other words, the phrase in Genesis 1:1, “in the beginning,” may represent billions of years of the universe’s existence prior to the six days of activity in Genesis 1:2-31, which aligns with current scientific data.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Second, historical creationism supports God’s *ex nihilo* creation, meaning that God created “without the use of preexisting materials.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Third, historical creationism views Genesis 1 and 2 as a literal explanation of God’s creative work, as opposed to interpreting the Creation account as myth or metaphor.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Finally, historical creationism overcomes a number of problems facing other Creation theories, including the lack of biblical support for the gap theory and theistic evolution; the absence of literal interpretation of the literary framework view and day-age view; and lack of scientific support by young-earth creationism.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Mark Driscoll’s article contributes to an understanding of the debate over Creation in three significant ways. First, the introduction to Sailhamer and his work is invaluable as a resource not only for Creation, but also for additional Pentateuch studies. Second, the article prompted an enhanced understanding of historical creationism. Third, Driscoll’s article aids in synthesizing the concepts of Creation, the age of the earth, and evolution. ***After reading Genesis 1 – 3, what details in these chapters influence you the most in trying to decide how literally you should read these chapters? Explain why your approach is either more literal or more figurative.*** Four specific details in Genesis 1-3 support a literal rather than a figurative reading of the Creation account. First, the Hebrew word for “day” used in Genesis 1:5, 8, 13, 19, 21, and 31 that refers to each of the six days is *yom*. Walter Bradley and Roger Olsen explain, “Outside of the Genesis 1 case in question, the two-hundred plus occurrences of *yom* preceded by ordinals all refer to a normal twenty-four hour day.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Accordingly, the authors assert the days in Genesis refer to six literal twenty-four hour days. Second, beyond the qualification of ordinal numbers, Robert McCabe notes that the language of evening and morning, which further qualifies the word *yom* in Genesis 1*,* also consistently refers to literal twenty-four hour days throughout Scripture.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Next, two parallel passages may illuminate the meaning of *yom* in Genesis 1. First, McCabe explains that Exodus 20:8-11, which connects creation with the Sabbath, suggests that God’s literal pattern of creation in twenty-four hour cycles is an example for humanity to follow.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Second, Exodus 31:14-17 repeats the Sabbath parallel once again as the author links the Sabbath with a literal context of the creation week.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The final support for a literal rather than figurative reading is the sequence of events in Genesis 1. For example, Genesis 1:11-12 states that God created vegetation on the third day, and Genesis 1:24-25 states that God created living creatures on the sixth day. McCabe recognizes that if the days were not literal, but instead a much longer period, then it seems unlikely the vegetation requiring pollination by insects could survive.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Accordingly, literal days also appear to support the symbiotic relationship between the created events. Based on the hermeneutical evidence of syntax and context, it appears a literal reading of the creation account in Genesis prevails. ***What is your view of the age of the universe, and do you believe that the data in Genesis 1 – 11 can be reconciled with an old-earth view? Why or why not?*** I hold the historical creationist perspective, thus it is not difficult to reconcile the data in Genesis 1-11 with an old-earth view. Mark Driscoll provides five reasons that support a historical creationist perspective: (1) it views Genesis 1 through the lens of a literal interpretive perspective; (2) it avoids characterizing terms scientifically; (3) it suggests humans are a relatively recent creation; (4) it was prevalent among the Church Fathers; and (5) it aligns with scientific research.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) More specifically, historical creationism interprets the Hebrew word *reshit* as an extended period as opposed to a moment in time.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) This allows the assimilation of an old-earth view into historical creationism. Accordingly, it appears the date in Genesis 1-11 can be reconciled with an old-earth view. ***How would you biblically respond to the possibility that God created the universe through an evolutionary process? What key issues should a discussion on this topic address? How important is this possibility to the issue of biblical authority?*** A number of Creation theories purport that God created the universe through an evolutionary process. Karl Payne identifies four theories that attempt to harmonize God’s revelation with evolution: (1) theistic evolution, (2) the gap theory, (3) the day-age theory, and (4) progressive creationism.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) First, theistic evolution teaches that creation originated with God, but God then allowed natural selection to complete the creation process.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) In other words, the struggle of the evolutionary process eventually culminated in a man after millions of years. The biblical response is that the Bible clearly states that sin entered the world through one man, Adam (see Genesis 2:17; Romans 5:12-21; 1 Corinthians 15:21-22). However, if life and death evolved into Adam over millions of years, then death did not enter the world through a single man, but instead entered millions of years before Adam.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Second, the gap theory proposes that a large gap of time occurs between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, but opposed to historical creationism, it assumes a primordial creation in verse one and then a recreation in verse two.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) From a biblical perspective, no evidence of a second recreated Earth exists.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Next, the day-age theory asserts that God guided the evolutionary process over a period of billions of years by intervening when necessary.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) In order to accommodate the evolutionary process, day-age theorists redefine the Hebrew word for day as a period much longer than twenty-four hours.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) However, as explained above, the biblical evidence suggests that the Hebrew word *yom* means a twenty-four hour day. Finally, progressive creationism suggests that God created different forms of life in stages during a long evolutionary process.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) However, from a biblical perspective, progressive creationism cannot align with the order of creation in Genesis 1.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) The key issues needing discussed when addressing the topic of God and macroevolution is whether [the theory is biblically accurate](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-word-studies/), scientifically logical, and intellectually reasonable. Although all forms of evolution face challenges regarding science and reason, theories asserting that God created the universe through an evolutionary process face an additional challenge. Payne recognizes that each of the four theories that attempt to blend God’s creative efforts with macroevolution teaches that Genesis 1 “must not be interpreted literally.”[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Accordingly, the four theories all risk undermining the authority of the Bible by questioning its authenticity and reliability. Unfortunately, by raising uncertainty around God’s Word with little or no concrete proof to support the accuracy of the theory, a message of hope may be lost and eternal lives may be at stake. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Mark Driscoll and Gerry Breshears, *Doctrine: What Christians Should Believe* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2010), 89. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) John H. Sailhamer, *Genesis Unbound*, 2nd ed. (Colorado Springs: Dawson Media, 2011), 38. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Unless Otherwise Noted, All Biblical Passages Referenced Are in the New American Standard Bible (La Habra, CA: Lockman Foundation, 1995). [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Millard J. Erickson, *Christian Theology*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 396. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Sailhamer, *Genesis Unbound*, 45. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Driscoll and Breshears, *Doctrine: What Christians Should Believe*, 90–92. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Walter L. Bradley and Roger Olsen, “The Trustworthiness of Scripture in Areas Relating to Natural Science,” in *Hermeneutics, Inerrancy, and the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984), 299. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Robert V. McCabe, “A Defense of Literal Days in the Creation Week,” *Detroit Baptist Seminary Journal* 5 (September 2000): 106. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 110. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 111. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 112. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Driscoll and Breshears, *Doctrine: What Christians Should Believe*, 96. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Sailhamer, *Genesis Unbound*, 38. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Karl Payne, “Theories of Creation,” in *The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics*, ed. Ed Hindson and Ergun Caner (Eugene: Harvest House, 2008), 154–57. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid., 154. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Ibid. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Ibid., 155. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid., 156. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Ibid. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Ibid. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Ibid., 157. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Ibid. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Ibid., 154. ## **Bibliography** - Bradley, Walter L., and Roger Olsen. “The Trustworthiness of Scripture in Areas Relating to Natural Science.” In *Hermeneutics, Inerrancy, and the Bible*, 283–317. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984. - Driscoll, Mark, and Gerry Breshears. *Doctrine: What Christians Should Believe*. Wheaton: Crossway, 2010. - Erickson, Millard J. *Christian Theology*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007. - McCabe, Robert V. “A Defense of Literal Days in the Creation Week.” *Detroit Baptist Seminary Journal* 5 (September 2000): 97–123. - Payne, Karl. “Theories of Creation.” In *The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics*, edited by Ed Hindson and Ergun Caner, 154–57. Eugene: Harvest House, 2008. - Sailhamer, John H. *Genesis Unbound*. 2nd ed. Colorado Springs: Dawson Media, 2011. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Old Testament Literary Analysis](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-literary-analysis/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Old Testament Literary Analysis ## **Literary Features and Techniques** The narrative of David and Bathsheba in 2 Samuel 11:1-27 provides a quintessential example of a tragic moral collapse. However, the depth of meaning and significance of the narrative may remain hidden without adequate attention paid to the narrator’s presentation. A brief examination of the literary features and techniques, the potential resolution of a controversial interpretive issue, and the timeless theological principles of the well-known story enhances the reader’s understanding of the story’s theological significance. The most significant literary features and techniques of 2 Samuel 11 include setting, repetition, contrast, and ambiguity. First, John Lawlor recognizes that the David and Bathsheba account exists within the larger literary framework of the Ammonite war, which begins in 2 Samuel 10:1 and continues to 2 Samuel 12:31.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) When the king of the Ammonites died, David sent his servants to console his son, Hanun (2 Sam. 10:1-2).[\[2\]](#_ftn2) However, the Ammonites questioned the motives of the Israelites and publicly embarrassed David’s servants, which laid the groundwork for the military engagement that ensues (10:3-19). The Israelite victory over the Ammonites concludes at the end of the literary unit in 2 Samuel 12:26-31. It is within the context of dangerous military activity that the story of David and Bathsheba interrupt the narrative. A further exploration of the significance of the setting ensues upon examination of the timeless theological principles. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 26 182x300 - Old Testament Literary Analysis](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-26-182x300.png "Old Testament Literary Analysis - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/42btOjP)The Art of Biblical Narrative The second important literary technique used in 2 Samuel 11 is repetition. Referring to Martin Buber’s term, *Leitwort*, Robert Alter suggests that repetitive words assist the reader in understanding the depth of meaning within the text.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Within the David and Bathsheba narrative, Lawlor notes that the transliterated Hebrew term *šlḥ,* meaning “to send,” is used more than 20 times within the framework of the Ammonite war and over half of these iterations originate from David (2 Samuel 10-12). According to Lawlor, the narrator’s repetition features David’s authority and appears to display a “conscious development of a power motif.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) For example, in 2 Samuel 11:6 the *Leitwort* appears three times as Bathsheba’s husband, Uriah, becomes entangled in the snare of David’s power. The practical application of the power principles within the narrative is palpable. Contrast is the third significant literary technique utilized by the narrator. David attempts to coerce Uriah to sleep with Bathsheba in order to extricate himself from his adultery (2 Sam. 11:8-10). The narrator employs direct speech to highlight Uriah’s commitment to Israel by expressing Uriah’s words, “The ark and Israel and Judah are staying in temporary shelters, and my lord Joab and the servants of my lord are camping in the open field. Shall I then to my house to eat and to drink and to lie with my wife? By your life and the life or your soul, I will not do this thing” (2 Sam. 11:11). Within the dialog, Lawlor highlights the contrast between David’s selfishness and Uriah’s selflessness, David’s deception and Uriah’s credulousness, and finally, David’s infidelity and Uriah’s fidelity to Israel.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The contrast exhibited by the narrator accentuates the nefarious actions of the King. The fourth influential literary technique employed by the narrator is ambiguity. George Nicol smartly states, “Ambiguity…is the spice of biblical narrative, without which everything would be cut, dried, and most certainly insipid.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The minimalistic narrative of the David and Bathsheba encounter uses only four verses to communicate the time from David’s first observance of the beautiful woman to the time he is aware of the pregnancy (2 Sam. 11:2-5). The ambiguities are numerous and, according to Nicol, include whether Bathsheba enticed David or whether David forcibly pursued Bathsheba.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The ambiguities naturally lead to a discussion regarding one of the most controversial interpretive problems of the story – culpability. ## **Interpretive Issue: A Victim or Seducer?** A scholarly argument exists as to whether Bathsheba was an attractive seductress who lured David into bed or a victim of coercion. Hans Hertzberg proposes the possibility that Bathsheba captivated David with “feminine flirtation.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Alternatively, Cheryl Exum vehemently opposes Hertzberg by stating, “The narrator who disrobes Bathsheba and depicts her as the object of David’s lust is the real perpetrator of the crime against Bathsheba, and commentators like Hertzberg, who imply Bathsheba may have desired the king’s attentions, perpetuate the crime.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Although a direct reading of the text does create ambiguity, Richard Davidson provides evidence through narrative analysis that clears Bathsheba of culpability.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) First, the narrator begins the episode by stating, “Then it happened in the spring, at the time when kings go out to battle…David stayed at Jerusalem” (2 Sam. 11:1). The setting’s ironic contrast between kings going to battle and David staying at home foreshadows the King’s misguided actions.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Next, the narrator states in 2 Samuel 11:2 that the time of day is evening, which provides evidence that Bathsheba was bathing for the purpose of ritual washing, not provocation (see Lev. 15:19, 28-29).[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Third, the writer explains that David was simply walking around on his roof, which suggests a random event, not a plot of seduction on the part of Bathsheba (2 Sam. 11:2).[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Fourth, the narrator specifically mentions Bathsheba’s identity by stating she was the “daughter of Eliam, the wife of Uriah the Hittite” (2 Sam. 11:3). The significance of Bathsheba’s identity is that the writer intended to highlight the recklessness of David’s actions, not Bathsheba’s, by referring to Eliam and Uriah, who were both part of David’s select group of friends – the thirty mighty men (see 2 Sam. 23).[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Fifth, Davidson recognizes the acceleration of the narrative in 2 Samuel 11:4, which represents David’s impulsive behavior.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Sixth, the sentence structure in 2 Samuel 11:4 states that David “took her” and David “lay with her” emphasizing the psychological pressure applied by the subject of the sentence.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Additionally, the narrator explains that, after the sexual encounter, Bathsheba “returned to her house” (2 Sam. 11:4). In other words, Bathsheba did not attempt to remain with David, but instead, desired to return to her husband.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Eighth, when Bathsheba receives word that her husband died, the writer selects a Hebrew verb for mourning that means, “wails/laments with loud cries” (2 Sam. 11:26).[\[18\]](#_ftn18) In other words, it seems unlikely Bathsheba conspired to support her husband’s death in order to further a seductive conspiracy. Next, David, not Bathsheba, was specifically indicted by the narrator who states, “The thing that David had done was evil in the sight of the Lord” (2 Sam. 11:27). Finally, Nathan also indicted David, not Bathsheba, in the following chapter and simultaneously refers to Bathsheba as a “little ewe lamb,” which solidifies Bathsheba as “an innocent victim” (2 Sam. 12:3).[\[19\]](#_ftn19) In light of the evidence provided, the exoneration of Bathsheba is necessary. ## **Timeless Theological Principles** Numerous timeless theological principles exist within the story of David and Bathsheba that apply to a Christian’s life. The following analysis summarizes three key principles for application. The principles include: (1) the abuse of power; (2) the danger of prosperity; and (3) the risk of secrecy. The first timeless principle is that power risks abuse of power. Scripture seems to align with the famous quote of historian and moralist Lord Acton who stated, “Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.”[\[20\]](#_ftn20) In the story of David and Bathsheba, Alter’s concept of *Leitwort* may best represent the corruption. David uses his power to “send” armies to battle, “send” messengers to perform his tasks, “send” for Bathsheba to gratify himself, and even “send” for the victim of his murder. It often appears that little has changed in the last few thousand years. Just as Israel cried out for a king, today megachurches measure their effectiveness by the attendance and finances that result from the performance of their “kings.” From the infamous stories of Jim and Tammy Bakker to the tragedies of child molestation of the Roman Catholic Church, sexual sin continues when power and arrogance corrupt. More recently in 2013, the stories of three megachurch pastors in Florida made headlines for sexual immorality.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Unfortunately, the risk of power for megachurch pastors does not stop with sexual immorality. For example, the recent investigation and subsequent resignation of Mark Driscoll for abuse of power at Mars Hill appears to have nothing to do with sex.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) However, the lesson is clear, not just for megachurches, but for every church – from the beginning of [the Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/), to the end of the New Testament, God is the one and only King. At this point, regrettably, Christians may fall into the trap of thinking that more accountability and sin management will solve the problem that pastors face. Nothing could be further from the truth. The institutional church must reject the temptation to rank its effectiveness using attendance and finances empowered by personality driven growth. Instead, the church must embrace the meaning of real church – lives lived in relationship with God, other Christians, and non-Christians in a community of transformational growth and grace where “knowing and caring” for individuals is more important than “getting and controlling” individuals to volunteer or tithe (see Acts 2; Eph. 4; 1 Cor. 12). The second timeless principle is that prosperity is dangerous. Sadly, in America, the vision of a church that rejects outward prosperity seems an unlikely proposition. However, the danger of prosperity may be more ominous than the abuse of power. Bob Deffinbaugh astutely points out, “From a spiritual point of view, David never did better than he did in adversity and weakness. Conversely, David never did worse than he did in prosperity and power.”[\[23\]](#_ftn23) When asked whether one’s relationship with God seems deeper during adversity or prosperity, the answer is unanimous – adversity. However, the lure of a prosperity gospel driven by the American Dream established by personalities such as Benjamin Franklin, rather than person of Christ, is often too tempting to resist. Alternatively, James audaciously claims that challenges empower growth by encouraging Christians to consider it *all* joy when facing adversity (James 1:2-4). Moreover, Paul asserts that challenges develop character, thus Christians are to “exult in our tribulations” (Romans 5:3-5). Furthermore, Jesus states that blessed individuals are those who are poor in spirit, mourning, and persecuted (Matthew 5:3, 4, 10). Accordingly, detachment from prosperity is an important lesson for every Christian. By depending on Christ for one’s life and identity, instead of depending on the external prosperity markers of success, painless circumstances, and finances, Christ offers a life of blessedness rather than prosperity, service rather than power, and peace rather than anxiety. The third timeless principle, within the story of David and Bathsheba, pertains to the risk of secrecy. David’s sin of adultery was certainly reprehensible, but the subsequent sins to conceal the sin surpassed even the egregious sin of adultery. Proverbs states, “He who conceals his transgressions will not prosper, but he who confesses and forsakes them will find compassion” (Proverbs 28:13). With 33% of the pastors acknowledging inappropriate sexual behavior with someone in the church and clergy experiencing the second-highest divorce rate among all professions, the sagacious Proverb may be more relevant today than ever.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) The rampant sexual sins of unhealthy pornography, inappropriate masturbation, as well as emotional and physical affairs inevitably result in hiding. Just as David’s cover up caused additional damage, hiding sin confers more power to the offense. However, the lesson of transparency not only provides instruction for the transgressor, but also the one receiving the confession. In other words, one wonders if David trusted anyone enough to be vulnerable. Is it possible that David experienced the same feeling that so many senior pastors feel – it is lonely at the top. John Lynch, Bill Thrall, and Bruce McNicol state, “What if there was a place safe enough to tell the worst about you and still be loved just as much, if not more, for sharing it?”[\[25\]](#_ftn25) If there were a place that safe, then maybe sin concealment would lose its grip on the church. The lesson of sin concealment not only requires a transparent transgressor, but also a safe receiver of the confession. Many other timeless theological principles exist within the David and Bathsheba episode. Additional investigation may encompass lessons regarding the development of sin and sin’s impact, the example of Uriah as a faithful servant, the reminder of God’s sovereignty in the face of Uriah’s outcome, and the power of God’s grace during the remainder of David’s life. However, without question, the abuse of power, the danger of prosperity, and the risk of secrecy provide lessons of timeless truths that are especially applicable to contemporary society. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) John I. Lawlor, “Theology and Art in the Narrative of the Ammonite War (2 Samuel 10-12),” *Grace Theological Journal* 3, no. 2 (September 1982): 193. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the New American Standard Bible (La Habra, CA: Lockman Foundation, 1995). [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Robert Alter, *The Art of Biblical Narrative* (New York: Basic Books, 2011), 116–17. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Lawlor, “Theology and Art in the Narrative of the Ammonite War (2 Samuel 10-12),” 196. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 198. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) George G. Nicol, “The Alleged Rape of Bathsheba: Some Observations on Ambiguity in Biblical Narrative,” *Journal for the Study of the Old Testament*, no. 73 (March 1997): 44. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 51. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Hans Wilhelm Hertzberg, *I & II Samuel: A Commentary* (London: SCM, 1964), 309. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) J. Cheryl Exum, *Fragmented Women: Feminist (Sub)versions of Biblical Narratives* (Valley Forge: Trinity, 1993), 174. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Richard M. Davidson, “Did King David Rape Bathsheba?: A Case Study in Narrative Theology,” *Journal of Adventist Theological Society* 17, no. 2 (Autumn 2006): 81–95. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 82–83. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 84–85. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 85. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid., 86–87. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid., 87. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid., 88. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Ibid., 89. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Ibid., 90. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid., 92. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Gary Martin, The Meaning and Origin of the Expression: Power Corrupts; Absolute Power Corrupts Absolutely, http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/absolute-power-corrupts-absolutely.html (accessed November 22, 2014). [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Jennifer LeClaire, Why Megachurch Pastors Keep Falling into Sexual Immorality, http://www.jenniferleclaire.org/articles/why-megachurch-pastors-keep-falling-into-sexual-immorality (accessed November 22, 2014). [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Mars Hill Megachurch Dissolves after Investigation into Lead Pastor Mark Driscoll, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/11/01/mars-hill-megachurch-dissolve-mark-driscoll\_n\_6085278.html (accessed November 22, 2014). [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Bob Deffinbaugh, David and Bathsheba: 2 Samuel 11:1-4, https://bible.org/seriespage/david-and-bathsheba-2-samuel-111-4 (accessed September 30, 2014). [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) H. B. London and Neil B. Wiseman, *Pastors at Greater Risk* (Ventura, CA: Gospel Light, 2003), 20, 86. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) John Lynch, Bill Thrall, and Bruce McNicol, *Bo’s Cafe* (Newbury Park, CA: Windblown Media, 2009), 90. ## **Bibliography** - Alter, Robert. *The Art of Biblical Narrative*. New York: Basic Books, 2011. - Davidson, Richard M. “Did King David Rape Bathsheba?: A Case Study in Narrative Theology.” *Journal of Adventist Theological Society* 17, no. 2 (Autumn 2006): 81–95. - Deffinbaugh, Bob. David and Bathsheba: 2 Samuel 11:1-4. https://bible.org/seriespage/david-and-bathsheba-2-samuel-111-4 (accessed September 30, 2014). - Exum, J. Cheryl. *Fragmented Women: Feminist (Sub)versions of Biblical Narratives*. Valley Forge: Trinity, 1993. - Hans Wilhelm Hertzberg. *I & II Samuel: A Commentary*. London: SCM, 1964. - Lawlor, John I. “Theology and Art in the Narrative of the Ammonite War (2 Samuel 10-12).” *Grace Theological Journal* 3, no. 2 (September 1982): 193–205. - LeClaire, Jennifer. Why Megachurch Pastors Keep Falling into Sexual Immorality. http://www.jenniferleclaire.org/articles/why-megachurch-pastors-keep-falling-into-sexual-immorality (accessed November 22, 2014). - London, H. B., and Neil B. Wiseman. *Pastors at Greater Risk*. Ventura, CA: Gospel Light, 2003. - Lynch, John, Bill Thrall, and Bruce McNicol. *Bo’s Cafe*. Newbury Park, CA: Windblown Media, 2009. - Mars Hill Megachurch Dissolves after Investigation into Lead Pastor Mark Driscoll. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/11/01/mars-hill-megachurch-dissolve-mark-driscoll\_n\_6085278.html (accessed November 22, 2014). - Martin, Gary. The Meaning and Origin of the Expression: Power Corrupts; Absolute Power Corrupts Absolutely. http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/absolute-power-corrupts-absolutely.html (accessed November 22, 2014). - Nicol, George G. “The Alleged Rape of Bathsheba: Some Observations on Ambiguity in Biblical Narrative.” *Journal for the Study of the Old Testament*, no. 73 (March 1997): 43–54.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Applying Old Testament Law](https://www.livestransforming.com/applying-old-testament-law/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Applying Old Testament Law Daniel Hays asserts that Christians should utilize the Old Testament Law by interpreting and applying it based on an approach he refers to as principlism.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The traditional approach of interpreting the Mosaic Law consists of classifying laws into categories of moral, civil, and ceremonial.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) However, Hays contends the traditional approach lacks textual support, neglects the narrative context, and discounts assimilation with New Covenant constructs.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Alternatively, Hays’ approach of principlism attempts to mitigate the weaknesses identified in the traditional approach by discovering the timeless truths in the Old Testament Law and then applying the truths to modern-day Christians. [\[4\]](#_ftn4)Hays’ approach includes five chronological steps: (1) identify the specific law’s relation to the original audience, (2) differentiate between the ancient and modern readers, (3) identify the timeless truths, (4) associate the truth with the New Testament, and (5) determine the life application.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The strengths of principlism include treating the entire Old Testament as inspired, ignoring categories not biblically supported, interpreting the Old Testament within its narrative context, highlighting the theological implications of the Law, and integrating the Law’s meaning into a New Testament perspective.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Hays also suggests that a strength of principlism is its simplicity and consistency, but admits a weakness may be its oversimplification.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The author correctly identifies simplicity as a strength of principlism, but appears to underestimate the weakness of oversimplification, especially regarding how the New Testament may modify the identified universal principle. For example, Hays correlates Leviticus 5:2 with the New Testament by stating, “Stay away from sinful actions and impure thoughts because the holy God lives within you.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) If the implication is that Christians must appropriately manage sin because God is inside, then the correlation quickly deters from orthodoxy because, as Millard Erickson points out, sanctification “is something done by God, not something we do ourselves.” [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 24 182x300 - Applying Old Testament Law](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-24-182x300.jpg "Applying Old Testament Law - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DPpHA9)Christian Theology [\[9\]](#_ftn9) However, if the universal principle implies that God, in the form of the Holy Spirit within, empowers healthy actions and thoughts, then the correlation remains orthodox. In other words, oversimplification may go beyond a weakness of principlism and quickly slide into misinterpretation that risks the same arbitrary, and potentially harmful, results as the traditional method of interpretation. The article contributed to an understanding of applying [the Old Testament Law](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-functions-of-old-testament-law/) to today in three ways. First, the article identified the risks of the traditional approach, which are instrumental in averting potential hermeneutical mishaps. Second, the article provided an alternative approach that appears more relevant to modern believers. Finally, the article’s analysis highlighted the importance of carefully correlating the Old Testament Law to the New Testament in order to avoid interpretative pitfalls. ***Explain how we reconcile the two New Testament teachings that the Old Testament law is eternal and will never pass away (Matthew 5:17) and that believers are no longer under the law (Romans 7:1 – 6; Galatians 3 – 4).*** In Matthew 5:17 Jesus states, “Do not think that I came to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I did not come to abolish but to fulfill.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) However, in Romans 7:6 Paul states, “But now we have been released from the Law, having died to that by which we were bound, so that we serve in newness of the Spirit and not in oldness of the letter.” Furthermore, when referring to the Law as a tutor in Galatians 3:25 Paul also states, “But now that faith has come, we are no longer under a tutor.” The question is how to reconcile the fact that Christ states He did not abolish the Law, yet Paul states that the New Covenant releases believers from the Law and that believers are no longer under the Law. Hays suggests the key to understanding Matthew 5:17 is to properly define the word “fulfill,” which normally means, “to bring to its intended meaning.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Louis Barbieri correctly explains that Jesus fulfilled the Law in the sense that he perfectly obeyed the Law and fulfilled the message and predictions of the Prophets.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) However, the concept of “bringing the Law to its intended meaning” moves beyond the Barbieri’s assertion that Jesus perfectly followed the Law. Craig Blomberg summarizes the extended meaning by stating, “Every Old Testament text must be viewed in light of Jesus’s person and ministry, and the changes introduced by the New Covenant he inaugurated.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Namely, the interpretation of Old Testament texts must consider that Jesus at times restated, modified, intensified, changed, and even abrogated the laws of the Hebrew Scriptures.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) The reason that Jesus’s fulfillment of the Law resulted in significant modifications, according to Barbieri, is that the type of [righteousness the teachers](https://www.livestransforming.com/martin-luthers-righteousness-of-god/) of the Law were pursuing “was insufficient for entrance into the kingdom Jesus was offering.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) In other words, the type of righteousness demanded by Jesus was an internal righteousness through faith, as opposed to an external righteousness through the Law (Romans 3:21-22).[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Accordingly, Paul appropriately explains that believers have been released from the Law and are no longer under the Law not because the Law is abolished, but because the Law has developed through salvation history from the bondage of an external righteousness to the freedom of an internal righteousness provided as a gift from God through faith in Christ. ***Select one of the OT passages below and describe how you can apply the law to your own life, using Hays’ approach of “principlism.” Be as detailed and specific as possible.*** Hays’ approach of principlism to interpret Old Testament passages includes five steps. The first step is to identify what the passage meant to the original audience. Regarding the blessings in Leviticus 26:1-11, Gordon Wenham notes that vassal treaties in the ancient Near East often concluded with a list of potential blessings and curses tied to whether the party followed the guidelines of the treaty.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Accordingly, Israel would have a general understanding of the purpose of Leviticus 26 within their covenant relationship with God. However, William Barrick more specifically identifies the context within the Israelite community by explaining that God provides the both blessings and curses in Leviticus 26 to prepare the Israelites while at Sinai for their journey through the wilderness and eventual entrance into the Promised Land.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) The second step of principlism is to identify the differences between the original audience and modern-day believers. Wenham organizes the blessings in Leviticus 26 into three categories available to the Israelites in the wilderness: (1) good harvests for food supply, (2) peace with other nations, and (3) the presence of God in the tabernacle.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) However, Christians today are no longer in the wilderness of the ancient Near East or in preparation of entering the Promised Land. Principlism’s third step is to identify the universal principle in the text. The universal principle in Leviticus 26:1-11 is that obediently trusting God as Lord provides the blessings of security, peace, and God’s presence. Alternatively, idolatry negates these blessings. Mark Rooker notes the importance of the first two verses of Leviticus 26, which address the issue of idolatry, by suggesting they may summarize the entire Law of God.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) The next nine verses focus on placing trust in God rather than idols, which is universally applicable to both the Old Testament and the New Testament (see Leviticus 26:3-11; 1 Corinthians 10:14). The fourth step of principlism is to correlate the universal principle to the New Testament by identifying how the New Covenant message may modify or qualify the principle. Although believers are no longer living in the ancient Near East wandering in the wilderness in preparation for entering the Promised Land, the risks of idolatry and the blessings of security, peace, and God’s presence remain available. However, each of the three blessings modify within a New Testament perspective. First, in contrast to the external blessing of food in the wilderness, the New Testament recasts the issue as an internal antidote to worry when one places trust in God for sustenance. Jesus illuminates the New Testament concept by stating, “For this reason I say to you, do not be worried about your life, as to what you will eat or what you will drink; nor for your body, as to what you will put on. Is not life more than food and the body more than clothing?” (Matthew 6:25). Next, instead of external peace from enemy nations or wild beasts in Canaan, God promises New Testament believers internal peace. Jesus explains the New Testament perspective by stating, “These things I have spoken to you, so that in Me you may have peace. In the world you have tribulation, but take courage; I have overcome the world” (John 16:33). In other words, in sharp contrast to blessings that guarantee worldly success or prosperity, Jesus promises peace even as believers face various challenges in the world. Finally, Wenham explains that a more literal translation of Leviticus 26:11, which refers to the blessing that God dwells among the Israelites, would be, “I shall give my tabernacle among you.”[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Accordingly, rather than experiencing the presence of God residing externally in a tabernacle, New Testament believers experience God residing internally in the form of the Holy Spirit. Jesus highlights the New Testament context of the blessing when communicating the great commission by stating, “I am with you always, even to the end of the age” (Matthew 28:20). Without question, all the blessings identified in Leviticus 26:1-11 are available to New Testament believers, but each one develops from an external blessing to an internal blessing. Unfortunately, as noted in Leviticus 26:1, idolatry can void all three of these blessings within both an Old Testament and New Testament framework. The final step of principlism is to apply the modified universal principle to life. Again, the universal principle in Leviticus 26:1-11 is that obediently trusting God as Lord provides the blessings of security, peace, and God’s presence. Alternatively, idolatry negates these blessings. In my life, I struggle with anxiety. When my work becomes my idol, I become anxious about my performance and relinquish the security, peace, and the presence that God offers. When my family becomes my idol, I become anxious about my family’s behavior and relinquish the blessings God offers. When my own body becomes my idol, I become anxious about my health and, again, relinquish the blessings of God. Certainly, God promises never to leave me, but when I put my trust in the idols of my work, family, and health, instead of God, the internal blessings of security, peace, and the presence of God vanquish into an abyss of insecurity, anxiety, and the perception, not the reality, that God is absent. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). Daniel J. Hays, “Applying the Old Testament Law Today,” *Bibliotheca Sacra* 158, no. 629 (January 2001): 30. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). Ibid., 22. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3). Ibid., 30. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4). Ibid., 35. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5). Ibid., 31–33. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6). Ibid., 30. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7). Ibid., 31. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8). Ibid., 35. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9). Millard J. Erickson, *Christian Theology*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 982. Also see 1 Thess. 5:23). [\[10\]](#_ftnref10)*.* Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the New American Standard Bible (La Habra, CA: Lockman Foundation, 1995). [\[11\]](#_ftnref11). Hays, “Applying the Old Testament Law Today,” 29. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12). Louis A. Barbieri, *Matthew*, The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty, ed. John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck (Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983), 30. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13). Craig Blomberg, *Matthew*, The New American Commentary, vol. 22 (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1992), 104. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14). Hays, “Applying the Old Testament Law Today,” 29. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15). Barbieri, *Matthew*, The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty, 30. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16). Ibid. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17). Gordon J. Wenham, *The Book of Leviticus*, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1979), 29–30. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18). William D. Barrick, “Inter-Covenantal Truth and Relevance: Leviticus 26 and the Biblical Covenants,” *Master’s Seminary Journal* 21, no. 1 (March 2010): 88. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19). Wenham, *The Book of Leviticus*, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament, 329–30. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20). Mark Rooker, *Leviticus*, The New American Commentary, vol. 3a (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2000), 360. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21). Wenham, *The Book of Leviticus,* The New International Commentary on the Old Testament, 330. ## **Bibliography** - Barbieri, Louis A. *Matthew*. The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty. Edited by John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck. Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983. - Barrick, William D. “Inter-Covenantal Truth and Relevance: Leviticus 26 and the Biblical Covenants.” *Master’s Seminary Journal* 21, no. 1 (March 2010): 81–102. - Blomberg, Craig. *Matthew*. The New American Commentary, vol. 22. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1992. - Erickson, Millard J. *Christian Theology*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007. - Hays, Daniel J. “Applying the Old Testament Law Today.” *Bibliotheca Sacra* 158, no. 629 (January 2001): 21–35. - Rooker, Mark. *Leviticus*. The New American Commentary, vol. 3a. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2000. - Wenham, Gordon J. *The Book of Leviticus*. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1979.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [The Synoptic Problem](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-synoptic-problem/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Synoptic Problem [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 23 1 182x300 - The Synoptic Problem](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-23-1-182x300.png "The Synoptic Problem - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40fRAc9)The New Testament: Its Background and Message Thomas D. Lea and David Alan Black may best define the synoptic problem by asking how it is possible to account for the numerous similarities and differences between the Synoptic Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke (Lea and Black, 114). The [Gospel of Luke suggests that eyewitnesses](https://www.livestransforming.com/luke-as-author-of-the-book-of-acts/), ancient sources, and the evangelist’s own role provide a strong foundation for the development of his work (Luke 1:1-4). Lea and Black explain that Luke’s first stage of development, the original eyewitnesses, refers to an oral tradition that “involves the discipline of form criticism” (115). Luke’s second stage pertaining to the written sources utilized by the evangelists, involves the discipline of source criticism (Lea and Black, 119). Luke’s third stage concerning the author’s activity in the work involves the discipline of redaction criticism (Lea and Black, 122). Finally, D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo suggest that tradition criticism is the simultaneous utilization of all three critical methods (79). Carson and Moo also suggest four primary solutions to the synoptic problem. First, the authors propose the solution of a “common dependence on one original gospel” (Carson and Moo, 89). In other words, an assumption that all the Synoptics emerged from an original specific work utilized by the respective evangelists. The second proposal hypothesizes a “common dependence on oral sources” (Carson and Moo, 90). The oral source argument assumes that an oral tradition developed over a period of years and underpinned the development of the Synoptics. A third argument asserts the “common dependence on gradually developing written fragments” (Carson and Moo, 90). In particular, Friedrich Schleiermacher first introduced the idea that the evangelist’s writings developed from a “collection of sayings of Jesus” (Carson and Moo, 91). A fourth explanation suggests a solution of interdependence (Carson and Moo, 91). The concept of interdependence assumes the evangelists utilized each other’s work in the development of their own (Carson and Moo, 91). Carson and Moo identify a number of arguments that explain why Markan priority is the most common scholarly solution to the synoptic problem. First, the brief nature of Mark in conjunction with the overlapping content with Matthew and Luke supports a rationale that the latter employed the former (Carson and Moo, 96). The argument of brevity appears quite strong. Next, Matthew and Luke have less in common with each other than Mark has with the other two both verbally and chronologically, which is also a relatively strong argument for Markan priority (Carson and Moo, 96). Finally, the primitive style and theology of [the Second Gospel](https://www.livestransforming.com/session-7/) supports Markan priority due to the assumption that Matthew and Luke later polished Mark’s work (Carson and Moo, 97-98). The latter assumption provides the weakest argument as other reasons may adequately explain Mark’s style and theology. Two arguments specifically oppose Markan priority. First, certain agreements between Luke and Matthew exist, which suggests a Lukan priority. (Carson and Moo, 100) Second, and possibly the strongest argument against Markan priority, is the strong agreement of Matthean priority espoused by Augustine and the church fathers (Carson and Moo, 92). I personally support an interdependent theory with Markan priority due to the strength of the arguments above regarding brevity, overlapping content, and the verbal and chronological commonality between Mark and the other two evangelists. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Carson, D. A., and Douglas J. Moo. *An Introduction to the New Testament*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005. - Lea, Thomas D., and David Alan Black. *The New Testament Its Background and Message*. 2nd ed. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes](https://www.livestransforming.com/pharisees-sadducees-essenes/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 22 182x300 - Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-22-182x300.jpg "Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3PyPfUs)Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament According to J. Julius Scott, the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes were Jewish sects or denominations (Scott, 200). Due to the emphasis on orthopraxy, it is common for the differences between the groups to pertain more to activity than theology (Scott, 201). However, numerous theological differences did exist. The Pharisees were the most accessible of the three groups to the common first century Jew. According to Josephus, they believed in God’s sovereignty, the immortality of the soul, and the human will (Scott, 203). Furthermore, Scott explains that the Pharisees had a strong belief in the written and oral law, which they considered divine, and they opposed Roman influence when in conflict with God’s law (Scott, 206). As supernaturalists, the Pharisees believed in angels, demons, and the spirit (Scott, 206). Finally, the Pharisees resisted Hellenism and political control especially when it clashed with their tradition (Scott, 206). The differences between the Sadducees and Pharisees are quite significant. First, the Jewish population trusted the Sadducees less than they trusted the Pharisees (Scott, 207). Second, Acts 23:8 succinctly summarizes a few of the major theological differences by stating, “Sadducees say that there is no resurrection, nor an angel, nor a spirit, but the Pharisees acknowledge them all” (NASB). Third, the Sadducees rejected the Pharisaic oral law and traditions, opting for their own version of interpretation, which normally supported their agenda of power (Scott, 207). Fourth, in contrast to the Pharisees, the Sadducees maintained a secularist worldview and were more open to “Hellenistic culture and the Roman political system” (Scott, 208). Accordingly, they were the party that appeared to be on the best terms with the Romans and controlled the Temple (Scott, 208). The Essenes were the most inaccessible Jewish denomination. Scott suggests that within the sects of [Intertestamental Judaism](https://www.livestransforming.com/intertestamental-period/) they “represent a monastic, ascetic, puritanical strain” (Scott, 216). Although, in many ways, information regarding the Essenes is more obscure than the Pharisees or Sadducees, certain similarities and differences have materialized. Similar to Sadducees, they rejected the Pharisaic tradition and oral law but opposed the Sadducean control over the Temple (Scott, 217). In agreement with the Pharisees, they believed in the sovereignty of God, but seemed to move beyond Pharisaic predestination to fatalism, which likely limited the human will (Scott, 217). Additionally, the Essenes believed in the immortality of the soul, which mirrored a Pharisaic belief (Scott, 217). In general, my personal beliefs align more closely with the Pharisees who support God’s sovereignty, the immortality of the soul, and human will. However, similar to the Sadducees and Essenes, I would reject the divine nature of oral traditions. The primary reason for my general alliance with the Pharisees is that their beliefs appear to more closely agree with Scripture. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Scott, J. Julius. *Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament*. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1995. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Matthew's Purpose in Telling Jesus's Birth](https://www.livestransforming.com/matthews-purpose-in-telling-jesuss-birth/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Matthew’s Purpose in Telling Jesus’s Birth [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 18 182x300 - Matthew's Purpose in Telling Jesus's Birth](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-18-182x300.png "Matthew - Lives Transforming's Purpose in Telling Jesus's Birth")](https://amzn.to/3PwJWVF)The New Testament: Its Background and Message Thomas D. Lea and David Alan Black explain that Matthew’s purpose in the telling of the birth of Jesus was to persuade the Jews of Jesus’s Messiahship (178). Accordingly, Matthew juxtaposed Jesus, the legitimate king of the Jews, with Herod, and likely appealed to the Jews with the telling of the wise men who avoided paganism and sought the Messiah (Lea and Black, 178). Furthermore, Matthew metaphorically connects the protection of the infant Christ with the protection of the nation of Israel and connects the grief over the murdered infants at the hand of Herod with the grief experienced by the exiled Jews at the hands of the Babylonians (Lea and Black, 178). Alternatively, Luke associates Jesus’s birth with a census ordered by the governor of Syria and references the announcement of the birth of Christ by angels, which prompted shepherds to attend Christ’s birth foreshadowing the Good Shepherd (Lea and Black, 177-178). Aligned with Jewish tradition,[ Luke explains](https://www.livestransforming.com/luke-as-author-of-the-book-of-acts/) that Jesus’s parents had him circumcised and gave temple offerings at his redemption ceremony (Lead and Black, 178). Finally, Luke is the only Gospel that references Jesus’s childhood (Lea and Black, 178). Specifically, at a young age, Jesus’s awareness was present, and his knowledge amazed those who heard him (Luke 2:47-49 \[NASB\]). Matthew’s account is from Joseph’s perspective and God communicates the imminent birth of Christ through an angel that appears to Joseph in a dream. The angel told Joseph not to ‘be afraid to take Mary as your wife; for the Child who has been conceived in her is of the Holy Spirit” (Matthew 1:20). Alternatively, Luke provides the birth narrative through the perspective of Mary in a vision from an angel named Gabriel. Likewise, the angel told her not to be afraid, and then announced that she will have a son and name him Jesus (Luke 1:30-31). Each evangelist connects the birth of Christ genealogically. Matthew provides the genealogy of Jesus by starting with Abraham and ending with Joseph (Matthew 1:1-16). Alternatively, Luke begins the genealogy of Jesus with Joseph and ends with Adam (Luke 3:23-38). Lea and Black propose three possible alternatives to harmonize the two genealogical accounts. First, some theorize that Matthew’s genealogy runs through Joseph, “the legal father of Jesus,” and Luke’s genealogy runs through Mary, “the actual lineage of Jesus” (Lea and Black, 174). A second proposal is that Matthew’s genealogy runs through “his actual father Jacob” and Luke’s genealogy runs through “his legal father Heli” (Lea and Black, 174). A final proposal maintained by J. G. Machen, suggests that Matthew’s genealogy runs through the “legal descendant of David,” and Luke’s genealogy runs through the “descendants of David…to which Joseph, Mary’s husband, belonged” (Lea and Black, 174). It appears that although the facts are not certain, numerous logical possibilities exist that can adequately support the harmonization of the two genealogies once the facts are available. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Carson, D. A., and Douglas J. Moo. *An Introduction to the New Testament*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005. - Lea, Thomas D., and David Alan Black. *The New Testament Its Background and Message*. 2nd ed. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003. - Scott, J. Julius. *Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament*. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1995. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Jewish Worldview Intertestamental Period](https://www.livestransforming.com/jewish-worldview-intertestamental-period/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Jewish Worldview Intertestamental Period [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 22 182x300 - Jewish Worldview Intertestamental Period](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-22-182x300.jpg "Jewish Worldview Intertestamental Period - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fWsc0O)Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament Julius Scott summarizes the Jewish worldview during the Intertestamental Period in four phases. First, the Jews of the first century believed that God continues His involvement in a universe that He created separate from Himself and inherently good (Scott, 268). In other words, Judaism opposed the concepts of deism, pantheism, and dualism. Second, the Jews believed that due to human rebellion, sin entered the universe and manifested itself as an inherent part of humanity’s nature and as an extension of humanity’s actions, thus separating itself from God (Scott, 270). Third, due to the bondage of sin, humanity is incapable of restoring the broken relationship with God, thus God is taking the initiative to heal the woundedness of humanity by “working within a special history within world history” (Scott, 270). More specifically, God is working in two stages, which include an initial stage through the nation of Israel and a second stage by which God overcomes Satan (Scott, 272). In the fourth and final phase of the Judaic worldview, God completely reverses the effects of the fall and consummates the reconciliation of humanity (Scott, 272). Although Scott adequately summarizes the basic constructs of the 1st century Judaic worldview, it is difficult to ignore the impact of the law in relationship to the Abrahamic and Mosaic covenants on the worldview of the Jewish people. Douglas Moo explains that scholars traditionally assumed that the Jews believed their obedience to the law could accomplish salvation (Moo, 212). However, recently E. P. Sanders purports the idea of covenant nomism, which suggests that grace-based election and atonement support the worldview of the Jews and that obedience to the law was only “expected as the condition for remaining in the covenant community” (Scott, 274). Regardless of Sanders’s relevant scholarship, Moo argues that Sanders does not overcome the traditional view by stating, “Works, even in Sanders’s view, play a necessary and instrumental role in ‘salvation’” (Moo, 215). A number of changes or shifts took place regarding the Jewish worldview during the Intertestamental Period. First, due to the memory of the exile from 6th century BC, an emphasis on obedience to the law occurred (Scott, 267). Second, due to the influence of Hellenism, Greek philosophy infiltrated certain aspects of Jewish perspectives such as the diminution of anthropomorphisms (Scott, 268). Third, the Hellenistic influence may have also caused the Jewish people to refrain from using the name of God, which shifted the Jewish view of God toward His transcendence and away from His immanence (Scott, 269). Fourth, again likely due to Hellenism, a shift occurred toward isolationism (Scott, 277). Finally, although the Hebrew Old Testament includes the concept of immortality, during Intertestamental Judaism, an enhanced focus on the immortality of the soul ensued (Scott, 279). Many of the elements of [the Jewish worldview](https://www.livestransforming.com/intertestamental-period-jewish-worldview/) fit my own. Specifically, my worldview generally aligns with the Jewish concepts of creation, the effects of the fall, salvation initiated by God, and a belief in a final consummation. Of course, as a product of the Reformation and an adherent to Paul’s epistles, it is difficult to align with the Jewish view of the law. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Moo, Douglas J. *The Epistle to the Romans*. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 1996. - Scott, J. Julius. *Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament*. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1995. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Jewish Attitudes Toward Gentiles](https://www.livestransforming.com/jewish-attitudes-toward-gentiles/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Jewish Attitudes Toward Gentiles [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 22 182x300 - Jewish Attitudes Toward Gentiles](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-22-182x300.jpg "Jewish Attitudes Toward Gentiles - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fWsc0O)Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament The basic attitudes of first-century Jews toward the Gentiles were diverse. According to J. Julius Scott, the evidence suggests a general disdain by Jews toward the Gentiles (335). However, exceptions to the general attitude did exist with an acceptance of certain non-Jews who maintained a respect for the law or whom Jews wanted to convert (Scott, 336; 338). The general contempt for the Gentiles was primarily due to the Gentile’s idolatry, low morality, and unclean status (Scott, 337). However, persecution by the Hellenistic leaders also increased the scorn of the Jews toward the Gentiles. Scot McKnight summarizes the attitudes of the Jews toward the Gentiles by suggesting the Jews realized God created all humanity, and accordingly, certain amicable connections existed between the two groups (Scott, 339). Alternatively, McKnight acknowledges the Jews separatist attitude as the chosen people of God, criticism of the Gentiles pagan religion, and natural reaction against the unjust treatment of the Gentiles (Scott, 339). At times, certain Gentiles desired to align with [the Jewish religion](https://www.livestransforming.com/jewish-religious-thought/). Proselytes were Gentiles who “fully converted to Judaism” (Scott, 342). Alternatively, God-fearers were Gentiles who believed in God, but were not fully converted proselytes, thus the Jews curbed their involvement (Scott, 346-347). The Jews required God-fearers to abstain from “idolatry, immorality, and ceremonial defilement” (Scott, 347). The requirements for proselytes most certainly included similar guidelines, but they may have gone further. Specifically, an assumption exists that Jews required the circumcision of males, the offering of sacrifices, and baptism (Scott, 343). Although it appears that some Gentiles did submit to circumcision, offerings, and baptism, to suggest these acts were required for admission into the Jewish community goes beyond the evidence (Scott, 343-346). The attitudes of the Jewish people during the Intertestamental Period toward the Gentiles parallel some of the same attitudes modern day Christians hold toward non-Christians. Specifically, some Christians hold a general contempt toward individuals who do not maintain a certain standard of morality or who disagree with orthodox Christian beliefs. In addition, similar to some of the Jewish people of the Intertestamental Period, Christians, at times, extend acceptance only when non-Christians abide by a certain standard of conduct or there is a sense that conversion is imminent. Unfortunately, these attitudes tend to focus attention in the wrong direction. Christians can learn from the Jewish people to hold very tightly to one’s convictions while holding loosely to the necessity to control or manipulate others to comply with Christian standards as a prerequisite to extending the medicine of the gospel of grace. In other words, Christians do well not to “think lightly of the riches of His kindness and tolerance and patience…knowing that the kindness of God leads you to repentance” (Romans 2:4 \[NASB\]). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Scott, J. Julius. *Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament*. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1995. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Intertestamental Sources](https://www.livestransforming.com/intertestamental-sources/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Intertestamental Sources [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 22 182x300 - Intertestamental Sources](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-22-182x300.jpg "Intertestamental Sources - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fWsc0O)Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament Julius Scott provides a rather comprehensive list of major sources used to reconstruct the history of the Intertestamental Period. The sources include the Hebrew Old Testament, the Septuagint, the Apocrypha, the Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the New Testament itself (Scott, 30-32). Additionally, Scott identifies the writings of Philo and Josephus, as well as various other Christian, Rabbinic, and Greco-Roman sources (Scott, 32-33). Three of the most important sources for the study of the Intertestamental Period are the Hebrew Old Testament, the writings of Josephus, and the writings of Philo. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the Old Testament, especially the Pentateuch, on Jewish religious thought and practice during the Intertestamental Period. Furthermore, the two first century writers, Josephus and Philo, supply voluminous information from a non-Christian Hellenistic Jewish perspective (Scott, 35). Josephus’s focus captures the history of Intertestamental life and the geography of Palestine, whereas Philo’s writings focus on intellectual perspectives of Hellenistic Judaism (Scott, 35). The study of Intertestamental Period sources is critical in providing a context for the New Testament regarding political perspectives, daily life, religious thought, as well as the philosophical landscape of the first century. For example, Josephus provides the primary account of Jewish history surrounding the New Testament Era and “the oldest non-Christian references to Christianity” (Scott, 37). In particular, Josephus’s *The War of the Jews* documents a rich historical context of the New Testament beginning with the influence of Antiochus Epiphanes in the 2nd century BC, continuing with the life of Herod and the influence of Vespasian in the 1st century AD, and finally, culminating in the destruction of Jerusalem (Josephus, 543-772). The political history of Palestine and its relationship to Rome as well as its impact on Jewish individuals during the 1st century is an invaluable contribution to comprehending the historical context of the writings of the New Testament. Alternatively, Philo’s perspective, which originates outside of Palestine in a large Jewish community of Egypt, contributes significantly to the history of intellectual thought of the Diaspora during the Intertestamental Period (Scott, 38-39). Specifically, Philo utilized an allegorical method of interpretation common in Alexandria to integrate both Greek and Jewish thought, which provides valuable insights into Hellenistic Judaism (Scott, 39). Philo’s writings include diverse treatises on topics such as the Law, drunkenness, the Patriarchs, and dreams (Philo 207-227; 365-435; 518-534). A correct understanding of the New Testament is difficult to imagine without an appreciation of the influence of the [Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/), the historical content of Josephus, and the synthesis of Greek philosophy on individuals and institutions of the Intertestamental Period. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Josephus, Flavius. *The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged*. Translated by William Whiston. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987. - Philo. *The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged*. Translated by C. D. Yonge. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1993. - Scott, J. Julius. *Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament*. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1995. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Historical and Literary Criticism](https://www.livestransforming.com/historical-and-literary-criticism/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Historical and Literary Criticism [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 21 182x300 - Historical and Literary Criticism](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-21-182x300.jpg "Historical and Literary Criticism - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fTtKbJ)An Introduction to the New Testament The critical methods of Carson and Moo fit into two broad categories, which include historical criticism and literary criticism. Historical criticism attempts to discover the “historical reality behind the text” (Carson and Moo, 61). Although literary criticism may subsume historical criticism, the focus of literary criticism attempts to study works of literature by focusing on the text as opposed to what is behind the text (Carson and Moo, 61). The following explores the various methods of historical and literary criticism as well as offering a solution for attaining a clear interpretation of Scripture. Historical criticism comprises several disciplines including form criticism, source criticism, redaction criticism, and tradition criticism (Carson and Moo, 55). Form criticism focuses on the various elements or characteristics of the work and specifically focuses on “the period of oral transmission” (Carson and Moo, 79). As its name implies source criticism attempts to identify the relevant written sources utilized by the writer (Carson and Moo, 85-86). Alternatively, redaction criticism focus on the authors and attempts to identify the material the writers may have added or modified based on their respective theological perspectives (Carson and Moo, 79). Finally, tradition criticism is the utilization of form, source, and redaction criticism in tandem to extract the entirety of the tradition (Carson and Moo, 79). Literary criticism may be as simple as reading the text as one would read a piece of classical literature by identifying literary devices, background, climax, and so forth (Carson and Moo, 57-58). However, a new form of literary criticism argues for an immersion into the text where a discovery of meaning occurs in an encounter with God and thus avoids the minutia of historical criticism (Carson and Moo, 60). Although the intentions of the new literary criticism appear genuine, it led to various extremes including deconstructionism, which argued that meaning was unavailable in the text alone, but instead, only available via an exchange between the reader and the text (Carson and Moo, 61). Deconstructionism naturally led to the reader-response theory that, in its extreme, leaves meaning entirely to the individual (Carson and Moo, 61). The extremes of historical criticism have the potential of leading to [an atomistic interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/bible-interpretation-historical-context/) that may completely miss the meaning of the text by focusing on the parts and avoiding the whole. Alternatively, the extremes of literary criticism risk a relativistic postmodern reading where truth or correct meaning is unavailable to humanity. Accordingly, the method with the most promise for attaining a clear interpretation of Scripture is one that provides an amalgamation of historical and literary criticism. A method that joins the two disciplines, possibly coined convergence criticism, which discerns the meaning of Scripture by identifying the reality of history and ascertaining its applicability to modern life, appears to have the most promise. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Carson, D. A., and Douglas J. Moo. *An Introduction to the New Testament*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Christianity and Hellenism](https://www.livestransforming.com/christianity-and-hellenism/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Christianity and Hellenism [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 20 182x300 - Christianity and Hellenism](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-20-182x300.jpg "Christianity and Hellenism - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4h2jzmi)Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament Julius Scott suggests Hellenism originated with Alexander the Great who sought to integrate Greek culture into the vast empire absorbed during his short reign (112). Hellenism then expanded under Alexander’s successors. Through military force, Antiochus Epiphanes sought to Hellenize Jewish society during the 2nd century BC (Scott, 81). Subsequent to Epiphanes, Herod the Great may exemplify Hellenism at its worst by acknowledging Judaism while promoting a strong Hellenistic agenda that was “probably completely pagan” (Scott, 95). Hellenism significantly influenced three areas of culture including the government, the daily life of citizens, and the philosophy of society and, at times, was non-intrusive (Scott, 113; 119). The governmental structure deployed in the Hellenistic culture ultimately provided benefits of relative peace and advanced infrastructure under *Pax Romana*, but unfortunately, the government primarily benefitted the social elite (Scott, 91; 113). Additionally, Hellenism strongly encouraged education and training in the life of individuals, but regrettably, the primary focus was on the development of political skills and the philosophies of anti-supernaturalism, humanism, and the pursuit of happiness (Scott, 114-115; 117). The problems of Hellenism for the Jews lie in its distinctions. Hellenism purported a polytheistic, humanistic, syncretic, pagan, Greek speaking culture, which was in direct opposition to the Jew’s monotheistic, ethical, isolationist, Hebrew-speaking society (Scott, 116). More specifically, the Jewish people viewed their culture from the perspective of [the Old Testament covenant](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-covenants-in-latter-prophets/), and rightly heeded the advice of the prophets who warned that pagan influence risked national destruction (Scott, 118-119). Accordingly, Hellenism challenged the “very existence of the Hebrew identity” (Scott, 119). The Jewish response to the crises of Hellenism consisted of a shift in four theological emphases as well as an accentuation of Scripture and the synagogue. First, since Jerusalem had fallen, the focus shifted from the temple to an emphasis on ethics (Scott, 123). Second, the emphasis on ethics naturally led to a shift from orthodoxy to orthopraxy and attention to the law (Scott, 123-124). Third, the risk of identity loss, prophetic warnings, and Israel’s unique covenantal status led to isolationism with the purpose of self-protection (Scott, 125). Fourth, the Jews re-emphasized traditional customs in an attempt to cling to a national identity (Scott, 126). Additionally, due to the dispersion of the Jewish nation, many intertestamental Jews lacked knowledge of Scripture (Scott, 127). Accordingly, an emphasis on Scripture ensued, which included the advancement of a number of interpretive methods, the development of the Septuagint for Greek speaking Jews, and a movement toward the canonization of the Hebrew Old Testament (Scott, 126-138). Finally, small meeting places called synagogues developed in response to the destruction of the traditional Jewish institutions (Scott, 139). A modern movement that parallels Hellenism is secular humanism. Secular humanism is a naturalistic worldview that supports influential government control, ethical relativism, and humanity as its own god (Noebel in Hindson and Caner, 444-445). Although the movements differ in regards to scientific advancement, the philosophical parallels are significant. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Hindson, Edward E., and Ergun Mehmet Caner. *The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics*. Eugene, OR: Harvest House, 2008. - Scott, J. Julius. *Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament*. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1995. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [First Century Life](https://www.livestransforming.com/first-century-life/) **Published:** February 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # First Century Life [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 18 182x300 - First Century Life](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-18-182x300.png "First Century Life - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4huhK1R)The New Testament: Its Background and Message The difficulty in generally summarizing the life of people in the first century lies in the diversity between the Jewish and Roman societies as well as the diversity within the Jewish and Roman segments of society. For example, Thomas D. Lea and David Alan Black explain that home construction in Palestine depended on the availability of natural resources, which may include stone, wood, or mud bricks (32). However, homes for the wealthy Palestinians were made of expensive durable materials, whereas the poor lived in homes with dirt or stone floors (Lea, 34). Roman homes for the wealthy normally included a form of central heating and plumbing, whereas the lower class lived in apartments (Lea, 34). The Palestinian diet included fruit, vegetables, and bread, but meat was expensive and not readily available (Lea, 34). A typical day included two meals, lunch and dinner, and social gatherings in the evenings after a day of difficult work (Lea, 34). The upper-class Roman society may include four meals a day with a diet of more exquisite cuisine (Lea, 35). It was common in the first century for individuals to wear tunics and women in Palestine to wear a veil as a head covering (Lea, 35). Construction, clothing, pottery, and metalworking were the primary industries in the first century; however, for Palestinian Jews, agriculture and fishing were the most common form of work (Lea, 38). Alternatively, industries like banking were common for the Romans (Lea, 38). Although Israel had three major roads so support its transportation system, the Romans constructed roads throughout its empire to facilitate commerce, but the primary source of transportation was water (Lea, 38). Education was important to both the Jews and the Romans. During [New Testament times](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/), rabbis started providing religious education to boys; however, the only education for girls was informal domestic training (Lea, 39). The Jewish education differed from the Greek’s who supported a liberal arts program for both boys and girls to at least the age of eighteen (Lea, 39). Palestinian Jews enjoyed singing and dancing along with various games, but unfortunately, Romans still utilized public games that included the murder of man and animals for entertainment (Lea, 39). A couple surprising elements of first century life are the fact that the Romans were already advancing into primitive forms of central heating and plumbing as well as the highly developed infrastructure of an advanced education that was certainly influenced by the Platonic and Aristotelian legacies. Many similarities exist today with first century Jewish and Roman life including an emphasis on agriculture, education, banking, and other industries such as construction. The class distinctions, enjoyment of music and games, and diets are also similar to New Testament times. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Lea, Thomas D., and David Alan Black. *The New Testament Its Background and Message*. 2nd ed. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Authorship of Matthew and Mark](https://www.livestransforming.com/authorship-of-matthew-and-mark/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Authorship of Matthew and Mark [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 18 182x300 - Authorship of Matthew and Mark](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-18-182x300.png "Authorship of Matthew and Mark - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4huhK1R)The New Testament: Its Background and Message This discussion explores the external and internal evidence for authorship along with the purpose and destination of Matthew and Mark followed by an explanation regarding the importance of author identification to modern readers. Thomas D. Lea and David Alan Black explain that the external evidence for the Gospels primarily rests in the opinions of the early Church Fathers, whereas internal evidence rests within the evangelists’ words (132). Furthermore, the internal evidence also provides insight into the purpose and destination of the two Gospels. Regarding the external evidence of Matthew, Lea and Black reference Eusebius’s quote from Papias who suggests that “Matthew wrote the oracle” (132). Although the debate continues over the exact meaning of Papias’s quote, D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo appropriately point out that later church fathers such as Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Origen all supported Matthean authorship (145). Likewise, Eusebius references a quote from Papias regarding the authorship of the second Gospel, which states, “Mark became Peter’s interpreter and wrote accurately all he remembered” (Carson and Moo, 172-173). Similar to their support of Matthean authorship, the later church fathers also support Papias’s quote regarding Mark (Carson and Moo, 173). Regarding the internal evidence of Matthew, Lea and Black refer to the tight organizational structure and financial content (134). Since Matthew was a tax collector, it seems reasonable that he would write in an orderly manner, refer to temple tax, and humbly refer to himself as a tax collector (Lea and Black, 134). Although the internal evidence of Mark is less compelling than the external, Carson and Moo note that the uncomplicated Greek would fit the style of an individual indigenous to Jerusalem such as John Mark (175). Furthermore, John Mark’s relationship with Paul may account for the Pauline theological imprint in Mark’s gospel (Carson and Moo, 175). Finally, the Petrine overtones within Mark’s gospel also add to the external evidence of Papias (Carson and Moo, 176). Although neither Gospel specifically provides a statement of purpose, the content of the works provide direction. Carson and Moo suggest that most assume Matthew wrote for Jewish individuals within close proximity (157). The assumption fits nicely with Lea and Black’s assertion that Matthew’s purpose was to reach the Jewish people with the teaching, “person, and work of Jesus” (139). Alternatively, Carson and Moo propose that Mark likely wrote with a Gentile Roman audience in mind based on the inferences and expressions within the second Gospel (Carson and Moo, 182-183). Accordingly, various specific purposes of Mark have emerged including eschatology, Christology, apologetics, and politics, but similar to Matthew, Mark shares Matthew’s overarching purpose of sharing the gospel of Christ with the world (Carson and Moo, 183-186). The authorship of the Gospels is an important issue for Christians in today’s society for two primary reasons. First, proper identification of authorship supports the credibility of Scripture. [The authors of the Gospels](https://www.livestransforming.com/authors-of-the-gospels/) were eyewitnesses or closely connected with eyewitnesses, which undergirds the reliability of the evangelists, strengthens the faith of believers, and provides a strong apologetic to unbelievers. Second, correctly establishing the author of the Gospels facilitates a proper interpretation of the message by connecting the background of the authors with the subject matter written. Accordingly, the topic of authorship continues to be highly relevant to modern readers. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Carson, D. A., and Douglas J. Moo. *An Introduction to the New Testament*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005. - Lea, Thomas D., and David Alan Black. *The New Testament Its Background and Message*. 2nd ed. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Top Tasks of a Pastor](https://www.livestransforming.com/top-tasks-of-a-pastor/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Top Tasks of a Pastor Before identifying the top five tasks of a pastor, a definition of pastoral ministry is in order. James Thompson (2006, 19-20) suggests that pastoral ministry is “participation in God’s work of transforming the community of faith until it is ‘blameless’ at the coming of Christ.” Philippians 2:16 reveals a common pattern where Paul assesses the effectiveness of ministry based on whether he can boast in a transformed community rather than laboring in vain (See also Rom. 15:15-17; 1 Cor. 3:10-15; 2 Cor. 1:12-14, 11:1-3; Gal. 2:2; 1 Thess. 2:19-20). Accordingly, the top five pastoral tasks must directly align with the purpose of pastoral ministry, which is a transformed community of faith. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 17 182x300 - Top Tasks of a Pastor](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-17-182x300.jpg "Top Tasks of a Pastor - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3CecS1x)Paul’s Idea of Community: Spirit and Culture in Early House Churches The first and primary task of a pastor is to know the people they are leading. James Stitzinger asserts that descriptive titles in Scripture such as elder, bishop, shepherd, preacher, and teacher all pertain to the same pastoral role (MacArthur 2005, 30). Accordingly, Peter exhorts the elders to “shepherd the flock of God” as undershepherds of the chief Shepherd (1 Peter 5:1-4 \[ESV\]). The chief Shepherd exemplifies a fundamental task of a shepherd by stating, “My sheep hear my voice, and I know them, and they follow me” (John 10:27). Timothy Laniak (2006, 214) highlights the importance of the shepherd knowing his sheep by stating, “it is the familiar voice of the shepherd that inspires ‘followership.'” The importance of knowing the sheep is likely why Jesus’s ministry focused on only twelve men, and why, as Robert Banks (1994, 34) explains, the average church size of Paul’s plants was approximately thirty-five. The reason knowing and being known is the first task of a pastor is because without a relationship of trust, the leader’s ability to influence community transformation is squelched. The second task of a pastor is preaching the gospel. [Preaching the gospel is sharing](https://www.livestransforming.com/sharing-the-gospel/) the Good News that God gives believers righteousness through Jesus Christ (Rom. 3:22-25; 1 Cor. 1:30; 2 Cor. 5:21). Timothy Keller (2012, 63) explains that it is necessary to share the gospel with both the irreligious relativists, those who avoid God by ignoring Him, and the religious moralists, those who avoid God by “developing a moral righteousness and the presenting it to God.” Although sharing the gospel with a large group on Sunday morning is possible, its effectiveness is suspect. William Fay (1999, 12, 29-71) explains that sharing the gospel is most effective within relationships of trust where empathy and inquiry are used, rather than lecturing. The reason sharing the gospel is the pastor’s second task is because the gospel is the impetus for all community transformation. The third task of a pastor is teaching. Sharing the gospel brings people to Christ, but teaching requires helping the community integrate the gospel into daily life. As James Thompson (2006, 86) explains, “Paul’s doctrine of justification by faith has profound implications for the moral life and community formation.” Although involvement in church activities, such as Sunday morning services, may assist, research has shown the impact of such activities on spiritual growth is limited (Hawkins and Parkinson 2007, 33-36). However, Jesus provides several examples of effective teaching within relationships of trust. First, Jesus asked questions. In Matthew 16:15 Jesus taught His disciples by asking them, “Who do you say that I am?” Next, Jesus told stories. In Matthew 13 Jesus tells a story about sowing to His disciples, and then He explains that stories help people understand God’s truth. Finally, Jesus extended empathy. In John 4:29 the women at the well felt deeply known after her encounter with the Lord, which revealed God’s love to her. The reason teaching is the third task is because teaching believers how to integrate the gospel into their beliefs, thoughts, emotions, and actions, by definition, results in community transformation. The fourth task of a pastor is prayer. Donald McDougall explains that the root of all problems stem from spiritual issues (MacArthur 2005, 150). Thus, all spiritual transformation hinges on a spiritual battle between powers of darkness and the power of light (Eph. 6:12). Accordingly, Paul implores his readers to pray “at all times in the Spirit” (Eph. 6:18). Dave Earley (2008, x) quotes J. O. Sanders saying, “Prayer influences men by influencing God to influence them.” The reason prayer is the fourth task is because without God’s spiritual influence on individuals, community transformation is impossible since all transformation depends on the working of God’s Spirit in the lives of the community. The fifth task of a pastor is duplication. In 2 Timothy 2:2 Paul states, “What you have heard from me in the presence of many witnesses entrust to faithful men, who will be able to teach others also.” Dave Earley (2013, 156) recognizes four generations of duplication in this verse, which include Paul, Timothy, faithful men, and others. The process of making disciples follows the pattern of the previous four pastoral tasks. First, build a relationship with other individuals. Second, share the gospel. Third, train followers to live the gospel. Fourth, pray for the community. The fifth task is likely the most important task of a pastor because community transformation will cease without a process of recruiting, equipping, and duplicating disciples. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Banks, Robert J. 1994. *Paul’s Idea of Community: The Early House Churches in Their Cultural Setting*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. - Earley, Dave, and Rod Dempsey. 2013. *Disciple Making Is…: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville: B&H Academic. - Earley, David. 2008. *Prayer: The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders*. Chattanooga, TN: Living Ink. - Fay, William, and Linda Evans Shepherd. 1999. *Share Jesus without Fear*. Nashville: B&H. - Hawkins, Greg, and Cally Parkinson. 2007. *Reveal: Where Are You?* Barrington, IL: Willow Creek Association. - Keller, Tim. 2012. *Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. - Laniak, Timothy S. 2006. *Shepherds after My Own Heart: Pastoral Traditions and Leadership in the Bible*. Edited by D. A. Carson. Vol. 20, *New Studies in Biblical Theology*. Downers Grove: InterVarsity. - MacArthur, John, and the Master’s Seminary Faculty. 2005. *Pastoral Ministry: How to Shepherd Biblically*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson. - Thompson, James W. 2006. *Pastoral Ministry According to Paul*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Relating to the Muslim Community](https://www.livestransforming.com/relating-to-the-muslim-community/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Relating to the Muslim Community The central issue surrounding the article, “Muslims in Evangelical Churches,” pertains to how Christians should interact with the Muslim community in America. James Hood identifies two extremes, which highlight the peripheral issues. He explains that Qur’an burning and protesting the construction of mosques is absurd (Hood 2011, 2). Alternatively, the author suggests that offering sanctuary space to Muslims facilitates false worship that may lead people to stumble, violate sacred space, and undermine the love command (Hood 2011, 2-3). Hood (2011, 2) appears to support several potential intermediate steps or compromises, such as sharing recreational space, evangelism, communicating Christ’s exclusivity, and supporting freedom of religion. Unfortunately, the author’s theological concerns rest primarily on a misreading of Scripture, and the implied solution of compromise misses the mark. First, the theological conundrums begin to resolve when Scripture is understood within a first century, rather than twenty-first century, context. Of the 23 times the Greek lemma, *σκανδαλίζω*, is used within the context of causing to stumble, it always pertains to believers. Gordon Fee (1987, 392) explains that the real concern of 1 Corinthians 8:13 is the “love for those within the community of faith.” In other words, to suggest that sharing a building would cause a fallen non-believer to stumble from the Christian faith is incoherent. Regarding violating sacred space, the author appears to assume that the physical building has a violable sacred nature. Commenting on Ephesians 2:21, Harold Hoehner (2002, 411) explains that the New Covenant temple consists of those positionally “in Christ” who are the “growing body of believing Jews and Gentiles…the residence of God.” Accordingly, to oppose sharing physical space due to its sacred nature fails. Regarding the Golden Rule, Hood (2011, 2) implies that the pastors who share their physical space with Muslims may be contorting the Golden Rule. Granted, to interpret the passage in a way that suggests that if a drug addict wants drugs, then the addict should give drugs to others, is unthinkable. The Golden Rule is proclaimed by the Law and the Prophets, which means the application of the Rule must be wrapped in *loving* God and *loving* others, not selfish desires (Matt 22:36-40). Alternatively, to give kindness to Muslims to get them to change their minds, also insults the Rule. Ulrich Luz (2007, 367) points out that within the context of the Sermon on the Mount, the Golden Rule is “an empathy rule rather than a reciprocity rule.” Thus, a proper application of the Golden Rule must encompass both love and empathy. Although Hood (2011, 3) questions the possibility of biblical application to the situation, a proper understanding of stumbling, sacred space, and the Golden Rule allows for a biblical application to the sharing of physical space with Muslims. Second, the application of the Golden Rule with empathy and love renders the concept of compromise impotent. A contextual rendering of the Golden Rule may be, “Regarding sharing physical space, care for Muslims the same way you would want to be cared for if you were a Muslim in the same situation.” Jesus’s life exemplifies the Golden Rule’s empathy and love. Jesus’s incarnation was the ultimate expression of empathy, which allowed Him to extend care, and serve people who did not believe in Him (John 1:14). Jesus’s extension of love caused Him to spend time, share meals, and deeply know others, by sharing His sacred space with the outcasts and unbelievers (Mark 2:14-17; John 4:28-29). [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 16 182x300 - Relating to the Muslim Community](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-16-182x300.png "Relating to the Muslim Community - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3Pv9ouy)Straining at the Oars: Case Studies in Pastoral Leadership Accordingly, the question is not whether a community of believers should share a physical building with Muslims, but whether a community of believers should share their sacred space, their “in Christ” self, with Muslims. If the Christian community listens, understands, extends care, gains trust, and facilitates discovery, then sharing physical space could be an extension of empathy wrapped in love. However, if the believing community shares physical space to be politically correct or try to change Muslims, then the act would not only be unloving, but also self-serving. In sum, love is always the vehicle, and God is always the change agent. Third, the issue at hand raises several pastoral concerns. Dana Fearon and Gordon Mikoski (2013, 81-82) recognize that situations involving issues outside of the believing community are risky. Accordingly, the authors suggest developing a [theological basis for decisions](https://www.livestransforming.com/theological-research/), seeking member support, utilizing sermons to communicate biblical application, inviting Muslims to briefly speak about their situation, and encouraging the congregation to get to know Muslims (Fearon and Mikoski 2013, 84-86). Inevitably, emotionally laden topics will face resistance. Accordingly, Fearon and Gordon (2013, 54-55) suggest that obtaining explanations, clarifying complaints, and working toward a resolution can assist in responding to conflict. Furthermore, avoiding triangulation, facilitating an understanding of different perspectives, and working toward consensus will also assist (Fearon and Mikoski 2013, 55-57). All these suggestions need considered by a pastor leading a community of believers through potential conflict. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Fearon, H. Dana, and Gordon S. Mikoski. 2013. *Straining the Oars: Case Studies in Pastoral Leadership*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans. - Fee, Gordon D. 1987. *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans. - Hoehner, Harold W. 2002. *Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. - Hood, Jason B. 2011. “Muslims in Evangelical Churches: Does Loving Your Neighbor Mean Opening Your Doors to False Worship?” Christianity Today, January 3. Accessed February 20, 2018. http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2011/januaryweb-only/muslimsevangelical.html. - Luz, Ulrich. 2007. *Matthew 1-7: A Commentary on Matthew 1-7*. Hermeneia – A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible. Edited by Helmut Koester. Rev. ed. Minneapolis: Fortress. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [God does Nothing Apart from Prayer](https://www.livestransforming.com/god-does-nothing-apart-from-prayer/) **Published:** February 5, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # God does Nothing Apart from Prayer The conundrum of providence and prayer has precipitated a longstanding debate. On the one hand, if human prayers limit God’s freedom to act, then God’s sovereignty is at risk. On the other hand, if God’s sovereign plan is fixed, then what would be the purpose of prayer? Some assert that the purpose of prayer is primarily to change human hearts to align with God’s intentions. Although the idea has merit, examples in Scripture, such as the Lord’s Prayer in Matthew 6:9-13, appear to focus more on entreaties than reflection. Thus, this brief analysis will provide a possible, but not dogmatic, explanation as to how prayer can make an eternal difference, while simultaneously upholding God’s sovereignty. Scripture provides numerous examples of the extent of God’s knowledge. In 1 Samuel 23:1-13, David asks God whether the people of Keilah would turn him over to Saul if he decided to travel to the Judean city. God responded in the affirmative. However, the event that God foreknew did not actually happen. Michael Heiser (2015, 64) asserts that David’s account “clearly establishes that divine foreknowledge does not necessitate divine predestination.” In other words, 1 [Samuel 23 provides an example of God’s hypothetical knowledge](https://www.livestransforming.com/davids-swan-song-in-2-samuel-23-1-7/), where He knew what would happen given a certain set of circumstances, though it did not actually happen. William Lane Craig (Helm, Craig, and Brierley 2014, 65) explains that God’s hypothetical knowledge is a knowledge of counterfactuals, also called middle knowledge, because it is knowledge between the range of two possible worlds, between “what *could* happen” and “what *will* happen.” The view that Craig espouses is a form of Molinism, which is named after Louis de Molina, a Jesuit counter-Reformer (Helm, Craig, and Brierley 2014, 64). An understanding of God’s hypothetical knowledge may assist in resolving the conundrum of providence and prayer. First, within a doctrine of hypothetical knowledge, individual freedom is maintained because God knows all alternative possibilities, but simultaneously allows individuals to freely choose. For example, David chose not to be turned over to Saul by traveling to Keilah, which significantly impacted his life. Similarly, individuals are free to choose to pray or not to pray, which will significantly impact their lives. Second, within a doctrine of hypothetical knowledge, God’s sovereignty is maintained. Craig (Helseth, Craig, and Highfield 2011, 82) explains that if God has knowledge of every set of potential circumstances, then “by employing His hypothetical knowledge, God can plan a world down to the last detail and yet do so without annihilating creaturely freedom, since God has already factored into the equation what people would do freely under various circumstances.” [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 15 182x300 - God does Nothing Apart from Prayer](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-15-182x300.png "God does Nothing Apart from Prayer - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BUCkcx)Prayer: The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders The direct application of God’s hypothetical knowledge to the subject of prayer is now possible. God has known all of humanity’s potential prayers from the beginning of time, and He has incorporated them into His providential plan. Thus, current prayers do not control, manipulate, or change an immutable God, but they do have an impact by being incorporated into God’s providential plan. Accordingly, Kirk MacGregor (2015, 123) explains that because God knows “how each individual would freely pray in any set of circumstances, God uses this information…as part of the cornucopia of free decisions God makes in his decree to create this world,” and “decides to respond to some of our prayers in such a way that prayers change the course of the future.” In sum, David Earley’s (2008, 10) statement, “God does nothing in ministry apart from prayer,” is too simplistic because, without further explanation, it risks undermining God’s sovereignty. Regarding whether God acts only in concert with His servants’ prayers, the answer is yes, because His servants’ prayers are incorporated into His created order. Finally, regarding whether God is free to act as He chooses, the answer is also yes, because God freely chooses His decrees in the creation of the world, which simultaneously incorporates His servants’ prayers. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ## **References** - Earley, David. 2008. *Prayer: The Timeless Secret of High-Impact Leaders*. Chattanooga, TN: Living Ink. - Heiser, Michael S. 2015. *The Unseen Realm*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham. - Helm, Paul, William Lane Craig, and Justin Brierley. 2014. “Calvinism Vs. Molinism.” *Journal for Baptist Theology & Ministry* 11, no. 1 (Spring): 62–77. - Helseth, Paul Kioss, William Lane Craig, and Ron Highfield. 2011. *Four Views on Divine Providence*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. - MacGregor, Kirk R. 2015. *Luis de Molina: The Life and Theology of the Founder of Middle Knowledge*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Successful Christian Intercultural Living](https://www.livestransforming.com/successful-christian-intercultural-living/) **Published:** February 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Successful Christian Intercultural Living Two principles of successful intercultural living, communication, and ministry are belonging and identification. A. Scott Moreau, Gary Corwin, and Gary McGee suggest that the principle of belongingness is difficult for new missionaries.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) It is difficult to leave old friends, a familiar setting, and a comfortable home and reestablish life in a completely new culture. Elizabeth and E. Thomas Brewster provide several practical steps that missionaries can take to increase belongingness. First, new missionaries can immediately immerse themselves into the new culture, [build relationships with the local community](https://www.livestransforming.com/evangelism-relationships-and-community/), and communicate their desire to learn.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Second, the missionary needs to learn the language by living with a local family, utilizing public transportation, and engaging in relationships that require language use.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Third, new missionaries need to understand that the stress and risk associated with entering a new culture actually increases the chance for successful belongingness.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) When new missionaries follow these three steps, the chance for successful intercultural living, communication, and ministry significantly increases. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 14 182x300 - Successful Christian Intercultural Living](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-14-182x300.png "Successful Christian Intercultural Living - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/42c5Cy4)Encountering Theology of Mission: Biblical Foundations, Historical Developments, and Contemporary Issues (Encountering Mission) The second principle of successful intercultural living, communication, and ministry is identification. Craig Ott, Stephen Strauss, and Timothy Tennent assert that missionaries should identify with humanity like Jesus did.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Just as Jesus identified with the Jewish culture where he lived, missionaries should adopt the new culture where they minister. Darrell Whiteman explains that similar to Jesus, “We must be willing to…speak their language, to adjust our lifestyle to theirs, to understand their worldview and religious values, and to laugh and weep with them.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Whiteman explains that each time humans identify with other cultures and extend the Gospel, it is incarnational – the same process that God used to become human through Jesus Christ.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) William Reyburn highlights six obstacles that missionaries must overcome to identify with a new culture. The first three obstacles include the power of unconscious habits, the recognition that identification has limits, and the challenge of surrendering held beliefs.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Missionaries must recognize their own counter-cultural habits, not become discouraged by issues outside of their control, and hold loosely to cultural beliefs, such as a western view of time and property. The final three obstacles include the problem of food, ideological insulation, and the challenge of sacrifice.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Missionaries need to recognize that something as simple as the food they eat may cause difficulty in forging relationships. Furthermore, missionaries should resist morphing people into their own culture and be willing to sacrifice cultural assumptions.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) By avoiding these six obstacles, the missionary significantly increases the chance of successful intercultural living, communication, and ministry. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) A. Scott Moreau, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee, *Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015), 199. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Elizabeth S. Brewster and E. Thomas Brewster, “The Difference Bonding Makes,” in *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 466-67. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 467–68. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 469. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Craig Ott, Stephen J. Strauss, and Timothy C. Tennent, *Encountering Theology of Mission: Biblical Foundations, Historical Developments, and Contemporary Issues*, ed. A. Scott Moreau (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010), 100. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Darrell L. Whiteman, “Anthropology and Mission: The Incarnational Connection,” *Missiology* 31, no. 4 (October): 408. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) William D. Reyburn, “Identification in the Missionary Task,” in *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 472-74. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 472–74. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 474–76. ## **Bibliography** - Brewster, Elizabeth S., and E. Thomas Brewster. “The Difference Bonding Makes.” In *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, edited by Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 465–69. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009. - Moreau, A. Scott, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee. *Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015. - Ott, Craig, Stephen J. Strauss, and Timothy C. Tennent. *Encountering Theology of Mission: Biblical Foundations, Historical Developments, and Contemporary Issues*. Edited by A. Scott Moreau. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010. - Reyburn, William D. “Identification in the Missionary Task.” In *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, edited by Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 470–76. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009. - Whiteman, Darrell L. “Anthropology and Mission: The Incarnational Connection.” *Missiology* 31, no. 4 (October): 397–415.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Paul's Missionary Methods](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-missionary-methods/) **Published:** February 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Paul’s Missionary Methods [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 13 182x300 - Paul's Missionary Methods](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-13-182x300.jpg "Paul - Lives Transforming's Missionary Methods")](https://amzn.to/4jfyxXR)Paul the Missionary: Realities, Strategies and Methods Paul utilized numerous missionary methods to support his ministry efforts. The following analysis highlights five characteristics of Paul’s missionary methods. First and foremost, Eckhard Schnabel’s list of Paul’s missionary methods begins with the requirement that the Gospel of Jesus Christ must be communicated privately and publicly to the Jew and the non-Jew.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) In Acts 13:47, Luke explains that Paul’s initiative was first to the Jews, but also to the Gentiles with the purpose of bringing “salvation to the ends of the earth.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, it is not surprising that Paul spent time in Jewish synagogues where the message of the Gospel could be shared with both Jews and Gentiles. The inclusive nature of Paul’s ministry to all humanity must continue to resonate with all churches and Christians, not just those who have a specific missionary call. The second characteristic of Paul’s missionary methods is that, rather than having people come to him, he traveled to the people he desired to reach. Specifically, Schnabel notes that Paul preached in “marketplaces, lecture halls, workshops, and private houses.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Importantly, Paul’s method was not to preach in any specific building. Instead, Paul’s method was to share the message of the Gospel in venues where people were open to discussing matters of faith. Unfortunately, modern Christianity has focused so intently on gathering at a building on Sunday morning that other potential locations are often discounted or ignored. The third characteristic of Paul’s missionary methods is engaging society with cultural sensitivity. A. Scott Moreau, Gary Corwin, and Gary McGee explain that Paul contextualized the message to his audience and attempted to eliminate any unnecessary obstacles to the gospel, while simultaneously recognizing certain contextualization limits.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) An example of the extent of Paul’s cultural sensitivity is represented in Acts 16:3 when he had Timothy circumcised because of the Jews who knew that Timothy’s father was Greek. Paul’s method is particularly pertinent for modern Christians. Contextualization ought to appropriately consider the implications of class, culture, gender, and the like. However, when a good thing is stretched beyond its limits, it loses its goodness, and likewise, contextualization without limits risks syncretism, which can undermine the Gospel. The fourth characteristic of Paul’s missionary methods is planting churches. Arthur Glasser explains that a primary objective of Paul’s missionary strategy was to plant congregations anywhere Jews or Gentiles responded to [the message of the Gospel](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-gospels-for-all-christians-book-review/). [\[5\]](#_ftn5) Moreau, Corwin, and McGee suggest that forming Christian communities was a natural extension of the conversions to Christ, thus Paul would not stay in a particular area longer than necessary. [\[6\]](#_ftn6) By continuing to plant church communities, Paul not only multiplied his efforts, but also decreased the risk of creating a stifling dependent relationship with his church plants. Unfortunately, many modern churches have lost sight of Paul’s concerns and intentionally attempt to create a dependent relationship to maintain job security for staff members. The fifth characteristic of Paul’s missionary methods is relying on the power of God. Moreau, Corwin, and McGee provide an important insight by asserting that Paul’s reliance on the Holy Spirit trumped any strategic planning or programming so common in the West.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Schnabel highlights the importance of identifying the reasons for successful missionary efforts, and he provides twelve reasons that may have contributed to Paul’s successful missionary endeavors, such as the impact of Pax Romana, evidence of miracles, and the courage of martyrs.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) However, none of these factors adequately explain Paul’s success. Paul’s success relied on the power of the Holy Spirit and the preaching of the Gospel (Acts 9:28-31). In a culture where “how to be a success” books may be more popular than the Bible, Christians must remember that spiritual impact rests solely on the power of the Spirit. Thus, missionary success is always and solely the work of God. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Eckhard J. Schnabel, *Paul the Missionary: Realities, Strategies, and Methods* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2008), 257. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Schnabel, *Paul the Missionary*, 304. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) A. Scott Moreau, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee, *Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015), 62–63. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Arthur F. Glasser, “The Apostle Paul and the Missionary Task,” in *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 151. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Moreau, Corwin, and McGee, *Introducing World Missions*, 62-63. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 61. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Schnabel, *Paul the Missionary*, 258, 357-70. ## **Bibliography** - Glasser, Arthur F. “The Apostle Paul and the Missionary Task.” In *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, edited by Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 149–53. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009. - Moreau, A. Scott, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee. *Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015. - Schnabel, Eckhard J. *Paul the Missionary: Realities, Strategies, and Methods*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2008.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Impact of Samuel Zwemer on Missions](https://www.livestransforming.com/impact-of-samuel-zwemer-on-missions/) **Published:** February 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Impact of Samuel Zwemer on Missions [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 12 182x300 - Impact of Samuel Zwemer on Missions](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-12-182x300.png "Impact of Samuel Zwemer on Missions - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4jfywmL)Samuel Zwemer: The Burden of Arabia (Christian Heroes: Then and Now) The impact of Samuel Zwemer on the history of Islamic missions is difficult to overstate. According to J. Christy Wilson, Zwemer was born in Michigan in 1867 to a Christian family with a Dutch reformed background, attended Hope College in Holland, Michigan, and then enrolled in seminary in New Jersey in 1887. [\[1\]](#_ftn1) During seminary, Zwemer became friends with James Cantine who partnered with Zwemer to begin raising funds for a new mission to Arabia.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Zwemer’s missionary career occurred in three phases. Lyle Vander Werff explains that during the first phase, which lasted from 1891-1912, Zwemer spent time in Iraq, Bahrain, Oman, and Kuwait working in the areas of evangelism, education, and medical support.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Wilson notes that during this phase, Zwemer married a young nurse, Amy Wilkes, and then returned to the United States in 1905 where he accepted two job offers, a field secretary for the Reformed Board of Foreign Missions as well as a representative for the Student Volunteer Movement.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) During the second phase of Zwemer’s career from 1913-1928, Vander Werff explains that Zwemer ministered in Cairo, Egypt, where he produced Christian literature at the center of Islamic thought.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Also, during this phase, Zwemer became the editor for the influential quarterly publication, *The Moslem World*, which he edited until 1947.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The third and final phase of Zwemer’s career took place at the Princeton Theological Seminary beginning in 1928.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Zwemer was the Chair of History of Religion and Christian Missions where he continued to write and publish books on Christian missions to Islam.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Zwemer’s major contribution to global mission’s history is founded upon a missionary strategy with Muslims that evolved over time. John Hubers explains that Zwemer began his missionary efforts as a harsh critic of Islam.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Zwemer described Islam as spiritual slavery and a sociological straightjacket, and he attacked Islam’s view of God, rejection of the Bible, views of Muhammad and the Qur’an, as well as the morality of Islam.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) However, as Zwemer’s career progressed, Vander Werff explains that Zwemer’s approach became more anthropological and Christocentric by extending empathy to the people of Islam and their beliefs.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) In other words, instead of attacking the Islamic faith, Zwemer shifted to a focus that found common ground with Muslims and shared the Good News of the Gospel. For example, Hubers notes that although Zwemer’s later ministry still found Muhammad as flawed, he could recognize the creative genius of Islam’s prophet.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Zwemer even came to believe that “Allah is merely a different name for the same God worshiped by Jews and Christians.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) In sum, the common ground that Zwemer experienced forged and empowered empathy, and it caused him to be more of a listener who focused on dialog, rather than polemic.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) During a century when Christian and Muslim relations have been described as a “clash of civilizations,” Zwemer’s lesson of empathy may be more important than ever for the future success of Christian missionaries with the Muslim community.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Accordingly, Zwemer’s major contribution to global mission’s history may be accurately summed up by Kenneth Scott Latourette who stated, “No one through all the centuries of Christian missions to the Muslims has deserved better than Dr. Zwemer the designation of Apostle to Islam.”[\[16\]](#_ftn16) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) J. Christy Wilson Jr., “The Legacy of Samuel M. Zwemer,” *International Bulletin of Missionary Research* 10, no. 3 (July 1986): 117. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Lyle L. Vander Werff, “Our Muslim Neighbors: The Contribution of Samuel M. Zwemer to Christian Mission,” *Missiology* 10, no. 2 (April 1982): 187. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) J. Christy Wilson Jr., “The Legacy of Samuel M. Zwemer,” *International Bulletin of Missionary Research* 10, no. 3 (July 1986): 118. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Vander Werff, “Our Muslim Neighbors: The Contribution of Samuel M. Zwemer to Christian Mission,” 187. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) J. Christy Wilson Jr., “The Legacy of Samuel M. Zwemer,” *International Bulletin of Missionary Research* 10, no. 3 (July 1986): 119. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Vander Werff, “Our Muslim Neighbors: The Contribution of Samuel M. Zwemer to Christian Mission, 187. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) J. Christy Wilson Jr., “The Legacy of Samuel M. Zwemer,” *International Bulletin of Missionary Research* 10, no. 3 (July 1986): 120. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) John Hubers, “Samuel Zwemer and the Challenge of Islam: From Polemic to a Hint of Dialogue,” *International Bulletin of Missionary Research* 28, no. 3 (July 2004): 118. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 118–19. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Vander Werff, “Our Muslim Neighbors: The Contribution of Samuel M. Zwemer to Christian Mission, 191. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Hubers, “Samuel Zwemer and the Challenge of Islam: From Polemic to a Hint of Dialogue,” 120. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 121. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid., 121. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid., 117. ## **Bibliography** - Hubers, John. “Samuel Zwemer and the Challenge of Islam: From Polemic to a Hint of Dialogue.” *International Bulletin of Missionary Research* 28, no. 3 (July 2004): 117–21. - Vander Werff, Lyle L. “Our Muslim Neighbors: The Contribution of Samuel M. Zwemer to Christian Mission.” *Missiology* 10, no. 2 (April 1982): 185–97. - Wilson, J. Christy Jr. “The Legacy of Samuel M. Zwemer.” *International Bulletin of Missionary Research* 10, no. 3 (July 1986): 117–21.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Difficulties of Non-Western Missionaries](https://www.livestransforming.com/difficulties-of-non-western-missionaries/) **Published:** February 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Difficulties of Non-Western Missionaries Describe the current phenomenon of missionary movements from the non-Western world. What are the advantages and difficulties for non-Western missionaries? ## **Response** Over the last century, sweeping changes have occurred with regards to the geographical shift in Christian growth and the provenance of missionary efforts. Bruce Koch explains that the growth of non-Western missionaries has increased seventeen times more than Western missionaries in the ten-year span from 1990-2000.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Beram Kumar recognizes that Western and non-Western missionary movements are now on equal footings.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The missionary efforts in the twentieth century focused on reaching unreached people groups, which has spurred non-Western dominance that exemplifies the current phenomenon on missionary movements.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) For example, Timothy Olanade explains that indigenous missionary efforts in Nigeria led to an explosion of missionaries from Nigerian churches, while simultaneously, the number of expatriate missionaries shrunk substantially.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Current missionary movements have also seen a shift in the way mission organizations collaborate. Huneycutt explains that the expansion of indigenous mission movements in the non-West provides opportunities for the West and the non-West to partner and bring the strengths of both parties together to reach all people for Christ.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) By most any standard, the current shift in mission movement has been a great success. Patrick Johnstone summarizes the impact by stating, “Although many peoples are still unreached, the number is only a fraction of that of 100 years ago.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 11 182x300 - Difficulties of Non-Western Missionaries](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-11-182x300.jpg "Difficulties of Non-Western Missionaries - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/429HgoA)Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey (Encountering Mission) The advantages of non-Western missionaries primarily reside in the indigenous nature of their efforts. Kumar explains that the proximity that non-Western churches and missionaries have to relief efforts allows for maximum impact.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Furthermore, a deeper understanding of the non-Western culture and access to parts of the world that may not be open to Western missionaries also provides opportunities for non-Western missionary efforts. [\[8\]](#_ftn8) However, difficulties also exist for non-Western missionaries. As Christianity continues to move south, Johnson and Lee identify several potential challenges which include potential theological reinterpretations, the importance of language translation, the issue of poverty, conflict with religions antagonistic to Christianity, and the continued challenge to embrace new cultural forms within unreached people groups.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) One new thing I learned was the impact of the majority world on missionary effort. A. Scott Moreau, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee highlight the fact that a “new day has dawned” in majority world missions, where believers will go “from everywhere to everywhere.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Although I had heard about the rise of Christianity in places such as South America and Korea, I had no idea of the breadth of majority world missions. Accordingly, it is not surprising that educational initiatives have shifted, and the majority world now educates the West on missions and missionary strategies. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Bruce A. Koch, “The Surging Non-Western Mission Force,” in *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 370. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Beram Kumar, “No Longer Emerging,” in *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 369. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Timothy Olonade, “Majority World Sending,” in *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 371. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Yvonne Wood Huneycutt, “New Pioneers Leading the Way in the Final Era,” in *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 381. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Patrick Johnstone, “Expecting a Harvest,” in *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 386. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Kumar, “No Longer Emerging,” 370. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Todd Johnson and Sandra S. K. Lee, “From Western Christendom to Global Christianity,” in *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 388–89. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) A. Scott Moreau, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee, *Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015), 270. ## **Bibliography** - Huneycutt, Yvonne Wood. “New Pioneers Leading the Way in the Final Era.” In *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, edited by Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 377–81. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009. - Johnson, Todd, and Sandra S. K. Lee. “From Western Christendom to Global Christianity.” In *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, edited by Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 387–92. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009. - Johnstone, Patrick. “Expecting a Harvest.” In *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, edited by Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 382–86. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009. - Koch, Bruce A. “The Surging Non-Western Mission Force.” In *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, edited by Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 370. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009. - Kumar, Beram. “No Longer Emerging.” In *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, edited by Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 369–70. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009. - Moreau, A. Scott, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee. *Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015. - Olonade, Timothy. “Majority World Sending.” In *Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader*, edited by Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 371. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Defining Missions](https://www.livestransforming.com/defining-missions/) **Published:** February 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Defining Missions How is mission and missions defined? How is this similar to or different from your previous ideas about missions? Finally, tell us about any involvement in missions that you have previously had (i.e., short-term missions, praying for missionaries) and what you hope to gain from this class. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 11 182x300 - Defining Missions](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-11-182x300.jpg "Defining Missions - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/429HgoA)Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey (Encountering Mission) ## **Response** Historically, the terms mission and missions have been used interchangeably, but more recently, a distinction between the two terms has emerged. A. Scott Moreau, Gary Corwin, and Gary McGee assert that the term *missions* pertains specifically to the work of the local church and mission agencies in spreading the gospel across different cultures.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) However, the term *mission* is broader in scope, and it encompasses “everything the church is doing that points toward the kingdom of God.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Somewhat surprisingly, Craig Ott, Stephen Strauss, and Timothy Tennent explain that the term mission does not occur in most Bible translations.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) However, the term originates from the Latin word, *mitto*, that means to send, and it reveals itself in [the Greek New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/) in verbs meaning to send such as ἀποστέλλω and πέμπω.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Within a generation of churchgoers who often focus more on “coming” rather than “going,” and “attending” rather than “sending,” the Greek language highlights a critical aspect of the terms mission and missions. Finally, Johannes Blauw takes the idea of ἀποστέλλω and πέμπω one step further by suggesting that the very essence of Church is its sending by stating, “It is exactly by going outside itself that the Church is itself and comes to itself.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The definitions of mission and missions mostly align with my previous idea of missions. However, the definitional distinction between mission and missions is helpful. Personally, I have never been able to line up my reading of Scripture with the current church environment where individuals sit in seats on Sunday morning and pay missionaries, pastors, and other vocational ministers to do God’s work, when Scripture appears to be abundantly clear that God calls *all* believers to make disciples (Matt 28:19). Accordingly, the term mission is a necessary distinction as all believers are part of the mandate to further the kingdom of God. Alternatively, not all believers are called to serve unreached people groups by crossing cultural boundaries. Individuals called to this specific type of “sending” need specialized support in the form of training and financial assistance. Thus, differentiating the term missions to identify a missionary’s unique calling appears prudent. My involvement in cross-cultural missions has been limited. I have not participated in any short-term or long-term cross-cultural mission trips overseas; however, I have participated in several inner-city mission endeavors. Furthermore, I have a good friend who moved to Kathmandu, Nepal with his wife almost twenty years ago as missionaries. They provide a holistic missionary approach, which includes Gospel recordings, church plants, and discipleship training alongside caring for orphans, medical support, and vocational training. I continue support my friends’ ministry in various ways and enjoy meeting with them during furloughs. After scanning the course material, I have concluded that I am quite ignorant when it comes to cross-cultural missions. Although my home church financially supports missionaries, my awareness has been limited to missionary speakers who periodically discuss far-off lands. In general, I hope to expand my breadth of knowledge not only regarding a biblical and historical perspective of cross-cultural missions, but also regarding effective strategies that reach unreached people groups. More specifically, I am interested in how to reach cultures that have often been antagonistic toward Christianity, such as Muslims, in order to gain the courage necessary to reach individuals with Muslim backgrounds who are entering my local community. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) A. Scott Moreau, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee, *Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015), 17. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Craig Ott, Stephen J. Strauss, and Timothy C. Tennent, *Encountering Theology of Mission: Biblical Foundations, Historical Developments, and Contemporary Issues*, ed. A. Scott Moreau (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010), xiv. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Johannes Blauw, *The Missionary Nature of the Church: A Survey of Biblical Theology of Mission* (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962), 122. ## **Bibliography** - Blauw, Johannes. *The Missionary Nature of the Church: A Survey of Biblical Theology of Mission*. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962. - Moreau, A. Scott, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee. *Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015. - Ott, Craig, Stephen J. Strauss, and Timothy C. Tennent. *Encountering Theology of Mission: Biblical Foundations, Historical Developments, and Contemporary Issues*. Edited by A. Scott Moreau. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Evangelism Vision: Sample](https://www.livestransforming.com/evangelism-vision-sample/) **Published:** February 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Evangelism Vision: Sample The purpose of this paper is to furnish a serious self-evaluation of my current and future evangelistic perspectives and efforts. The evaluation will explore the content learned during the semester, my vision for evangelistic integration, and an analysis regarding the assimilation of evangelism and multiplication with future ministry efforts. First, this paper will provide a summary of the primary lessons learned about evangelism, which include communicating with postmodernists, sharing the Christian faith without arguing, listening empathetically, and utilizing servant evangelism to reach the lost. Second, a section regarding evangelistic vision ensues alongside an evaluation of current and future personal changes necessary for implementation. The final section of the paper examines how evangelism will specifically relate to my future ministry. ## **LEARNING** During the semester, I have learned numerous relevant concepts and practices regarding evangelism that have changed my perception and challenged my thinking. The following summarizes four key areas of learning. First, I have learned how to integrate evangelism within a postmodern society. McRaney suggests that the deconstructionist nature of postmodernism rejects “any one individual’s ability and right to determine absolute truth for another person.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Accordingly, McRaney asserts that inquiry rather than providing information increases effective communication in postmodernity.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The apologetics class at Liberty University focused primarily on a rational defense of Christianity, which significantly enhanced my knowledge and provided tools to argue for the tenets of the Christian perspective. However, this semester I have recognized the importance of combining knowledge with inquiry. In fact, it appears that knowledge void of inquiry risks sectarianism and inquiry void of knowledge risks syncretism. Furthermore, McRaney notes that a postmodern perspective focuses attention on significance, meaning, and purpose instead of primarily on heaven or hell.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The ramifications of McRaney’s observation are exciting and significant for evangelistic efforts. An evangelistic emphasis too heavily weighted on the topics of heaven and hell risk a conversion experience based completely on fear, and possibly, at the expense of the ongoing relationship. However, evangelism that focuses on significance, meaning, and purpose has the ability to answer questions of a postmodern world while simultaneously providing eternal hope. More specifically, by focusing evangelistic attention on a nonbeliever’s potential union with Christ, the evangelist can provide a message of significance and meaning based on the individual being “incorporated into Christ and Christ into the believer.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Accordingly, I have learned that communicating the Gospel message in light of Christ and the believer being *in* one another may provide the relational and experiential connection necessary to provide meaning to a lost postmodern world without excluding a message of eternal hope. Second, I have learned to share the Christian faith without arguing. William Fay’s methodology not only appropriately engages a postmodern world through a system of inquiry and discovery, but also provides a system of evangelism that allows a believer to share the Christian faith without arguing. Specifically, Fay’s approach consists of four essential steps. Step one includes asking five share questions and responding to each answer with “hmmm.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The second step consists of sharing seven Scripture verses and asking the interlocutor what the words mean.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The next step encourages the believer to ask five commitment questions with the final one asking the nonbeliever to invite Jesus into his or her life.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The remaining step is praying the sinner’s prayer with the nonbeliever.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Fay provides additional ways to overcome objections and guide new believers, but the essence of the evangelistic system contains the four steps. From the four steps, two specific concepts were of particular importance to my approach to personal evangelism. First is the significance of inquiry, which allows me to have a discussion regarding spiritual matters without manipulation or argumentation. The second important idea is the concept of discovery, which allows the believer to recognize the message of the Holy Spirit. By allowing nonbelievers to read the Scripture verses aloud, the believer provides unrestricted opportunity for the Holy Spirit to work. Tim Keller quotes his wife who supports the critical notion of allowing the Holy Spirit to work by stating, “Don’t try to be the Holy Spirit…you’re under qualified for the job.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Accordingly, I have learned that the practical integration of inquiry and discovery are both crucial tools in all initiatives of personal evangelism. The third essential lesson I have learned is to integrate empathic listening into personal evangelism. David Wheeler references Jerry Pipes by suggesting that empathetic listening is the “deepest level of listening and authentic ministry.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Wheeler continues by suggesting that deep listening includes seeking to determine the nonbeliever’s perspective, asking good questions, and granting psychological air to the conversation.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Reflective listening is both an art and a science that has ancient roots originating even before the time of Christ. Accordingly, I have empathetically utilized repeating and rephrasing individuals’ thoughts and feelings in various aspects of life including marriage, parenting, business, and even ministry. However, somewhat embarrassingly, I had not consciously integrated empathic listening into evangelistic initiatives. Eugene Peterson brilliantly paraphrases the concept of empathy in the New Testament letter to the Corinthians by stating, “I didn’t take on their way of life. I kept my bearings in Christ—but I entered their world and tried to experience things from their point of view” (1 Cor. 19-23 The Message). Without question, entering a nonbeliever’s world and experiencing life from their perspective is an important lesson learned this semester. Finally, I have learned the important lesson of servant evangelism. Regarding servant evangelism, Richard Leach and David Wheeler state, “Acting without serving is incomplete, and speaking without getting to [the truth about Jesus Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-historicity-of-jesus/) is incomplete.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) My previous exposure to servant evangelism had been limited to methods that appear manipulative or disingenuous. For example, handing out bottled water with business cards promoting Sunday morning church service felt more like a marketing approach of reciprocity in order to enhance the influence of the institution rather than a true concern for a lost soul. Although I understand that my perception may highlight an unhealthy form of skepticism, Leach and Wheeler’s emphasis on connecting acts of service directly with the Gospel provide a necessary link that increases my understanding of the importance of service. Accordingly, I have learned that serving nonbelievers in practical ways is a biblical and valid form of evangelism. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 9 1 182x300 - Evangelism Vision: Sample](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-9-1-182x300.jpg "Evangelism Vision: Sample - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/42bt6mF) Maximum Faith ## **VISION** My personal vision as it relates to integrating evangelism into every part of my life in the days to come must align with the vision of Jesus. The Gospel of Matthew clearly states Jesus’s vision: “Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, even to the end of the age” (Matthew 28:19-20, \[NASB\]). Due to the significant misconception of the Gospel by the majority of Christians, I have historically emphasized the colossal need for the discipling component of the Great Commission in my life and ministry.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) However, one cannot ignore a similar need for the outreach component of the Great Commission. Dave Earley and David Wheeler assert that America is now the fourth largest unchurched nation in the world.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Accordingly, my personal vision must emphasize the importance of both evangelism and discipleship in my life and future ministry. I will need to make a number of specific and significant changes in my life in order to fulfill my vision. First, I must expand my ability to engage in small talk. My introverted nature causes small talk to be quite difficult for me. Last week I attended the Indianapolis 500 with almost 250,000 strangers. In the past, I would not have spoken to even one. However, due to this evangelism course, I actually initiated a discussion with a stranger walking in a large crowd of people with me. I found it interesting how much one can learn in only ten minutes of discussion. In retrospect, one out of 250,000 people seems paltry, but my effort to begin discussions must continue and expand. Second, I must become much more involved in asking intentional questions. The man I met at the Indianapolis 500 actually divulged that he attended a Lutheran University, which provided a perfect transition into a spiritual discussion. Unfortunately, I missed the opportunity and did not make the mental connection until about an hour later. Third, I must become less focused. My God-given ability to focus for long periods is a blessing and a curse. Accordingly, I must learn to intentionally keep my eyes open and increase my awareness of what is happening around me. My personal vision of evangelism has already affected my family and it appears it will continue into the future. I have a wife of twenty-five years and three children with ages ranging from seventeen to twenty-two. All three children accepted Christ as young adolescents. However, Jerry Pipes and Victor Lee suggest, “If we truly want our children to accept the gospel, then our commitment to Christ must spill over to those around us who do not know Christ.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) In the past, I have spent time leading family Bible studies, but participation seemed to wane. Accordingly, I decided to move in a different direction. After reading the assigned material this semester, we began meeting as a family every week with a threefold purpose that included growing, sharing, and serving. Instead of teaching a Bible study, I have had the children read a few verses alongside an evangelical commentary during the week.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) On Sunday evenings, I would ask the children what they believed the verses were saying to them. We would also spend time discussing how each one would serve and share during the coming week. The involvement of the children increased substantially during these sessions while simultaneously enhancing the vision of serving and sharing. I am praying that our family time together continues. Relating to nonbelievers in my community where I live, work, and play is difficult for me. First, I am the Chief Executive Officer of a multi-million dollar company that I founded twenty years ago. I have often been overly cautious when issues of faith arise at work due to the risk of potential discrimination allegations. However, I have learned that much evangelism can occur by asking questions rather than providing information. Accordingly, I plan to enhance my evangelistic efforts through intentional inquiry in order to advance the Gospel while simultaneously decreasing the legal risks at work. Second, I live in an affluent neighborhood in the wealthiest county in Indiana. Unfortunately, neighbors tend to be highly individualistic and autonomous. Much of the practical service related to servant evangelism would appear unnecessary or viewed with a high degree of skepticism. However, I have found that kind conversation is welcome. Accordingly, I have been waving at neighbors that drive by while I run in the morning, and I initiated a discussion with a neighbor at a local restaurant last week. Although I am poor at initiating and maintaining informal conversations, I plan to build on these very small steps. Finally, my limitations regarding small talk also infiltrate my play. However, a couple weeks ago while playing golf with my son in Florida I actually asked the twosome behind us to join our play. While playing, I asked a number of questions and perpetuated a lengthy conversation. My son, who is quite conversational, laughed at the dad he had never met. Adopting the role of a servant will influence my future ministry in evangelism and allow me to minister to others in two significant ways. First, it will decrease my selfish focus and move me away from my comfort zone. Frankly, when it comes to practical service, I do not even like changing light bulbs. Light bulb changing is an activity that I would rather delegate or hire someone to do because it is below my pay grade, thus not an effective use of financial resources. Although embarrassingly prideful, the logic seems to make sense in a business environment. However, Leach and Wheeler state, “Denying self is the first requirement for becoming a sacrificial servant.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) It is time I deny my selfish desires in a practical way. Second, adopting the role of a servant will provide opportunities to connect with individuals that I would otherwise not meet. Through acts of service especially related to construction, I can serve and deploy volunteers to perform such items as home repair, painting, sealing driveways, and other related activities affording me the opportunity to engage in the lives of people that I would never meet. ## **MINISTRY** Over the last decade, I have sensed a call to ministry. Furthering my education at Liberty University was one response to God’s call. Although the direction of my call to ministry continues to live in a state of ambiguity, the following summarizes the current direction of God’s leading as it relates to evangelism, multiplication, and church planting as I finish my degree. Unfortunately, the state of the Protestant church in America is in a state of decline and in many ways faces a significant crisis. Josh McDowell summarizes the American church situation well by stating, “The various creative approaches attempted over the course of this decade have drawn attention but produce little if any, transformational impact…Although many people attend a church, few Americans are committed to *being* the Church.”[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Furthermore, Earley and Wheeler suggest, “Without a mammoth change in the culture of the contemporary church that prioritizes fervent evangelism, Christ-centered discipleship, and biblical truth over personal comfort and individual preferences, the Church will continue to decline, and Christianity will lose its influence an identity.”[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Accordingly, the call of ministry in my life pertains to solving the challenge of being the Church. The vision of my future ministry involves the creation and deployment of Decentralized Evangelical Missional Communities (DEMC) called Freedom Communities (see Appendix for DEMC illustration). The intent of the communities is to be the Church. At the core of the communities is the Gospel, which places the identity of believers in Christ rather than in locations outside of self, such as performance, other people, circumstances, or any other faculty of the world (Ephesians 1:13, 2:4-5, 3:6). The multiplication strategy involves the training and deployment of servant leaders, who commit to a 90-day training initiative for the purpose of planting and leading decentralized communities. The Freedom Communities have three distinct purposes, which include sharing in Christ (evangelism), growing in Christ (discipleship), and serving in Christ (missional). First, each servant leader learns to facilitate sharing in Christ (evangelism) through intentional inquiry. Intentional inquiry is a broad term that encompasses five steps involving empathy, asking permission, Scripture, inquiry, and sharing the Gospel. The intentional inquiry specifically focuses on meaning and purpose rather than heaven and hell. For example, by asking where a nonbeliever finds meaning as well as the risks associated with finding meaning in the world, a believer opens the possibility of sharing a personal story of finding meaning in Christ, which appropriately engages a postmodern mindset. Second, each leader learns to facilitate growing in Christ (discipleship) through empathic discovery. Empathic discovery is a form of relational discipleship that involves empathy, assessing willingness, inquiry, Scripture, and sharing the identity solution. Empathic discovery decentralizes the learning process of the community and creates an environment where participants talk and listen to God and then share God’s activity each time the community meets. The leader facilitates the discussion by using the steps of empathic discovery. Third, each leader learns to facilitate serving in Christ (missional) through dangerous missional activity. Dangerous missions are any extension of service beyond an individual’s comfort zone that integrates the message of the Gospel whether it be walking across the street to a neighbor or moving to Africa. The missional leadership training is similar to sharing and growing in Christ. The leader utilizes empathy, inquiry, asking permission, and Scripture to lead the group into missional activity. Freedom Communities consist of no more than fifteen people and meet in houses, cafés, parks, schools, work locations etc. Each time the community meets, the leader facilitates discussion regarding the community’s activity around sharing, growing, and serving in Christ. As opposed to the passive nature of the organizational church, decentralized communities actively engage as church organisms. The leaders encourage participation in Sunday morning services that preach the Gospel and celebrate God, but the location of attendance is irrelevant. The development and deployment of leadership training will occur during the summer of 2013, and the formation of individual Freedom Communities commence in the fall of 2013. ## **CONCLUSION** This paper explored a number of essential evangelistic concepts learned during the semester, provided a vision for integrating evangelism into my personal life, and presented a strategy to assimilate evangelism into future ministry. A serious self-evaluation underpinned the content and structure of the paper to support personal integration. Based on the evangelistic concepts learned, the vision developed, and the ministry initiatives planned, the mission is clear, the field is ripe, and the time is now to *be* the church. ## **APPENDIX** Decentralized Evangelical Missional Communities (DEMC) Illustration\* \* The above diagram represents a conceptualization of Decentralized Evangelical Missional Communities. Illustration created by Derek Wilder. **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Will McRaney Jr., *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003), 119. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 128. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 127. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Millard J. Erickson, *Christian Theology*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 965. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) William Fay and Linda Evans Shepherd, *Share Jesus Without Fear* (Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999), 29-40. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 41-55. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 59-61. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 65. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) The Gospel Coalition, “A Biblical Theology of Revival”, The Gospel Coalition Web site, Adobe Flash Player file, 47:18-47:28, http://thegospelcoalition.org/resources/a/a\_biblical\_theology\_of\_revival (accessed May 27, 2013). [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Dave Earley and David Wheeler, *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010), 230. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 231-32. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Richard Leach and David A. Wheeler, *Minister to Others* (Nashville, TN: LifeWay, 2010), 57. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) For statistical information regarding Christian misconceptions of the Gospel, see George Barna, *Maximum Faith: Live Like Jesus* (Ventura, CA and New York: Metaformation Inc. and Strategenius Group LLC, 2011), 37. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Earley and Wheeler, *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence*, 29. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Jerry Pipes and Victor Lee, *Family to Family: Leaving a Lasting Legacy* (Lawrenceville, GA: Jerry Pipes Productions, 1999), 70. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) For the commentary used in the family Bible studies, see John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck, eds., *The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty* (Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983). [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Leach and Wheeler, *Minister to Others*, 81. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Josh McDowell, *The Last Christian Generation* (Holiday, FL: Green Key Books, 2006), 19. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Earley and Wheeler, *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence*, 30. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Barna, George. *Maximum Faith: Live Like Jesus*. Ventura, CA and New York: Metaformation Inc. and Strategenius Group LLC, 2011. - Earley, Dave, and David Wheeler. *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010. - Erickson, Millard J. *Christian Theology*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007. - Fay, William, and Linda Evans Shepherd. *Share Jesus Without Fear*. Nashville, TN: B&H, 1999. - Leach, Richard, and David A. Wheeler. *Minister to Others*. Nashville, TN: LifeWay, 2010. - McRaney, Will Jr. *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003. - Pipes, Jerry, and Victor Lee. *Family to Family: Leaving a Lasting Legacy*. Lawrenceville, GA: Jerry Pipes Productions, 1999. - The Gospel Coalition. “A Biblical Theology of Revival.” The Gospel Coalition Web site. Adobe Flash Player file. http://thegospelcoalition.org/resources/a/a\_biblical\_theology\_of\_revival (accessed May 27, 2013). - McDowell, Josh. *The Last Christian Generation*. Holiday, FL: Green Key Books, 2006. - Walvoord, John F., and Roy B. Zuck, eds. *The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty*. Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Evangelism: Absolute versus Relative Truth](https://www.livestransforming.com/evangelism-absolute-versus-relative-truth/) **Published:** February 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Evangelism: Absolute versus Relative Truth ## **Part 1** In the video presentation that shows an interview with a nonbeliever named Lindsay, it becomes evident that Lindsay’s belief system aligns with a postmodern perspective. Specifically, Lindsay states, “I believe in an individual absolute truth…I have something that is true to me, but it may not be true to you.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Lindsay’s comments align directly with the postmodern perspective identified by Will McRaney who suggests postmodernism rejects “any one individual’s ability and right to determine absolute truth for another person. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 8 182x300 - Evangelism: Absolute versus Relative Truth](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-8-182x300.jpg "Evangelism: Absolute versus Relative Truth - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3WfCD8t)The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture [\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, a postmodern evangelistic response to Lindsay is most appropriate. First, prayer must be a top priority. Dave Earley provides an important reminder that since God can do things faster, better, and greater than I, then not praying is absurd.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Without question, God has the ability to align circumstances of life to gain the attention of Lindsay. God often allows difficult circumstances to enter a person’s life to provide an opportunity for God to reveal Himself. However, as God works in Lindsay’s life, if I am not available, then the evangelistic effort is crippled. Thus, a second focus must be on building a relationship with Lindsay. McRaney provides a number of principles to guide relational living in a postmodern world including asking inquiring questions, initiating discussions regarding meaning and purpose, and caring for individuals beyond an evangelistic agenda.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Accordingly, the plan to reach Lindsay would be to pray for God to work in Lindsay’s life, make myself available to join God in His work as He prompts, and intentionally keep my eyes open for ways to relationally engage Lindsay. More specifically, I would look for ways to ask questions, open discussions around the meaning of life, and care for Lindsay in practical ways patiently waiting for God to connect with Lindsay in His perfect timing. ## **Part 2** Upon review of the assigned websites a number observations arose. First, the GotLife.org website uses the acronym LIFE, which stands for love, isolation, forgiveness, and eternal life and then concludes with leading an individual to Christ using the acronym ABC, which stands for admitting sins, believing Jesus died for sins, and confessing verbally and publicly belief in Christ. The system appears to be a helpful paradigm that is similar to many other acronyms used in evangelistic settings. Next, *The Way of the Master* website has the stated purpose of equipping Christians to share the Gospel in a simple way. Kirk Cameron and Ray Comfort assert that 80 to 90 percent of individuals that have made decisions for Christ have fallen away from the faith and anecdotally assume this is because people do not properly understand sin prior to conversion.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Accordingly, the methodology used for evangelism focuses on convincing individuals they have broken the Ten Commandments and need Jesus, like a parachute, to keep them from falling into hell.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Although eternal issues are critically important, to use fear based techniques to supposedly keep people from falling away appears manipulative and naïve in light of the Gospel of grace. In fact, it seems more likely the reason people fall away from the faith is an inability to appropriate grace rather than a lack of fear (cf. Galatians 1:6-7). Finally, I attempted to review SimplyShareJesus.com, but the website appears to no longer exist. However, while searching for the website I came across an oddly named website named jeffkaul.com/ac/ssj/ index.html, which is apparently a ministry of Alpine Church out of Illinois that provides six evangelism lessons entitled “Simply Sharing Jesus.” Interestingly, this method is the only evangelistic system I have found that had an entire lesson regarding the implications of dwelling in Christ. The individuals I have led to Christ over the past number of years occurred by focusing on helping hurting individuals discover their identity in Christ. In fact, one of the greatest church planters and evangelists of all time, [the Apostle Paul](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-apostle-pauls-perspective-on-jewish-law/), references the importance of a believer being “in Christ” more than 160 times in his letters excluding Colossians, Ephesians, and the Pastorals.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Additionally, Paul references “in Christ” 36 times in Ephesians alone.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Ironically, Paul “never uses the Greek words that are normally translated “hell,” and “never in his letters explicitly uses hell as a means of stimulating unbelievers to repent.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Accordingly, my overall approach to evangelism will integrate the message of a believer’s new identity in Christ with William Fay’s no-argument methodology of evangelism, which focuses on inquiry. Servant evangelism will allow me to maintain relationships with nonbelievers until the worldly idols of identity, such as money, fame, spouse, children, and career inevitably let them down and the nonbeliever looks for a more solid place to find meaning. Finally, my testimony, which consists of an emotional collapse from my addiction to work caused by the idol of performance will allow me to share how my new identity in Christ set me free. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). Liberty University, “Presentation: Lindsay Video”, Liberty University Web site, Microsoft Silverlight file, 3:56-4:15, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 19, 2013). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). Will McRaney Jr., *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003), 119. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3). Liberty University, “Presentation: Air Assault – Not Enough Prayer”, Liberty University Web site, Microsoft Silverlight file, 7:00-7:15, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 19, 2013). [\[4\]](#_ftnref4). McRaney, *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture*, 127-29. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5). Living Waters Publications, “Hell’s Best Kept Secret”, The Way of the Master Web site, Adobe Flash Player file, :01-4:00, http://wayofthemaster.com/videolessons.shtml (accessed May 19, 2013). [\[6\]](#_ftnref6). Ibid., 33:38-37:48. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7). Harold W. Hoehner, *Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary* (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002), 170. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8). Ibid., 173. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9). Douglas J. Moo, “Paul on Hell,” in *Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment.*, ed. Christopher W. Morgan and Robert A. Peterson (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004), 109. ## ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Hoehner, Harold W. *Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary*. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002. - Moo, Douglas J. “Paul on Hell.” In *Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment.*, edited by Christopher W. Morgan and Robert A. Peterson. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004. - Liberty University. “Presentation: Air Assault – Not Enough Prayer.” Liberty University Web site. Microsoft Silverlight file. http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 19, 2013). - Liberty University. “Presentation: Lindsay Video.” Liberty University Web site. Microsoft Silverlight file. http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 19, 2013). - Living Waters Publications. “Hell’s Best Kept Secret.” The Way of the Master Web site. Adobe Flash Player file. http://wayofthemaster.com/videolessons.shtml (accessed May 19, 2013). - McRaney, Will Jr. *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Evangelism: Relationships and Community](https://www.livestransforming.com/evangelism-relationships-and-community/) **Published:** February 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Evangelism: Relationships and Community [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 8 182x300 - Evangelism: Relationships and Community](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-8-182x300.jpg "Evangelism: Relationships and Community - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3WfCD8t)The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture The very core of the Gospel hinges on the words relationship and community. Will McRaney explains, “God desires to establish a redemptive relationship with all of humankind.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The relationship God desires is the most intimate connection imaginable whereby believers reside *in* Christ. It is *in* Christ that believers have adoption, forgiveness, and an inheritance (Ephesians 1:5, 7, 11 NASB).[\[2\]](#_ftn2) In other words, without a relationship, the Good News does not exist. Additionally, McRaney proposes that God furthers His redemptive work to include community by extending the intimacy necessary for individual salvation to an “invitation to join His family.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The Apostle Paul states, “*In* Himself He might make the two into one new man” (Ephesians 2:15 \[italics mine\]). Peter O’Brien summarizes the importance of God’s community making by suggesting, “Christ brought them \[Jews and Gentiles\] together in a sovereign act that was nothing less than a new creation.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In other words, the very essence of God’s redemptive activity includes individual relationships and the entire believing community, which both intimately reside relationally *in* Christ. McRaney highlights the dual nature of redemption by stating, “God desires to have an intimate relationship with His creations, individually and corporately.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The way relationship and community affect personal evangelism is twofold. First, the concepts of relationship and community must affect the message. Although the eternal consequences of salvation are of utmost importance, the evangelistic message must extend beyond heaven and hell. In fact, Douglas Moo explains, “Paul never in his letters explicitly uses hell as a means of stimulating unbelievers to repent.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) McRaney supports the “now” component of the “now and not yet” mission of Christ by referencing John 10:10-11, which suggests that Jesus “came to bring meaning, purpose, and fulfillment.” Believers have the powerful evangelistic opportunity to share that God made Christ “who knew no sin *to be* sin on our behalf, so that we might become the righteousness of God in Him” (2 Corinthians 5:21). How exhilarating it is to offer individuals a message of freedom to stop tirelessly seeking their own goodness and instead experience God’s righteousness, as a new creation in Him. Second, relationship and community must affect the messaging. McRaney points out that regardless of humanity’s limitations, “God still chooses to use people to communicate His message.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Obviously, if humanity is God’s vehicle of choice, then the highway of individual relationships must exist for God’s message to persist. Furthermore, McRaney suggests that although an individual sharing Christ is powerful, the message of a community of believers is more powerful.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Accordingly, one must not underestimate the impact of relationships and community on either the message or the messaging in regards to personal evangelism. ## **PART 2** The assigned readings from the book *Evangelism Is…* in conjunction with the videos regarding listening have the potential to influence my approach to evangelism in five significant ways. First, Dave Earley provides an example of leading a friend to Jesus by having the friend read Scripture aloud.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Requesting a friend to read Scripture aloud provides an opportunity for the reader to take ownership of the meaning of the verse while simultaneously allowing room for the Holy Spirit to work, which is a very simple and powerful practice that I will immediately implement into my approach to evangelism. Second, Earley correctly asserts that fulfillment and happiness do not result from focusing on self.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) C. S. Lewis takes Earley’s logic further by defining Hell itself as “a state where everyone is perpetually concerned about his own dignity and advancement.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Without question, self-focus hinders my intentionality regarding personal evangelism. Accordingly, it is critical that I mitigate the focused nature of my personality and increase my awareness of the needs around me. Third, Early utilizes examples from Acts 6-8 to prove that personal evangelism is not for the few, but for all followers of Christ.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Unfortunately, I must admit that I have often inappropriately assumed that evangelism was primarily for the gifted few. Although I may not have overtly expressed the idea, my actions certainly supported the assertion, which must change. Next, Early references James Kennedy who states, “Only 5 percent of all [Christians have ever led anybody to Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-assurance-of-a-christian/).”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Although I have led hundreds of leadership and discipleship training seminars, the statistics prove that personal evangelism must be part of the training I provide for other believers. Finally and possibly most importantly is the significant impact that listening will have on my approach to personal evangelism. Ironically and somewhat embarrassingly, I have been using and teaching empathic listening skills for over a decade, but due to the inappropriate beliefs identified above, I had not connected the power of listening to personal evangelism. Earley appropriately encapsulates the importance of listening by stating, “In contemporary culture listening equals love!”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Additionally, David Wheeler summarizes the tenets of active listening as reflecting feelings, seeking to understand, asking questions, and providing psychological air.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) The combination of requesting Scripture to be read aloud, decreasing my selfish focus, realigning my beliefs regarding who evangelizes, training others, and integrating active listening skills into sharing Christ will certainly have the potential of significantly enhancing my approach to evangelism. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). Will McRaney Jr., *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003), 16. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). Unless otherwise noted, all Bible references are taken from the New American Standard Version (1995 Update), Lockman Foundation. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3). McRaney, *The Art of Personal Evangelism, 17.Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture*, 16. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4). Peter T. O’Brien, *Word Biblical Commentary: Colossians, Philemon* (Mexico: Thomas Nelson, 2000), 44:199. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5). McRaney, *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture*, 20. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Douglas J. Moo, “Paul on Hell,” in *Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment.*, ed. Christopher W. Morgan and Robert A. Peterson (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004), 109. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7). McRaney, *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture*, 40. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8). Ibid., 41. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9). Dave Earley and David Wheeler, *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010), 4-6. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10). Ibid., 13. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11). C. S. Lewis, *The Quotable Lewis: An Encyclopedic Selection of Quotes from the Complete Published Works of C. S. Lewis*, ed. Wayne Martindale and Jerry Root (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House, 1989), 291. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12). Earley and Wheeler, *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence*, 20. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13). Ibid., 35. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14). Ibid., 229. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15). Liberty University, “Presentation: Hints for Active Listening,” Liberty University Web site, Microsoft Silverlight file, :20-2:22, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 11, 2013). ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Earley, Dave, and David Wheeler. *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010. - Lewis, C. S. *The Quotable Lewis: An Encyclopedic Selection of Quotes from the Complete Published Works of C. S. Lewis*. Edited by Wayne Martindale and Jerry Root. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House, 1989. - Liberty University. “Presentation: Hints for Active Listening.” Liberty University Web site. Microsoft Silverlight file. http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 11, 2013). - McRaney, Will Jr. *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003. - Moo, Douglas J. “Paul on Hell.” In *Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment.*, edited by Christopher W. Morgan and Robert A. Peterson. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004. - O’Brien, Peter T. *Word Biblical Commentary: Colossians, Philemon*. Vol. 44. Mexico: Thomas Nelson, 2000.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Evangelism: Issues for Lost People have Changed](https://www.livestransforming.com/evangelism-issues-for-lost-people-have-changed/) **Published:** February 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Evangelism: Issues for Lost People have Changed [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 8 182x300 - Evangelism: Issues for Lost People have Changed](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-8-182x300.jpg "Evangelism: Issues for Lost People have Changed - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3WfCD8t)The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture This is a reaction to two of Will McRaney’s statements. First, McRaney states, “The questions and issues for lost people have changed. I am not sure that we are listening to the questions any longer. Is it possible that in our efforts to communicate we are simply shouting our answers at a higher pitch?”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) I agree that many of the questions lost people are asking have changed. For example, the issues of modernity that pertain to science, evolution, Darwinism, and theodicy have waned.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Alternatively, many issues for lost people have remained intact since before Christ. McRaney explains that postmodernity focuses on issues relating to purpose, meaning, and care.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) It is difficult to imagine any time in history where these issues were not concerns of humanity. However, I completely align with McRaney’s concern that believers are no longer listening, and instead, shouting louder. One of the most significant results of the Protestant Reformation was the rise of the importance of preaching. Martin Luther, states, “Let us then consider it certain and conclusively established that the soul can do without all things except the Word of God.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Although Luther rightly stressed the importance of preaching the Word of God, many Christians have actually defined church as preaching to the exclusion of other vital ingredients of church life. The unfortunate result is an imbalanced perspective of church that leaves many believers assuming that preaching at people, possibly at higher decibel levels, is the only real form of [Christian activity](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-assurance-of-a-christian/). The unintended consequence of this type of reductionist ecclesiology is a form of church whereby active preachers talk to passive consumers. Accordingly, David Wheeler correctly insists, “We are probably not going to change the world by just raising up more preachers…because the concept is really not a biblical concept.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The consumerist culture of the Western church has decimated the impact of Christianity during the last century.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) However, a lifestyle of service, which opposes the very nature of consumerism, has the opportunity to reverse the declining trend of Christianity in the West. David Wheeler correctly suggests that believers have it backwards when asking individuals to *come* to church, when the Great Commission commands believers to *go*.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) A Christ follower’s life must live incarnationally out of a new nature in Christ by proclaiming the Gospel, being agents of social justice and spiritual transformation, as well as loving everyone.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Examples of incarnational living may include the intentional integration into sports as well as keeping eyes open in order to join God’s work throughout the day.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) A more dramatic representation of incarnational living may be necessary when ministering to those incarcerated or who have experienced tragedies or disasters.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Wheeler further explains that the obvious and necessary presupposition of incarnational living is detaching from organizational programming and connecting one heart to another.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The natural result of a compassionate heart is an impressive God empowered reversal of the “sin of isolation and condemnation,” which is so abhorrent to a postmodern society and so powerful that it could radically change the trajectory of Christendom.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) McRaney poses the second statement in the form of a question: “Could it also be true that if we do not love one another, people will struggle to know that we are His disciples? And even worse, whether Jesus is the one real God?” Without question, I agree with this statement, and the Bible clearly supports McRaney’s assertion. First, Dave Earley and David Wheeler expound on the story of the woman at well in John 4. The authors explain that Jesus loved the woman by stepping out of His comfort zone, crossing barriers, turning the conversation toward spirituality, listening to her, pointing out her sin, and introducing Himself to her.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) In other words, the reason the woman came to know Jesus as God is due to the love that Christ extended. Alternatively, the disciples overlooked the woman, ignored Christ’s work, missed the spiritual opportunity, failed to see the potential harvest, and underestimated the power of one.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) In sum, the disciples did not extend love, and one can only assume that the woman would not have recognized the disciples as followers of the Man who showed such deep love for her. David Wheeler provides a second biblical example from John 13 where Jesus washed the disciple’s feet.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Wheeler explains that Christ’s “actions were motivated by love,” and showed “love in action.”[\[16\]](#_ftn16) In other words, Christ humbly models the path for believers to follow in order to love well and point others to Jesus as the one real God. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). Will McRaney Jr., *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003), 128. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). Ibid. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3). Ibid., 128. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4). Martin Luther, “A Treatise on Christian Liberty,” in *Three Treatises* (Philadelphia, PA: Muhlenberg, 1947), 23. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5). Liberty University, “Presentation: Servant Evangelism – Part 1”, Liberty University Web site, Microsoft Silverlight file, 6:50-7:02, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 13, 2013). [\[6\]](#_ftnref6). Dave Earley and David Wheeler, *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010), 28-29. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7). Ibid., 213. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8). Ibid., 213-18. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9). Ibid., 205-9. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10). Ibid., 221-24. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11). Liberty University, “Presentation: Servant Evangelism – Part 2”, Liberty University Web site, Microsoft Silverlight file, 1:24-1:45, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 13, 2013). [\[12\]](#_ftnref12). Liberty University, “Presentation: Servant Evangelism – Part 5”, Liberty University Web site, Microsoft Silverlight file, 2:50-2:56, http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 13, 2013). [\[13\]](#_ftnref13). Earley and Wheeler, *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence*, 121-26. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14). Ibid., 129-34. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15). Ibid., 148-50. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16). Ibid., 149. ## BIBLIOGRAPHY - Earley, Dave, and David Wheeler. *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010. - Liberty University. “Presentation: Servant Evangelism – Part 1.” Liberty University Web site. Microsoft Silverlight file. http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 13, 2013). - Liberty University. “Presentation: Servant Evangelism – Part 2.” Liberty University Web site. Microsoft Silverlight file. http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 13, 2013). - Liberty University. “Presentation: Servant Evangelism – Part 5.” Liberty University Web site. Microsoft Silverlight file. http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab\_tab\_group\_id=\_2\_1&url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/courseMain?course\_id=\_1981517\_1 (accessed May 13, 2013). - Luther, Martin. “A Treatise on Christian Liberty.” In *Three Treatises*. Philadelphia, PA: Muhlenberg, 1947. - McRaney, Will Jr. *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Evangelism: Dealing with Lost People](https://www.livestransforming.com/evangelism-dealing-with-lost-people/) **Published:** February 3, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Evangelism: Dealing with Lost People This is a reaction to Will McRaney’s statement: “Dealing with lost people will cause us to get our hands dirty and sweaty just like tending to yard work. Part of evangelism is to clear up misconceptions and misperceptions people have about the gospel. Dealing with people and evangelism is often messy.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) First, the post will provide a brief reaction to the misconception of the Gospel and the messiness of evangelism. Next, an exploration of the messiness of evangelism and clearing up misconceptions of the Gospel ensues in light of Dave Early and David Wheeler’s book *Evangelism Is…* and personal testimonies. The misconception of the Gospel and its impact on evangelism originates with that fact that over half of the self-professed [Christians misunderstand the Gospel](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-gospels-for-all-christians-book-review/). Timothy Keller insists there are three ways to respond to God. First, one can accept God’s development and gift of righteousness through Christ (1 Cor. 1:30; 2 Cor. 5:21).[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Second, you can reject God by completely shunning God.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Third, one can reject God by “embracing and obeying God’s law so as to earn your salvation,” which rejects “the gospel in favor of moralism.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Furthermore, George Barna’s research claims that 54% of self-described Christians, 18 or older, “believe that if you are a good person, or do enough good things, they can earn their way into Heaven” and that “doing your best to be obedient…is what provides spiritual wholeness.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) If part of evangelism is to clear up the misconception of the Gospel, then a correct understanding of the Gospel by those who evangelize is imperative. The misunderstanding of the Gospel by the majority of Christians leads to damaging effects on evangelistic efforts. McRaney emphasizes that personal evangelism must avoid judging, shaming, manipulating, and winning arguments.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) However, if moralism constitutes the Gospel, then evangelism tends to naturally judge, shame, manipulate, and argue in order to prove the necessity of its moral agenda. Alternatively, if the Gospel is God’s work and not man’s, then evangelistic efforts look to join God rather than proving a moral imperative. Accordingly, McRaney explains that healthy personal evangelism is joining God in His work by being willing to respond to His leading, praying for unbelievers, building credible relationships, and recognizing divine appointments.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Although sad to imagine the necessity of such a statement, McRaney appropriately summarizes the discussion by stating, “We must demonstrate a concern for the person and not come across as just trying to get her to join our club or buy our version of the product.” In other words, the focus must be on what God is doing in the life of a lost person, and, without question, joining God by loving, laughing, caring, and crying with a lost person can be quite messy. Dealing with lost people creates a number of difficult or messy situations for individuals engaged in personal evangelism. First, although engaging with lost people is crucial, it is also imperative that the evangelistic efforts maintain distinctiveness.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 7 182x300 - Evangelism: Dealing with Lost People](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-7-182x300.jpg "Evangelism: Dealing with Lost People - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4h957Jh)Evangelism Is . . .: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence Eugene Peterson masterfully addresses the “in but not of” concept by paraphrasing Paul’s letter to the Corinthians: “I have voluntarily become a servant to any and all in order to reach a wide range of people: religious, nonreligious, meticulous moralists, loose-living immoralists, the defeated, the demoralized—whoever. *I didn’t take on their way of life. I kept my bearings in Christ*—but I entered their world and tried to experience things from their point of view” (1 Cor. 19-23, *The Message* \[emphasis mine\]). Second, often individuals believe that evangelism is an event, but Dave Earley points out, “Evangelism is a process leading to an event.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) If evangelism is a process, then entering the world of an unbeliever’s peaks and valleys of life will certainly be messy. David Wheeler expands the concept that evangelism is a process by using the metaphor of spiritual farming and references its messiness by suggesting evangelism is time-consuming, long-suffering, and just plain hard work.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Finally, the inundation of church programming may tempt the believer into thinking personal evangelism resides in the safety of institutional structures. However, David Wheeler states, “True evangelism does not require cumbersome programs.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11)Accordingly, effective evangelism lives in decentralized organic expressions of faith, which, by definition, are individualized, risky, and messy endeavors. Personal testimonies are powerful tools to engage the lost in an individualized organic way while simultaneously addressing the misconceptions of the Gospel. More specifically, if the Gospel hinges on God’s work and not man’s moral efforts, then authentically sharing even the most difficult challenges or moral failings in light of God’s grace with an unbeliever is not only appropriate, but potentially quite constructive as a relational bridge. Dave Earley suggests that sharing a personal testimony is actually one of the simplest ways to make a meaningful connection with an unbeliever to share the Gospel.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) In particular, my recovery testimony, where I share how I placed my identity in my work, career, and performance, which led to an emotional breakdown in my early thirties, is a powerful connection with unbelievers who attempt to find their identity in the shallow constructs of the world that never satisfies. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1). Will McRaney Jr., *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003), 46. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2). Timothy J. Keller, *Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City* (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2012), 63. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3). Ibid. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4). Ibid. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5). George Barna, *Maximum Faith: Live Like Jesus* (Ventura, CA and New York: Metaformation Inc. and Strategenius Group LLC, 2011), 37. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6). McRaney, *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture*, 57-61. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7). Ibid., 63-68. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8). Dave Earley and David Wheeler, *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence* (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010), 46. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9). Ibid., 81. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10). Ibid., 91. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11). Ibid., 115. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12). Ibid., 246. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - Barna, George. *Maximum Faith: Live Like Jesus*. Ventura, CA and New York: Metaformation Inc. and Strategenius Group LLC, 2011. - Earley, Dave, and David Wheeler. *Evangelism Is…: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010. - Keller, Timothy J. *Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City*. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2012. - McRaney, Will Jr. *The Art of Personal Evangelism: Sharing Jesus in a Changing Culture*. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2003. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Baptists Persecution](https://www.livestransforming.com/baptists-persecution/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Baptists Persecution To what extent were Baptists persecuted in Colonial America? Describe the contributions of Baptists in the fight for religious freedom. In what ways has this legacy continued today? [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 6 182x300 - Baptists Persecution](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-6-182x300.png "Baptists Persecution - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3ChEt1Q)The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness ## **Response** The extent that Baptist religious persecution occurred in Colonial America varied based on regional influences. According to H. Leon McBeth, in 1648 New England established the Congregational Church as the state church and taxed individuals to support it.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Dissenters had goods confiscated, church services restricted, and, at times, were thrown into jail until the tax was paid.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) In 1727 Exemption Laws were passed that allowed Baptists to apply for a tax refund under certain circumstances, but restrictions, which required tracking financial support and church locations, continued to limit freedom.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The environment in the Middle Colonies differed significantly from New England. McBeth explains that religious pluralism and Quaker influence in the Middle Colonies did not allow for a state church, which created an environment of toleration that served as a model for religious liberty.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Finally, in the Southern Colonies, McBeth describes an environment of severe religious persecution provoked by laws that assisted the Anglican state church, thus during the 1760s, “Baptists in Virginia were whipped, fined, beaten by mobs, jailed, and/or exiled in an attempt to control them.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The [contributions of Baptists in the fight for religious freedom](https://www.livestransforming.com/contributions-of-baptists-in-the-fight-for-religious-freedom/) is difficult to overestimate. McBeth explains that the most prominent Baptist spokesman for religious liberty in New England was Isaac Backus, who fought against a Massachusetts’ state constitution in 1779 that allowed taxation of individuals to support ministers.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Backus also headed the Warren Association’s Grievance Committee, which presented cases of Baptist persecution to courts and legislatures in the [pursuit of religious freedom](https://www.livestransforming.com/religious-freedom-a-study-of-two-distinct-baptist-views/).[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Ultimately, the Constitution and Bill of Rights provided the basis for religious liberty, and Backus is “credited with helping achieve ratification in Massachusetts and, indeed, in other New England states.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Similar to Isaac Backus, a prominent Baptist spokesman for religious liberty arose in the Southern Colonies. McBeth explains that in 1784 Baptists in Virginia formed a General Committee to pursue religious liberty by petitioning legislatures.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) In 1788, the influential Baptist spokesman, John Leland, brokered a deal with James Madison whereby Baptists would support Madison’s election and the Constitution, but only if he would introduce amendments to the Constitution providing religious freedom.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Madison ultimately introduced the Bill of Rights, which was passed in 1791 and provided religious freedom as law.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Without question, Baptist influence paved the way for religious freedom in America. McBeth notes that during the formation of the Constitution, “Baptists never wavered in demanding separation of church and state,” and the legacy of religious liberty continues as one of the freedoms that undergirds America.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) However, recent history has once again raised the question of separation of church and state resulting in division among Baptists. Aaron Weaver explains that President Reagan’s proposed prayer amendment created a firestorm of controversy for the Southern Baptist Convention.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) James M. Dunn, considered by some as a modern-day John Leland, was the head of the Baptist Joint Committee on Public Affairs.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Dunn attacked Reagan’s proposal to allow supervised prayer in public schools suggesting that it would grant government inappropriate authority over religion and lead to Buddhist, Mormon, and Muslim prayers in different parts of the country.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) However, Southern Baptist fundamentalists disagreed with Dunn’s assertions and supported Reagan’s prayer amendment.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Regardless, Dunn did not waiver; he was “against anything that smacked of established religion or coercive mandated faith,” and believed the “Founding Fathers intended church and state to be separated.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Certainly, the legacy of the Baptists’ fight for religious freedom continues to impact modern Baptist decisions. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) H. Leon McBeth, *The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness* (Nashville: B&H Academic, 1987), 255. [](#_ftnref2) [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 256. [](#_ftnref3) [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 258. [](#_ftnref4) [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 266–67. [](#_ftnref5) [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 270. [](#_ftnref6) [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 261. [](#_ftnref7) [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 262. [](#_ftnref8) [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 266. [](#_ftnref9) [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 275. [](#_ftnref10) [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 281–82. [](#_ftnref11) [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 266. [](#_ftnref12) [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 278. [](#_ftnref13) [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Aaron Douglas Weaver, “James M. Dunn and Soul Freedom: A Baptist Paradigm for Political Engagement in the Public Arena,” *Baptist History and Heritage* 45, no. 2 (2010): 50. [](#_ftnref14)[\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid. [](#_ftnref15) [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid., 51. [](#_ftnref16) [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid. [](#_ftnref17) [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Ibid., 55. ## **Bibliography** - McBeth, H. Leon. *The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness*. Nashville: B&H Academic, 1987. - Weaver, Aaron Douglas. “James M. Dunn and Soul Freedom: A Baptist Paradigm for Political Engagement in the Public Arena.” *Baptist History and Heritage* 45, no. 2 (2010): 48–58.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Role of Apologetics](https://www.livestransforming.com/role-of-apologetics/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Role of Apologetics Christian apologetics is a defense of the Christian faith in Jesus Christ. This post will show that the appropriate primary role of [Christian apologetics](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-apologetics/) is to strengthen the church. Although Christian apologetics is broad in scope, this post specifically addresses the importance of strengthening the body of Christ against the heresies of secularism and religion, which ultimately result in increased effectiveness and motivation of evangelistic efforts. First, Christian apologetics fortifies the church against the heresy of secular humanism. The secular humanist article, “Humanism and Its Aspirations,” contends that relationships and economics provide meaning and happiness. An effective Christian apologetic supports individuals within the church who acquiesce to the deception of secular humanism and attempt to find meaning in economic stability, relationships, and other humanistic paradigms. When happiness is dependent on external forces of economic stability and meaning is dependent on external relationships, the gospel is completely undermined. Alternatively, a proper defense of the gospel of Jesus Christ provides internally generated meaning from being loved, righteous, and complete regardless of economic or relational circumstances (Galatians 2:20, Romans 3:21-22, Colossians 2:10). Last month a Christian friend, Glenn, lost his job and felt life was meaningless, which led to a significant bout of depression. However, once Glenn disconnected his meaning from the humanistic heresy of economic stability and, instead, connected his meaning to the intrinsic power of the gospel, he expressed both the outward evidence of a supernatural peace and an evangelistic resolve that reinforced his desire to share the gospel with his friends. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 4 182x300 - Role of Apologetics](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-4-182x300.png "Role of Apologetics - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3C2y76A)Handbook of Christian Apologetics Second, Christian apologetics assist the church in overcoming the heresy of religion, defined herein, as the reliance on human effort, instead of grace alone, to procure salvation. Norman Geisler in “The Essential Doctrines of the Christian Faith (Part 2)” contends that for a doctrine to be essential to apologetics it must connect directly to salvation. Accordingly, it is hard to imagine a doctrine more relevant to Christian apologetics than grace. In fact, Ergun Caner’s lectures explain that Christianity is distinct from all world religions due to the doctrine of grace. Peter exhorts believers to be prepared to defend the gospel of grace to everyone (1 Peter 3:15). It appears that the word everyone would apply to both believers and non-believers. In fact, Peter uses an apologetic tone when he reminds believers of the truth of the gospel that is within them in his second letter (2 Peter 1:12). Last week a Christian friend, Ryan, felt he was not doing enough for God and was questioning his salvation, which resulted in an enormous amount of anxiety. However, once the Holy Spirit disconnected Ryan from the heresy of religion by reminding him that his salvation has nothing to do with his efforts, but is by grace alone, the anxiety supernaturally subsided and, like Glenn, an evangelistic resolve reinforced his desire to share the gospel. This post has shown that the [primary role of Christian apologetics](https://www.livestransforming.com/role-of-christian-apologetics/) is to strengthen the church. Specifically, it has shown the power of Christian apologetics in defending the gospel against both secular humanism and religion within the body of Christ. Furthermore, as supported by Dr. Ravi Zacharias’s thesis in the article “The Apologist’s First Question,” the supernatural evidence of Glenn’s increased peace and Ryan’s diminished anxiety significantly enhances the potential effectiveness of evangelistic impact. Finally, the stories of personal experience also prove that a solid Christian apologetic has the ability to heighten evangelistic motivation. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Canonical Context of the Five Scrolls](https://www.livestransforming.com/canonical-context-of-the-five-scrolls/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Canonical Context of the Five Scrolls The Five Scrolls have a long and storied history ranging from questionable canonicity to moral ambiguity. Robert Williamson identifies Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, and the Song of Songs as the five forgotten books that barely made the cut, but eventually were elevated by the Jewish community to the special status of *Chamesh* *Megilloth*.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Ultimately, the Jewish tradition assigned each of the books to be liturgically read during a Jewish holiday: Song of Songs at Passover, Ruth at the Feast of Weeks, Lamentations on Tisha B’av, Ecclesiastes at the Feast of Booths, and Esther at Purim.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) However, to suggest that the later Jewish tradition provides the connective glue between the books risks an anachronistic application. The question is how the original message of the Five Scrolls connect to each other and influence their function, not only between each other, but also the rest of the Old and New Testament. The answer lies in the theological and textual links between the books of the Megilloth and the remainder of the canon. Scholars have approached literary connections between the books of the Megilloth from both a diachronic and synchronic perspective. Leaning toward a diachronic perspective, Amy Erickson and Andrew Davis reference the work of Timothy Stone, who follows the ordering of the Leningrad Codex and highlights the similarities and contrasts of Esther and Ruth.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The female protagonists are obvious, but Stone also contrasts the excellence of Ruth, who seeks refuge in God, with Esther, a pseudo-hero who has forgotten God.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The book of Lamentations is also compared to the Song of Songs, which share several uncommon literary motifs. Stone explains that both alternative voices lack a well-defined plot and use the phrases “daughter(s) of Jerusalem” (Song 1:5; 2:7; 3:5, 10; 5:8, 16; 8:4; Lam 2:13, 15) and “daughters of Zion” (Song 3:1; Lam 1:6, 2:1, 4, 8, 10, 13, 18; 4:22).[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Many scholars have also recently addressed the connections between the books of the Megilloth synchronically. Katrina Larkin notes that both Ruth and Esther focus on the relationship between foreigners and the Israelites, and she also contrasts the familial sphere of Ruth with the international sphere of Esther.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Furthermore, and more extensively, Orit Avnery finds that Ruth and Esther have similar plot lines, stylistic tendencies toward realism, a motif shaped by the reversal of fate, incongruence between the opening line and the remainder of the plot, and heroines who are closely accompanied by an advisor, specifically, Mordecai in Esther and Naomi in Ruth.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) An example of the shared stylistic and literary tendencies of realism arises in Esther’s use of geographic locations, indigenous names, and the realistic details of government processes, while simultaneously, Ruth prominently features place names, named characters, and detailed descriptions of agricultural activities.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) The realism provides support for the reliability of the events. Scholars have also engaged various theological relationships between the books of the Megilloth. Erickson and Davis explain that a “relative absence of God as an active presence” exists in all five books.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) For example, the Song and Esther do not mention God, God is mentioned in Ruth but appears to work behind the scenes, while Ecclesiastes suggests God is somewhat inaccessible, and Lamentations bemoans an absent God during their plight. The result is that many scholars have either ignored the Megilloth or argued for a strong theology of divine providence.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Alternatively, Megan Strollo asserts that the absence of God in the Megilloth highlights the importance of human responsibility and notes that often the roles of the humans are ascribed to God in the remainder of the canon.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) [![Where is God in the Megilloth 182x300 - Canonical Context of the Five Scrolls](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Where-is-God-in-the-Megilloth_-182x300.jpg "Canonical Context of the Five Scrolls - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DEpWhk)Where is God in the Megilloth? (Oudtestamentische Studiën / Old Testament Studies, 73) For example, Boaz provides protection in the book of Ruth, and humans console each other in the book of Lamentations. Personally, the way I see the Scrolls relating and functioning within Scripture aligns more closely with a nuanced version of Melton’s thesis in her book, *Where is God in the Megilloth?[**\[12\]**](#_ftn12)* As opposed to a certain absence, Melton suggests an elusive presence of God. In other words, sometimes God is “oppressively present,” and sometimes God is “actively absent.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Scholars could accuse such ambiguity as a postmodern approach to interpretation, and, in a sense, Melton may agree. For example, Melton states that the reader is “permitted to sense God’s presence in a particular text one day and the next day read it as a text about God’s absence.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) However, the reality of an intentionally ambiguous God does not require an ambiguous reader. Instead, the reader can allow the text to determine God’s intentional ambiguity through both His presence and absence in the text, while also recognizing that an absent God may be hidden rather than removed.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) In other words, silence is not absence, and God’s presence can be experienced in His silence. An obvious example is the clear involvement of God in the book of Esther with no divine reference. Nevertheless, allusions to divine presence do abound in the Megilloth. Melton explains that Edenic allusions occur in Lamentations, which parallels the expulsion from Eden, while the Song reimagines a return to Eden.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Melton also sees God’s hand in the concept of *miqreh* in Ruth and Ecclesiastes, but God’s behind-the-scenes providence is seen “only in retrospect, once all outcomes are realized.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) In sum, the canonical connectivity between the Scrolls rests on each of the books engaging the paradoxical ambiguity of a God who is hidden in plain sight. The Megilloth also has literary and theological connections with the remainder of the biblical canon. As mentioned above, Barry Webb affirms Melton’s observation regarding the affinity between the Song and Genesis 1-3, which include the central garden motif and the lovers return to Eden.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Furthermore, Webb explains that the love in the Song is a sign pointing to a full consummation in a final union with Christ (Rev 19:6-10).[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Also, the book of Ruth provides a fascinating exploration into the flexibility of applying the Torah to everyday life. On the one hand, the redemption of property appears to be interpreted rigidly, while the ban on Moabites entering Yahweh’s presence in Deuteronomy 23:3-6 appears to be ignored.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Life is more complex than following rules, and Scripture can handle the complexity. Also, it is difficult to miss the theological significance of the genealogy of David in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 as Ruth, the Moabite, is not only grafted into Israel, but also into the lineage of Christ.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Additionally, the exilic suffering in Lamentations may overtly connect with the rest of the Old Testament more than any of the other Scrolls. The precursor to the event and suffering was both the Mosaic Covenant and the Old Testament prophets who pointed to the potential punishment. However, it is in [the New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/) that God’s righteous wrath in Lamentation meets God’s *hesed* at the cross.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Webb also explains that Ecclesiastes draws from Genesis 1-11, which highlights that *hebel* is built into God’s creative order. [\[23\]](#_ftn23) Ecclesiastes also complements the book of Proverbs as it provides the providential deterministic balance to the human responsibility emphasized in Proverbs.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Furthermore, the clearest link to the New Testament, according to Webb, is Romans 8:19-24 where a frustrated creation is, at least partially, released from *hebel* in Christ until the final consummation occurs.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Finally, it is difficult to miss the connections between the deliverance of the Jews from potential annihilation in the book of Esther and the covenant promise to Abraham that God will bless all nations through the Jews (Genesis 12:1-3). Webb acknowledges that the Abrahamic covenant ultimately points to the new covenant in Christ where the elect are defined by their identity in Christ rather than adherence to the law.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Without question, the literary and theological relationships between the Five Scrolls provide the glue for canonical connectivity. Each of the five individual books points to additional canonical connections with the remainder of the Old and New Testaments that enhance both Scripture’s obvious diversity and integral unity. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Robert Williamson, *The Forgotten Books of the Bible: Recovering the Five Scrolls for Today* (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2018), xv–xvi. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., xvi. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Amy Erickson and Andrew R Davis, “Recent Research on the Megilloth (Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther),” *Currents in Biblical Research* 14, no. 3 (June 2016): 304. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Timothy Stone, *The Compilational History of the Megilloth: Canon, Contoured Intertextuality and Meaning in the Writings* (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2013), 207. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Erickson and Davis, “Recent Research on the Megilloth (Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther),” 305. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Orit Avnery, “Ruth and Esther: A Journey Through Gender, Ethnicity and Identity,” in *Megilloth Studies: The Shape of Contemporary Scholarship*, ed. Brad Embry (Sheffield, England: Sheffield Phoenix, 2016), 45–50. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 45. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Erickson and Davis, “Recent Research on the Megilloth (Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther),” 307. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Megan Strollo, “Initiative and Agency: Towards a Theology of the Megilloth,” in *Megilloth Studies: The Shape of Contemporary Scholarship*, ed. Brad Embry (Sheffield, England: Sheffield Phoenix, n.d.), 150–160. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) See Brittany Melton, *Where Is God in the Megilloth? A Dialogue on the Ambiguity of Divine Presence and Absence* (Boston: Brill, 2018). [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 101. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid., 41. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid., 103. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid., 122–129. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Ibid., 139. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Barry Webb, *Five Festal Garments: Christian Reflections on the Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Esther* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000), 30–31. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid., 34–35. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Ibid., 54–55. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Ibid., 55–57. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Ibid., 80–81. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Ibid., 103–105. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Ibid. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Ibid., 107–109. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Ibid., 130–131. ## Bibliography - Avnery, Orit. “Ruth and Esther: A Journey Through Gender, Ethnicity and Identity.” In *Megilloth Studies: The Shape of Contemporary Scholarship*, edited by Brad Embry, 43–71. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Phoenix, 2016. - Erickson, Amy, and Andrew R Davis. “Recent Research on the Megilloth (Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther).” *Currents in Biblical Research* 14, no. 3 (June 2016): 298–318. - Melton, Brittany. *Where Is God in the Megilloth? A Dialogue on the Ambiguity of Divine Presence and Absence*. Boston: Brill, 2018. - Stone, Timothy. *The Compilational History of the Megilloth: Canon, Contoured Intertextuality and Meaning in the Writings*. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2013. - Strollo, Megan. “Initiative and Agency: Towards a Theology of the Megilloth.” In *Megilloth Studies: The Shape of Contemporary Scholarship*, edited by Brad Embry, 150–160. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Phoenix, n.d. - Webb, Barry. *Five Festal Garments: Christian Reflections on the Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Esther*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000. - Williamson, Robert. *The Forgotten Books of the Bible: Recovering the Five Scrolls for Today*. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2018. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Growth of Southern Baptists](https://www.livestransforming.com/growth-of-southern-baptists/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Growth of Southern Baptists What reasons account for the growth of the Southern Baptist churches and the decline in Northern Baptist churches in the years following the split? Comment on which reason(s) seems most significant. ## **Response** The growth patterns of [Southern Baptist churches](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-growth-of-the-southern-baptist-churches-and-the-decline-in-northern-baptist-churches/) and Northern Baptist churches diverge significantly after the 1845 split. A brief explanation of the growth patterns is necessary prior to analyzing the reasons for the divergence. Winthrop Hudson provides comparative statistics that contend that the Southern Baptist Convention (SBC) and Northern Baptist Convention (NBC) were equivalent in size in 1850, but the SBC outpaced NBC growth from 1850-1870, was functionally equivalent from 1870-1900, but then SBC dramatically outpaced NBC from 1910 to 1965.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The initial growth from 1850-1870 of the SBC is difficult to determine. However, H.Leon McBeth notes that, under the leadership of James Taylor, the SBC’s Foreign Mission Board expanded its influence among churches. [](#_ftn2) [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 6 182x300 - Growth of Southern Baptists](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-6-182x300.png "Growth of Southern Baptists - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3ChEt1Q)The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness [\[2\]](#_ftn2) Furthermore, the Home Mission Board simultaneously conducted extensive ministry among spiritually hungry Confederate soldiers.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Finally, Hudson conjectures that, soon after the Civil War defeat, people of the South may have found solace in the gospel.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) All three reasons may have contributed to the early relative growth of the Southern Baptists. Between 1870 and 1900, the country was recovering from the Civil War. Accordingly, the Northern Baptists continued to strengthen, while the growth of the Southern Baptists waned as the South contended with labor shortages, worthless currency, and a decimated infrastructure.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) However, the difference in growth rates between the SBC and NBC became quite pronounced after 1900 as the Southern Baptist churches significantly outpaced those in the North. The reasons for the disparity are numerous. First, Hudson explains that several factors contributed to the growth of Southern Baptists including “evangelistic zeal, relative isolation from the corrosive effects of ‘modernity,’ a homogeneous population, carefully devised ‘growth techniques,’ and a constituency with a relatively high birth rate.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Furthermore, McBeth highlights the benefit of the SBC’s geographical expansion across America along with significant fundraising efforts, which included both the Seventy-Five Million Campaign and the Cooperative Program that provided financial and spiritual renewal during the twentieth-century.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Alternatively, the Northern Baptists faced problems of secularization, a lack of denominational identity, controversy surrounding the ecumenical movement, and the aggressive geographical expansion of the SBC, all of which contributed to Northern Baptist decline in the twentieth-century.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Furthermore, Hudson asserts that the “Northern Baptists were more deeply divided, distracted, and immobilized by the Fundamentalist controversy than any other denomination.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The most significant reason for the decline of Northern Baptists was its unresolved rift between conservative and liberal members. As certain Northern Baptists began to embrace concepts such as Walter Rauschenbusch’s Social Gospel and George Foster’s more liberal view of Scripture, McBeth explains that Northern Baptist conservatives became agitated.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) It would be an oversimplification to blame the decline of Northern Baptists on Fundamentalism, which was simply a reaction against the theological movement of the Northern Baptists. However, due to the societal nature of the Northern Baptists, Hudson points out that no strong organizational vehicle existed to provide denominational unity for or against the attacks from conservative members.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Accordingly, the controversy not only immobilized the denomination, but also created a bitterness that gave Northern Baptists a bad public image, which continued to haunt Northern Baptists throughout the twentieth-century.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) According to McBeth, the result of the bitter infighting was a “draining off of conservatives” that left the Northern Baptists “without effective brakes on leaders who wanted to veer sharply to the left.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Alternatively, the most significant reason for Southern Baptist growth was likely evangelistic zeal, which took the form of successful territory expansion, church planting, and fundraising. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Winthrop S. Hudson, “Divergent Careers of Southern and Northern Baptists: A Study in Growth,” *Foundations* 16, no. 2 (April 1973): 180–83. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) H. Leon McBeth, *The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness* (Nashville: B&H Academic, 1987), 413. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 427. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Hudson, “Divergent Careers,” 173. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) McBeth, *The Baptist Heritage*, 427. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Hudson, “Divergent Careers,” 173. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) McBeth, *The Baptist Heritage*, 618–24. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 563–64. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Hudson, “Divergent Careers,” 173. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) McBeth, *The Baptist Heritage*, 570. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Hudson, “Divergent Careers,” 173. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) McBeth, *The Baptist Heritage*, 578. ## **Bibliography** - Hudson, Winthrop S. “Divergent Careers of Southern and Northern Baptists: A Study in Growth.” *Foundations* 16, no. 2 (April 1973): 171–83. - McBeth, H. Leon. *The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness*. Nashville: B&H Academic, 1987.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Baptists 75 Million Baptist Campaign](https://www.livestransforming.com/baptists-75-million-baptist-campaign/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Baptists 75 Million Baptist Campaign Describe how “The Seventy-Five Million Campaign” affected the [Southern Baptist Convention](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-growth-of-the-southern-baptist-churches-and-the-decline-in-northern-baptist-churches/). What is the Cooperative Program and what does it do? Discuss the effectiveness of this program. ## **Response** [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 6 182x300 - Baptists 75 Million Baptist Campaign](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-6-182x300.png "Baptists 75 Million Baptist Campaign - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3ChEt1Q)The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness The Seventy-Five Million Campaign and the Cooperative Program were both forms of raising financial support for the Southern Baptist Convention (SBC) in the twentieth-century. H. Leon McBeth explains that the Seventy-Five Million Campaign was “an effort to raise $75 million for Baptist causes over a five-year period, 1919-1924.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The initial effort to raise the funds proved tremendously successful. Through the successful planning and promotion of the Campaign Commission, a whopping $92 million was pledged by the end of a 6-month initiative in 1919.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Unfortunately, the SBC committed a financial blunder that many non-profit agencies have made once receiving pledged commitments. The SBC allowed many agencies to expand their work based on the pledged amounts and not actual cash receipts, and when the economic recession hit in 1920, collections waned.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) By the end of the campaign, only $58 of the $92 million was collected, and it was not until 1944 that the convention debt was finally paid off.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Although the overexpansion hurt the SBC at first, the benefits of the Seventy-Five Million Campaign significantly outweighed the costs. McBeth lists several positive effects of the Campaign, which include record-breaking baptisms, large volunteer recruitments, an increase in Baptist school enrollment, a spirit of unity, and a heightened awareness of stewardship.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The Cooperative Program is a stewardship program launched in 1925 to support Southern Baptist benevolent initiatives. McBeth explains that the program has churches send funds to support the Baptist denomination directly to state conventions, who then send a portion of the funds collected to the Southern Baptist Convention office.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The funds support both the benevolent work of state denominations as well as the initiatives of the SBC, with the goal of approximately half of the funds going to the SBC.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) McBeth suggests that the benefits of the program include “economy, balance, and perspective.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In other words, the program has low administration costs, provides a cross-section of ministry support, and allows participants to engage in the full spectrum of denomination ministries. Robert Baker provides additional insight into the effectiveness of the Cooperative Program. First, Baker admits that a weakness of the program is that it tends to depersonalize the process of supporting benevolent initiatives.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) However, the positives far outweigh the negatives. Baker lists six achievements of the Cooperative Program as follows: the program supports the convention style of church organizational structure, opens the possibilities for increased financial planning, supports “first-fruit” rather than random giving, allows uniform benevolence support across ministry directives, provides a sense of participation of members, and increases denominational unity.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Baker sums up the effectiveness of the Cooperative Program by quoting from the Southern Baptist Convention in 1939, which states, “The Cooperative Program is the greatest step forward in Kingdom finance Southern Baptists have ever taken.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) H. Leon McBeth, *The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness* (Nashville: B&H Academic, 1987), 618. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 618–19. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 619. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 620. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 621. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 622. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 622–23. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 622. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Robert Andrew Baker, “The Cooperative Program in Historical Perspective,” *Baptist History and Heritage* 10, no. 3 (July 1975): 175. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 175–76. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 176. ## **Bibliography** - Baker, Robert Andrew. “The Cooperative Program in Historical Perspective.” *Baptist History and Heritage* 10, no. 3 (July 1975): 169–76. - McBeth, H. Leon. *The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness*. Nashville: B&H Academic, 1987.[](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Baptist Origins: Four Views](https://www.livestransforming.com/baptist-origins-four-views/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Baptist Origins: Four Views List and summarize the 4 views of Baptist origin. Which view is most convincing? Why? Give specific reasons in your response. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 6 182x300 - Baptist Origins: Four Views](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-6-182x300.png "Baptist Origins: Four Views - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3E3MuIc)The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness During the last few centuries, historians have continued to debate the sources that prompted the emergence of the Baptist faith. Four different theories emerged to explain the origin of the Baptists. H. Leon McBeth lists the options as English separatism, biblical Anabaptist influence, biblical continuity, and organic successionism.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Regarding English separatism, it is first necessary to provide a brief background sketch. During the sixteenth century, under the influence of the recent reformation movement, many churchmen in England wanted to purify the Church of England by modifying church polity, simplifying worship, and adopting Calvinist teachings.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Many of these Puritans were not satisfied with the efforts to purify the church and decided to separate from the Church of England. Accordingly, the first [theory of Baptist origin](https://www.livestransforming.com/4-views-of-baptist-origin/) is that two different groups of Baptists in England emerged from these Separatists: the rigid Separatists called General Baptists and the semi-Separatists called Particular Baptists.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The second theory of Baptist origin was the influence of the biblical Anabaptists. McBeth explains that certain historians contend that it is possible that a segment of Baptists, the General Baptists, were influenced by a limited segment of Anabaptists, the Dutch Mennonites, which laid the groundwork for a Separatist movement and ultimately was the origin of Baptists.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Further, McBeth does not rule out the potential for Anabaptist influence upon the Particular Baptists.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The third theory traces Baptist origin prior to the Anabaptists. Historians that support the biblical continuity theory assert that the Baptist teachings can be traced from the time of the New Testament.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Specifically, the distinctive practice of believer baptism originated from biblical times, not the recent influence of Separatists or Anabaptists. The fourth theory, the Organic Successionist school, assumes an unbroken continuity or succession of actual churches with different names from New Testament times to the present.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) For example, the theory suggests that John the Baptist “represents a denomination affiliation,” and the denomination continued through the centuries with different groups such as the Donatists, Cathari, Waldenses, and Anabaptists up to and including the modern Baptist faith.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Regarding which view is most convincing, McBeth observes that historians often distance themselves from the biblical continuity theory and Organic Successionist school due to a lack of evidence to support these views.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Furthermore, by referencing Winthrop Hudson’s work, McBeth identifies five arguments that support the assertion that the Baptists originated from the Separatist movement in England. The arguments are summarized as follows: Baptists denied they were Anabaptists, rejected certain features of the Anabaptists, discredited John Smyth for aligning with the Anabaptists, held views consistent with the conclusions of Separatism, and were almost all Separatists before becoming Baptists.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Regarding Hudson’s three Anabaptist arguments, Clint Bass observes that Baptists may have attempted to distance themselves from the Anabaptists because of an opposition to certain Mennonite practices, the literal Anabaptist concept of rebaptizing, which was a complete rejection of the first baptism, as well as the dangers associated with the Anabaptist brand as revolutionaries.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) In other words, just because the Baptists denied association with the Anabaptists does not necessarily undermine the possibility of Anabaptists influence as an impetus for the origin of the Baptists. Furthermore, regarding the Separatists, McBeth observes that certain scholars assert that the Anabaptists prepared the way for Separatism.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) If this is the case, then regarding Hudson’s two Separatist arguments, the Baptists could have been aligned with the Separatists via the original influence of the Anabaptists. Finally, William Pitts recognizes that the formation of the Baptist identity and distinction from other Protestants rested almost solely on the concept of believer baptism, which the Anabaptists supported.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Accordingly, although the Separatist influence must not be eliminated, based on the risks of association with Anabaptists, the influence of the Anabaptists upon the Separatists, and the critical nature of baptism to the founding of the Baptists, it does not appear unreasonable that the Anabaptists were the impetus to the origin of the Baptists. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) H. Leon McBeth, *The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness* (Nashville: B&H Academic, 1987), 49. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 24. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 39. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 52–53. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 56. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 58. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 58-60. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 51. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Clint Bass, “Succession History: Some Early Baptist Perspectives,” *Baptist Quarterly* 47, no. 1 (2016): 15. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) McBeth, *The Baptist Heritage*, 53. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) William L. Pitts, “Baptist Origins and Identity in 1609: The John Smyth/Richard Clifton Debate,” *Perspectives in Religious Studies* 36, no. 4 (2009): 377. ## **Bibliography** - Bass, Clint. “Succession History: Some Early Baptist Perspectives.” *Baptist Quarterly* 47, no. 1 (2016): 8–16. - McBeth, H. Leon. *The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness*. Nashville: B&H Academic, 1987. - Pitts, William L. “Baptist Origins and Identity in 1609: The John Smyth/Richard Clifton Debate.” *Perspectives in Religious Studies* 36, no. 4 (2009): 377–90. [](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Salvation by Grace & Apologetics](https://www.livestransforming.com/salvation-by-grace-apologetics/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Salvation by Grace & Apologetics Salvation by grace, not works, is at the core of the gospel of Christ. Although works have no salvific impact, this post will show that the role of works in the [Christian life](https://www.livestransforming.com/living-life-in-christ/) is to bear fruit to further the accomplishment of God’s will. Specifically, the post defends the Christian perspective of the relationship between salvation and works, and then provides a defense of the proper role of works. A Christian worldview supports salvation by grace and not works. Paul is clear that justification is a gift of God’s grace (Romans 3:23, Galatians 2:16). Although other religions, including Catholicism, oppose the logic of the Christian doctrine of grace alone, it is highly defensible. First, critics argue that the doctrine of grace supports antinomianism. Paul faced the antinomianism criticism from the Judaizers and effectively refuted their claims by arguing that if grace leads to disobedience then one must conclude that Christ causes sin – an impossible assertion (Galatians 2:17). The fact is that grace always leads to obedience or it is simply not grace (Ephesians 2:8-10, Titus 2:11-12). Second, critics question the fairness of grace by arguing that works should count for points similar to playing in an athletic game, but the logic is self-defeating. Martin Luther illuminated the fallacy in his book *The Freedom of a Christian* by recognizing that the performance of good works leads to pride, and bad works leads to depression. Regardless, the point system leads to disobedience. Finally, critics also at times use the somewhat tired argument recorded in James 2:24 that works justify men and not faith alone. The context of the passage in James certainly communicates an intimate connection between faith and works, but simultaneously recognizes that faith is the source that powers the deeds. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 5 182x300 - Salvation by Grace & Apologetics](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-5-182x300.png "Salvation by Grace & Apologetics - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fUBpGE)SALVATION (Swindoll Leadership Library) The proper role of works in the Christian life is to bear fruit in order to accomplish God’s will and further His kingdom. Bearing fruit surpasses simply doing something good, for even a heathen has the ability to perform a kind act. In other words, fruit bearing requires a connection to the Source. John explains that God empowers fruitful works for His purposes with the metaphor of the vine and branches (John 15:5). Additionally, Paul explains that holiness furthers the will of God and works are to bear fruit according to His will (Romans 12:1-2, Colossians 1:9-10). Defending the role of fruit bearing is critical for a consistent Christian worldview. First, critics may quote verses suggesting the role of works is to express thanksgiving. However, this argument potentially contorts gratitude into what John Piper terms in his book *Future Grace* a “debtor’s ethic” that risks a *quid pro quo* relationship with God. Second, some quote verses to suggest that the role of works is to prove a right standing with God. However, it is illogical to conclude that man must prove the very thing already proven through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Third, others suggest that Scripture asserts the role of good works is to please God (Colossians 1:10). Although it is true that good works are pleasing to God, this assertion risks a performance-based religion whereby God is pleased and unpleased based on effort (Galatians 2:15-21). Finally, some conclude that the role of works is to store up rewards (I Corinthians 3:14-15). Scripture does support a connection between works and rewards, but asserting the role of works is for the purpose of rewards potentially undermines Holy Spirit directed sanctification due to selfish ambition. This post has shown that the primary role of works in the Christian life is to bear fruit to further the accomplishment of God’s will. Specifically, it has defended the reasonableness of salvation by grace alone against three significant critiques. Furthermore, it has defended the role of works for the bearing of fruit against a number of faulty views of Christianity that risk undermining the very nature of the Christian doctrine of grace. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Critique of Secular Humanism](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-critique-of-secular-humanism/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Critique of Secular Humanism ## **Introduction** The purpose of this paper is to provide a critique of secular humanism. The analysis will show that secular humanism holds five common tenets that are flawed. Specifically, this paper will provide a summary of the worldview, followed by a discussion of the flaws of the belief system, as well as a proposed plan for sharing the gospel of Christ with an individual who holds the worldview of secular humanism. ## **Summary of Secular Humanism** Although secular humanism comprises a diverse set of perspectives, certain commonalities exist within all its forms. Norman L. Geisler condenses the beliefs into five categories shared by all secular humanists, which include nontheism, naturalism, evolution, ethical relativism, and self-sufficiency.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The following briefly explores each of the shared beliefs in order to summarize the tenets of secular humanism. First, nontheism denies the necessity of God in the creation or sustenance of humanity, and thus opposes a theistic worldview. Second, naturalism necessarily follows a nontheistic absence of supernatural intervention and claims that all life culminates from natural forces. The “Humanist Manifesto II” clearly communicates the first two tenets by proclaiming, “As nontheists, we begin with humans not God, nature not deity.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Third, evolution is an inevitable consequence of naturalism and attempts to explain how natural forces generate life by evolving from simple life forms to complex life forms via natural selection. Specifically, “Humanism and Its Aspirations” declares, “Humans are an integral part of nature, the result of unguided evolutionary change.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Next, ethical relativism asserts that since evolution is the cause of human development, no ultimate authority exists, thus man’s morals are self-originated and evolve with humanity. Finally, self-sufficiency maintains that humankind has an innate capacity to sustain itself without God. The “Humanist Manifesto II” advances the assumption of self-sufficiency by claiming, “No deity will save us; we must save ourselves.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) ## **Flaws of Secular Humanism** Numerous flaws are inherent within the commonly held beliefs of secular humanism summarized above. The flaws include experiential, scientific, epistemological, metaphysical, consistency, and evidential distortions. A short analysis of the major flaws of the five shared tenets of [secular humanism provides a critique](https://www.livestransforming.com/critique-of-secular-humanism/) of the worldview. First, although the nontheistic precept of secular humanism denies the necessity of God, the evidence of the secular humanist experience undermines the validity of the claim. Historically, prominent secular humanists admit the need for God in order to provide meaning to life while simultaneously refusing to believe God exists. For example, the secular humanist Jean-Paul Sartre recognizes the absurdity of life without God by admitting “atheism is…cruel.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The nontheistic belief of secular humanists exhibits a significant practical flaw by claiming that God is not necessary while experiencing a desperate thirst for a deity that is purported not to exist. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 3 182x300 - Critique of Secular Humanism](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-3-182x300.jpg "Critique of Secular Humanism - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40vKgtW)On Guard: Defending Your Faith with Reason and Precision The second tenet shared by secular humanism, naturalism, contains two significant flaws. First, the scientific principle of causality undermines naturalism as evidenced by the second law of thermodynamics that suggests the world is running down, and thus supports the origination of a finite universe. Second, science has proven the universe is constantly expanding, which also supports an origin of the universe. Williams Lane Craig reflects the logic that defies naturalism by explaining that what begins has a cause and since the universe began, it must have a cause.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Third, the tenet of evolution consists of both scientific and epistemological flaws. Scientifically, no evidence of spontaneous generation of life exists. Even Charles G. Darwin admits life has “been originally breathed by the Creator.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Furthermore, science provides no evidence of fossil records that show transitional life forms. Geisler suggests that evolutionists need “fossils with feathers and scales, or with fins…and legs.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Epistemologically, secular humanists conclude man’s evolving brain cannot be trusted. Accordingly, the assumption that the brain is trustworthy enough to conclude evolutionary science is valid appears illogical. Next, ethical relativism encompasses metaphysical and consistency flaws. Metaphysically, materialism underpins the proposition of ethical relativism. J. P. Moreland defines materialism as a view that a “physical, material cosmos is all there is, was, or ever will be.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Accordingly, moral absolutes are absent. However, a materialistic view is self-defeating, as the very ideas used to construct a materialistic theory do not consist of matter. Furthermore, inconsistency arises in an assumption that moral absolutes do not exist while simultaneously advancing a worldview with its own absolutes. Finally, the tenet of self-sufficiency completely lacks evidence. The insufficiency of self-sufficiency is evident in man’s inability to conquer disease, control the environment, and effectively modify behavior. Geisler emphatically summarizes the absence of evidence declaring, “There is an unfounded arrogance about the social expectations of secular humanists.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) ## **Sharing the Gospel** The identified flaws of the common tenets of secular humanism require a strong apologetic response. The following provides a plan for sharing the gospel with a secular humanist. Specifically, the plan advances a Christian worldview utilizing disarming, inquiry, and empathy in order to create a safe and intelligent environment to share the gospel. First, it is critical for the apologist to understand the tenets of secular humanism including both its strengths and weaknesses in order to disarm the secular humanist. Paradoxically, admitting that certain convictions of secular humanism are beneficial can effectively disarm the interlocutor and allow a foundation of trust to begin. These beneficent traits may include an emphasis on education, freedom of thought, and support for the underprivileged as well as a desire to keep extreme forms of unorthodox religion in check. Second, the apologist begins asserting the claims of Christianity by utilizing Socratic inquiry. The goal is to create an opportunity for discovery while maintaining an environment of trust. Regarding the tenet of nontheism, the inquiry needs to focus on why humanity exists, not how humanity exists, to break down the walls of nontheism. Additionally, questions regarding the potential benefits of suffering may be especially helpful for individuals struggling with the problem of evil. To refute the tenet of naturalism the same methodology is effective, but the goal is not to prove the supernatural, but to inquire whether it is possible the supernatural exists. Next, carefully addressing the issue of evolution by focusing the inquiry on the origin, not the development, of humanity is crucial. In addition, questions pertaining to why certain species still exist, why transitional fossils do not exist, and why Darwin assumed that an original Creator breathed life into the species are appropriate. Regarding ethical relativism, practical questions such an inquiry into the possibility that murder is never wrong if it does what is best for the murderer are effective. Finally, a refutation of self-sufficiency is possible by asking for evidence regarding humanity’s capacity to control external forces of the environment or individuals such as a spouse, highlighting the significant limitations of humanity. Finally, the discussion requires a significant amount of empathy and prayer. By deeply understanding the individual’s perspective through intense listening and prayer that focuses more on the interlocutor than the apologist’s agenda, the Holy Spirit may prompt the individual to share intellectual and personal struggles. As the apologetic dialogue turns to a personal relationship, the odds increase that the discussion will provide additional opportunities for the apologist to continue sharing a gospel that frees the individual from the tyranny of the challenges of secular humanism. ## **Conclusion** The analysis has unequivocally shown numerous flaws of the five common tenets of secular humanism. The flaws include experiential, scientific, epistemological, metaphysical, consistency, and evidential defects. Furthermore, this paper provided a powerful method of sharing the gospel of Christ with an individual who holds a secular humanist worldview by utilizing disarming, inquiry, and empathy in conjunction with knowledge, prayer, and the power of the Holy Spirit. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Norman L. Geisler, *Is Man the Measure?: An Evaluation of Contemporary Humanism* (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 1983), 121-22. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) American Humanist Association, “Humanist Manifesto II,” American Humanist Association: Good Without a God, http://www.americanhumanist.org/Humanism/Humanist\_Manifesto\_II (accessed April 13, 2012). [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) American Humanist Association, “Humanism and Its Aspirations: Humanist Manifesto III, a Successor to the Humanist Manifesto of 1933,” American Humanist Association: Good Without a God, http://www. americanhumanist.org/Humanism/Humanist\_Manifesto\_III (accessed April 13, 2012). [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) American Humanist Association, “Humanist Manifesto II,” American Humanist Association: Good Without a God, http://www.americanhumanist.org/Humanism/Humanist\_Manifesto\_II (accessed April 13, 2012). [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Jean-Paul Sarte, *The Words: Autobiography of Jean-Paul Sarte*, trans. Les mots (New York: Random House, 1964), 253. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) William Lane Craig, *On Guard* (Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook, 2010), 74. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Charles G. Darwin, *On the Origin of Species: By Means of Natural Selection*, 6th ed. (Norwalk, CT: Easton, 1872), 445. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Geisler, *Is Man the Measure?: An Evaluation of Contemporary Humanism*, 148. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) J. P. Moreland, *Kingdom Triangle: Recover the Christian Mind, Renovate the Soul, Restore the Spirit’s Power* (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007), 46. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Geisler, *Is Man the Measure?: An Evaluation of Contemporary Humanism*, 197. ## **BIBLIOGRAPHY** - American Humanist Association. “Humanism and Its Aspirations: Humanist Manifesto III, a Successor to the Humanist Manifesto of 1933.” American Humanist Association: Good Without a God. http://www.americanhumanist.org/Humanism/Humanist\_Manifesto\_III (accessed April 13, 2012). - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Humanist Manifesto II.” American Humanist Association: Good Without a God. http://www.americanhumanist.org/Humanism/Humanist\_ Manifesto\_II (accessed April 13, 2012). - Craig, William Lane. *On Guard*. Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook, 2010. - Darwin, Charles G. *On the Origin of Species: By Means of Natural Selection*. 6th ed. Norwalk, CT: Easton, 1872. - Geisler, Norman L. *Is Man the Measure?: An Evaluation of Contemporary Humanism*. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 1983. - Moreland, J. P. *Kingdom Triangle: Recover the Christian Mind, Renovate the Soul, Restore the Spirit’s Power*. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007. - Sarte, Jean-Paul. *The Words: Autobiography of Jean-Paul Sarte*. Translated by Les mots. New York: Random House, 1964. [](#_ftnref1) **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Introdution to the Historical Books: Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/introdution-to-the-historical-books-book-review/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Introdution to the Historical Books: Book Review [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 1 182x300 - Introdution to the Historical Books: Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-1-182x300.jpg "Introdution to the Historical Books: Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3ProscR)Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading In the book *Introduction of the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading*, Steven McKenzie provides a highly accessible look into methods that modern scholars use to read and understand the books of the former prophets.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) McKenzie emphasizes a historical-critical approach to studying the former prophets. One of the strengths, and likely the greatest strength, of McKenzie’s book is its ability to summarize clearly and concisely modern scholarship’s perspective on genre, historicity, compositional development, and methods. Regarding methods, McKenzie both defines and explores the diachronic and synchronic methods of analysis. Critical initiatives and arguments are no longer novel, but McKenzie provides a clear presentation of diachronic methods as historical-critical approaches that plumb the depths of verticality, and he presents synchronic methods as literary-critical approaches that investigate the horizontal riches of the text. The presentation and juxtaposition seem to provide a necessary clarity to the reader. Specifically, McKenzie nicely connects the organizational dots by clarifying that literary source criticism, redaction criticism, form criticism, and historical reconstruction fall within the historical-critical diachronic category, while simultaneously placing canonical and narrative criticism into the synchronic category that has led to certain deconstructionist initiatives. In sum, the explanation and organization of modern scholarship’s approach to studying Scripture is strong. On a more granular basis, McKenzie offers readers an insight into the way modern scholars approach historicity and compositional developments within the Old Testament, and specifically, within the former prophets. In a religious world where empathy is often declared bankrupt, deeply understanding disparate viewpoints is absolutely essential. McKenzie’s approach not only presents many scholars’ perspectives, but also provides a brief scholarly history regarding historicity and composition. First, regarding historicity, McKenzie leans on the work of John Van Seters who attempts to define the genre of history in ancient Israel without relying on a strict modern definition: facts from the past. Accordingly, McKenzie suggests the genre of history arises from biblical authors who compiled traditions into nationalistic literature that offered an account of ancient Israel. Whether the events actually happened in history is not of primary importance. What is important is that the biblical authors “provide explanations from the past for Israel’s self-understanding…history writing was theology.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Along with historicity, McKenzie also provides a succinct, yet effective, presentation of Martin Noth’s hypothesis of Deuteronomistic History (DtrH) where the books of Deuteronomy through 2 Kings were written as a single unit. Noth assumes that the author of the DtrH lived during the time of the Babylonian exile and compiled, edited, and composed the books around 562 BC. Modern scholars have subsequently developed Noth’s proposal, but scholarly consensus does not currently exist. Regardless, a strength of McKenzie’s work is the elucidation of modern scholarship’s view of historicity and DtrH pertaining specifically to the former prophets. In agreement with Randall McKinion, McKenzie’s book is a “valuable contribution to the classroom.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) McKenzie’s first and likely most obvious weakness is that he does not identify the weaknesses or at least the limitations of a historical-critical approach to study. First, as a matter of course, it is important to state that nothing innately objectionable exists about the constituent parts of historical-critical methods such as textual criticism, source criticism, redaction criticism, and form criticism. However, the risk occurs when historical-critical methods are applied without highlighting the potential obstacles. Noth’s Deuteronomistic History is a relevant example of a hypothesis that McKenzie presupposes and, although he recognizes other scholarly views, spends little or no time discussing its potential shortfalls. The proposed compositional development of the former prophets as a DtrH rests on source criticism and, in particular, the correct identification of the sources that underlay the final textual product. Unfortunately, a diachronic approach can be taken too far. The various DtrH hypotheses can easily lead to a form of atomization and, as Trent Butler explains, the biblical writers “did not start with half verses and add small bits and large bits until the process was finished. Such a process of redaction criticism simply takes critical studies to the brink of the unbelievable.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Another risk associated with source and redaction criticism might be coined “discovering conclusions in faulty assumptions.” For example, a source critic may conclude that a particular verse was a later redaction of an original older text. The later redaction then may lead the critic to conclude with certainty that the event described must have happened at a given date. The date may then be compared to evidence from ancient Near Eastern records. It may then be discovered that the biblical event does not match evidence corroborated by certain [archaeological evidence](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-geography-and-archaeology/). Accordingly, the critic concludes the event described in Scripture is fiction. However, if the original hypothesis, which was that the verse was a later redaction, is incorrect, then all the remaining logic falls apart. Finally, it is important to recognize that, in general, the indisputable determination of any given source does not exist, which is proven by the absolute lack of consensus by modern scholars. Without accusing McKenzie of making these mistakes, the weakness of his work is not addressing their potentiality. McKenzie’s second and likely most damaging weakness pertains to the assumption that biblical history is not historical, which also may evolve from the risks associated with historical-critical methods. Granted, the possibility of later editors does not automatically require historicity to be undermined. However, as Butler explains, the historicity of the book of Joshua is questioned by the supposed DtrH if the “conquest tradition is nothing else than an invention by Deuteronomistic scribes.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Furthermore, the more obvious concern regarding historicity seems to occur within the discipline of form criticism. To reiterate, genre analysis is a valuable tool and needs not to undermine historicity. However, McKenzie’s redefinition of biblical history certainly calls into question the historical veracity of the former prophets. To be clear, the former prophets do appear to utilize sources and provide an etiological purpose, but to suggest a theological work cannot be completely historical seems to represent McKenzie’s antisupernatural presuppositions rather than conclusive arguments. The weakness of McKenzie’s efforts is the absence of alternative views. However, by shifting the focus away from hypothetical sources and presupposed conclusions and, instead, toward the actual text, the study can engage the unity of the content and, per Barry Webb, resolve the tensions within the text through various forms of narrative analysis and development.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Although McKenzie does briefly mention synchronic approaches, the text once again moves into the background as he presumes that meaning may reside within the reader rather than the text. In sum, McKenzie provides a clear and concise overview of several modern scholarly approaches to the former prophets, but the lack of comprehensiveness and unwillingness to point out the potential pitfalls of those approaches is disconcerting. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) The following analysis is an exploration of the following content: Steven L. McKenzie, *Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2010), 1–38. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 12. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Randall L McKinion, “Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 53, no. 3 (September 2010): 628. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Trent C. Butler, *Joshua, 1-12*, ed. Nancy L. deClaissé-Walford, 2nd ed., vol. 7a, Word Biblical Commentary (Nashville: Zondervan Academic, 2014), 92. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., *Joshua, 1-12*, 90. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Barry G. Webb, *The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading* (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2008), 39. # Bibliography - Butler, Trent C. *Joshua, 1-12*. Edited by Nancy L. deClaisse-Walford. 2nd ed. Vol. 7a. Word Biblical Commentary. Nashville: Zondervan Academic, 2014. - McKenzie, Steven L. *Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2010. - McKinion, Randall L. “Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 53, no. 3 (September 2010): 627–628. - Webb, Barry G. *The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading*. Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2008. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [The Hope of Israel Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/hope-of-israel-book-review/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Hope of Israel Book Review ## **The Hope of Israel Book Reflections** In his book, *The Hope of Israel*, Brandon Crowe argues that the resurrection is central to the meaning of Acts and aids in addressing certain difficult theological issues. Several aspects of the book are both insightful and helpful. One particularly helpful element of the book that assists the reader in understanding the theology of Acts is Crowe’s use of the resurrection to engage the longstanding debate regarding the continuity and discontinuity between the Old and New Testaments. Crowe utilizes a nuanced view of the post-Reformation terms *Historia* *Salutis* and *Ordo* *Salutis* to make his point, but for the purpose of this response, the focus is on how Crowe utilizes the resurrection to hold continuity and discontinuity in tension. [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 1 180x300 - The Hope of Israel Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-1-180x300.png "The Hope of Israel Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4j186oO)The Hope of Israel: The Resurrection of Christ in the Acts of the Apostles First, regarding discontinuity, the death and resurrection of Christ provide several epochal shifts in salvation history. Crowe identifies four important shifts: (1) the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, (2) the relativization of the Temple, (3) the modification of Jewish identity markers, and (4) the intensification of world missions.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Not only did the Holy Spirit come upon the believers in Acts 2:4, but Crowe points out that it was because of the resurrected Christ that the Spirit was granted.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The infusion of the Spirit from the resurrected and exalted Christ then “builds up God’s people into a living temple.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) In other words, since believers are now the temple inhabited by the Almighty God, the Jerusalem Temple is relativized. Also, in similar fashion, the inhabitation of the Spirit relativizes various Jewish identity markers, such as circumcision and dietary food laws, while simultaneously opening the possibility for the reclamation of all nations, which leads to the worldwide initiative of spreading the message of the gospel.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The discontinuity is unmistakable. The resurrection also highlights the continuity between the Old and New Testaments. Crowe provides five examples of continuity, but each of them contribute to the concept of covenant fulfillment.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Through a faithful remnant, God fulfills His covenant promises to Abraham by blessing and reconciling all nations to Himself through the resurrected Messiah.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Accordingly, Donald Hagner may be correct in stating that Christianity is “fulfilled Judaism.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The continuity is also unmistakable. Crowe also explains that continuity across the ages occurs through the resurrected Christ in the form of proleptically generated forgiveness, justification, and life in the Spirit.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) More specifically, Luke 3:3 states that John the Baptist proclaimed a “baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (ESV). However, Paul at Pisidian Antioch asserts that forgiveness of sins comes through Christ (Acts 13:18). Crowe resolves the apparent chronological contradiction by asserting that forgiveness of sins occurred before the resurrection, but that “forgiveness in any age is contingent upon the death and resurrection of Christ.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) In sum, although several elements of Crowe’s book are insightful and helpful, the author’s ability to relate the resurrection of Christ to the issue of continuity and discontinuity between the Old and New Testaments provides readers with a better understanding of the [theology of the book of Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/judaism-in-the-book-of-acts/). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Brandon D. Crowe, *The Hope of Israel: The Resurrection of Christ in the Acts of the Apostles* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2020), 114. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 21, 24–29. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 117. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 120–25. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 131–32. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Donald Hagner, “How ‘New’ Is the New Testament?: Continuity and Discontinuity Between the Old Testament (Formative Judaism) and the New Testament (Early Christianity),” *Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies* 19, no. 2 (2016): 104. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Crowe, *The Hope of Israel*, 132–43. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 133, 136. ## Bibliography - Crowe, Brandon D. *The Hope of Israel: The Resurrection of Christ in the Acts of the Apostles*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2020. - Hagner, Donald. “How ‘New’ Is the New Testament?: Continuity and Discontinuity Between the Old Testament (Formative Judaism) and the New Testament (Early Christianity).” *Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies* 19, no. 2 (2016): 99–107. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Philippians 4:13 Misinterpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/philippians-4-13-misinterpretation/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Philippians 4:13 Misinterpretation The verse that I incorrectly interpreted was Paul’s optimistic statement in his letter to the Philippians: “I can do all things through him who strengthens me” (Phil 4:13).[\[1\]](#_ftn1) My original interpretation simply took the English translation at face value and assumed that I could accomplish any task, overcome any obstacle, or defeat any foe if God would just provide enough strength for me to perform at the level necessary to succeed. Unfortunately, not only was my interpretation misguided, but the potential implications for such an inaccurate view of Scripture were quite unhealthy. The first step in the validation process as enumerated by David Lowery is to define the nature of the interpretive problem. Frankly, as a novice interpreter, I was not even aware of the alternative viewpoints. Thus, from the start, I missed all the steps of validation: (1) defining the problem, (2) sorting out proposed interpretations and differing viewpoints, and (3) asking questions regarding relevant arguments and evidence.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) [![Philippians 413 Misinterpretation 182x300 - Philippians 4:13 Misinterpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Philippians-413-Misinterpretation-182x300.jpg "Philippians 4:13 Misinterpretation - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3C06mvl)Philippians, Colossians, Philemon (The New American Commentary, Vol. 32) However, the most significant mistake besides not taking differing viewpoints into account was ignoring the literary context of the passage. Several interpretations exist for Paul’s famous verse. However, for the purpose of this brief analysis, two different perspectives will suffice. First, Richard Melick appropriately recognizes that the verse under consideration is often abused by taking it out of context, and accordingly, suggests that its context supports two factors: (1) the verse applies to material and physical needs based on economic fluctuations and (2) the power comes from the will of God, not the will of man, thus a misapplication often is due to self-sufficiency.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) While Melick provides important biblical truths, he misses the overarching concern provided by the context of this particular verse. More appropriately, Gordon Fee observes that “everything” or “all things” (πάντα) means both want or plenty, times of need and times of abundance.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Thus, according to Fee, the context of Paul’s language in verses 10-12 supports the interpretation that being *in* Christ means to experience contentment regardless of the circumstances.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Although Fee rightly asserts that Paul’s message pertains to contentment, the primary support for the interpretation is not scholarly commentaries. Instead, support primarily rests on the literary context of the passage applied to the syntax of the original Greek: πάντα ἰσχύω ἐν τῷ ἐνδυναμοῦντί με. First, a wooden translation may render the verse: “All I am able in the one who strengthens me.” William Arndt, Frederick Danker, and Walter Bauer explain that the semantic range of the term ἰσχύω includes the ideas that an individual is able, competent, healthy, powerful, or meaningful.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Second, as Fee noted, the word πάντα need not be limited to want but includes bounty as well. Third, the preposition ἐν plus the dative is quite elastic. Although many suggest a dative of cause or instrumentality, Fee suggests a spatial dative, which aligns with verse 7.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Taking these three factors into consideration, an appropriate translation may be, “In everything I am able to experience contentment in [Christ Jesus](https://www.livestransforming.com/living-life-in-christ/) who strengthens me.” In sum, by using the steps of validation, I can render an interpretation that is certainly more accurate than my original. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) David K. Lowery, “Validation: Exegetical Problem Solving,” in *Interpreting the New Testament Text: Introduction to the Art and Science of Exegesis*, ed. Darrell L. Bock and Buist M. Fanning (Wheaton: Crossway, 2006), 158-59. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Richard R. Melick, *Philippians, Colossians, Philemon*, vol. 32 of *The New American Commentary* (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1991), 154–55. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Gordon D. Fee, *Paul’s Letter to the Philippians*, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1995), 434. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 435; emphasis added. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) William Arndt, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer, *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament* (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 484. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Also see discussion regarding the spatial dative in Philippians 4:13 in Michael J. Thate, “Paul, Φρόνησις, and Participation: The Shape of Space and the Reconfiguration of Place in Paul’s Letter to the Philippians,” in *“In Christ” in Paul: Explorations in Paul’s Theology of Union and Participation*, ed. Michael J. Thate, Kevin J. Vanhoozer, and Constantine R. Campbell (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2014), 303–8. # Bibliography - Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, and Walter Bauer. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament*. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. - Fee, Gordon D. *Paul’s Letter to the Philippians*. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1995. - Lowery, David K. “Validation: Exegetical Problem Solving.” In *Interpreting the New Testament Text: Introduction to the Art and Science of Exegesis*, edited by Darrell L. Bock and Buist M. Fanning. Wheaton: Crossway, 2006. - Melick, Richard R. *Philippians, Colossians, Philemon*. Vol. 32 in *The New American Commentary*. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1991. - Thate, Michael J. “Paul, Φρόνησις, and Participation: The Shape of Space and the Reconfiguration of Place in Paul’s Letter to the Philippians.” In *“In Christ” in Paul: Explorations in Paul’s Theology of Union and Participation*, edited by Michael J. Thate, Kevin J. Vanhoozer, and Constantine R. Campbell. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2014. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [What Are the Gospels? Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/what-are-the-gospels-book-review/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # What Are the Gospels? Book Review [![03 182x300 - What Are the Gospels? Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-182x300.jpg "What Are the Gospels? Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4aa2F2L)What Are the Gospels A Comparison with Graeco Roman Biography Based on his dissertation in 1992, Richard Burridge’s book, *What Are the Gospels?: A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography,* addresses the issue of the genre of the gospels.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) After providing a historical survey of the debate and analyzing how literary theorists manage genre, the author then turns to classical literature to make his case. By comparing the generic features of five Graeco-Roman biographies chronologically before and after the gospels, Burridge’s conveys his central thesis: “The gospels are part of the genre of ancient βίος literature.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Importantly, the primary hermeneutical implication of Burridge’s work is that the nature of the gospels supports the centrality of Jesus. The strengths of Burridge’s work are numerous. First, one of the author’s most significant contributions is the identification of generic detection features, which include opening features, subjects, external features, and internal features.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Although Charles Talbert and Philip Shuler laid a certain amount of groundwork for Burridge’s research, neither provided the rigorous approach of Burridge’s work necessary to shift consensus; thus, scholars continued to assume the *sui generis* view.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Burridge not only provided patterns of features to assist in identifying a family resemblance between the gospels and Graeco-Roman βίοι, but he also applied the features in significant detail to ancient sources bookending the time of the Evangelists. For example, in one of his most compelling arguments, Burridge analyzes verbal subjects and notes that a distinguishing feature of βίος from other forms of literature is the statistical concentration on one individual. One might call the feature a detection criterion that assists in detecting the genre of a work. Burridge corroborates the assertion of concentration by analyzing five works prior to and five works subsequent to the gospels and then documents the results of his computer analysis in Appendix I. When the author compares the ancient Graeco-Roman βίοι with the gospels, the latter also have a concentrated focus on one individual, namely Jesus. More specifically, the verbal subjects that pertain to Jesus occur in each of the four gospels between 17-20%.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) By focusing on both early and late ancient Graeco-Roman βίοι and then comparing the ancient texts with the four canonical gospels, Burridge provides a profoundly convincing argument. In light of his comprehensive analysis, Judith Diehl notes that decades of scholarship have not been able to prove Burridge wrong and then goes as far as to suggest that “it seems unlikely that anyone can improve on Burridge’s definitive words or his hypothesis in terms of identifying the type of literature we have in the Gospels.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Another important strength of Burridge’s work is his effort to engage in the implications of his conclusions. As Nicholas King explains, the cogency of Burridge’s work is enhanced by the Subject, the person of Jesus, as the interpretive key to the gospels that runs through the entire book.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Another important strength is Burridge’s engagement with literary theory to define genre not merely as a method of classification, but instead, through the sharing of “family resemblances” as a constituent feature of genre.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Without clearly defining terms, the results could easily have been clouded. Although less important as it relates to the overall argument, other strengths exist such as a chapter on reactions to his research by other authors, recent scholarly debates, and further developments in the study of the gospels, as well as helpful appendices. Although Burridge certainly proves his thesis, the most significant weakness revolves around the type of criteria or features used for the analysis. In other words, Burridge’s arguments could be enhanced by focusing more attention on what Andrew Pitts calls disambiguating criterion.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The point is that Burridge clearly provides detection criteria for identifying Graeco-Roman βίος, but, according to Pitts, detection criteria assist only in identifying related genres while disambiguating criteria assists in identifying specific genres.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) The issue is that Burridge’s criteria for identifying the genre of βίος also catches several other genres and do not necessarily disambiguate between specific genres. Accordingly, many of the features, such as the mode of representation, size and length of the work, meter, and the use of sources, according to Pitts, exist in other genres including history and philosophy.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) In sum, the argument would have been stronger if disambiguating criteria showing the distinctiveness of the genre were further explained, explored, and disaggregated. A second, related weakness has to do with the important feature of verbal subjects, which Burridge identifies as “determinative for βίοι.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Without question, the analysis of verbal subjects is a critical aspect of the evidence supporting the genre of the gospels. However, the verbal subject’s criterion does not always work. For example, Pitts analyzes Appian’s *Civil Wars* and, upon an investigation of the concentration of verbal subjects, Appian has a high density, but the work is not a biography; instead, it is history.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Of the four gospels, the weakness would seem to apply more to the Gospel of Luke than the other three gospels since Luke is intimately connected with the [book of Acts and the history of the early church](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-gospels-for-all-christians-book-review/). Although the weaknesses do detract, they are not strong enough to overcome the preponderance of evidence that asserts that the gospels are βίοι when a composite view of the features is analyzed and juxtaposed with the concept of a “family resemblance.” Personally, I find Burridge’s work quite compelling. If I were to read each account of the gospels to my grandchildren and ask them to tell me what or who the stories were about, they would likely say, “the stories are about Jesus.” In other words, the gospels are not folk tales that might have prompted Rudolph Bultmann to view the gospels as *sui generis*. They are not simply a historical account of a community of believers. They are also not not history as espoused by certain critical scholars. Instead, the gospels are stories about a real historical individual named Jesus. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) See Richard A. Burridge, *What Are the Gospels?: A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography* (Baylor University, 2020). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 101. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 107. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 22–23. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 319–321. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Judith A Diehl, “What Are the Gospels?: A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography,” *The Catholic Biblical Quarterly* 82, no. 2 (April 2020): 314. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Nicholas King, “What Are the Gospels?: A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography,” *Heythrop Journal* 61, no. 6 (November 2020): 10500. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Burridge, *What Are the Gospels?*, 40–41. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Andrew W. Pitts, “NT 203: The Literary Context of the Gospels,” 2017, Logos video lecture, segment 37. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Burridge, *What Are the Gospels?*, 107. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Pitts, “NT 203,” segment 38. ## Bibliography - Burridge, Richard A. *What Are the Gospels?: A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography*. Baylor University, 2020. - Diehl, Judith A. “What Are the Gospels?: A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography.” *The Catholic Biblical Quarterly* 82, no. 2 (April 2020): 312–314. - King, Nicholas. “What Are the Gospels?: A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography.” *Heythrop Journal* 61, no. 6 (November 2020): 1049–1050. - Pitts, Andrew W. “NT 203: The Literary Context of the Gospels.” Logos video lecture, 2017. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [The Gospels for All Christians Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-gospels-for-all-christians-book-review/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Gospels for All Christians Book Review ## **For Whom Are the Gospels Written?** The scholarly consensus is that each of the Gospels were written for a specific local community rather than a general audience. However, *The Gospels for All Christians: Rethinking the Gospel Audiences* is a collection of essays edited by Richard Bauckham that refutes the current consensus.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The central thesis of the work is straightforward: “The Gospels were written for all Christians, not specific churches.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Bauckham begins the book with his own essay, which lays the groundwork for the arguments supporting his thesis. After providing a brief history of scholarship, Bauckham provides historical and literary evidence that suggests that early Christianity consisted of a network of communities that kept the communication channels open; thus, writing only for an immediate community seemed highly unlikely.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Ironically, recent scholarship has also sided with Bauckham for very different reasons. For example, Hugo Méndez contends that similarities and differences between the Gospels can be explained by disguised authorship and literary borrowing, such as that which occurs within pseudepigraphal writings, rather than explained by a specific community hypothesis.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Thus, the consensus view has come under fire from multiple directions, not just conservative scholars. The remainder of the book is a compilation of essays that further support Bauckham’s central thesis. Michael Thompson’s essay shows that the early churches had the ability to communicate with each other and did not exist on theological islands. Loveday Alexander explores how ancient Christians utilized the codex technology as a vehicle to disseminate the Gospel writings. Richard Burridge highlights that genre, rather than an agenda of a local community, provides the framework for the message of the Gospels. More granularly, Bauckham adds to the compilation by asserting that scholarship’s view of John’s independence from Mark is overstated. Stephen Barton’s essay argues that evidence does not exist to support an audience of specific communities. Finally, Francis Watson contends that assuming a hypothetical original community as the source of content implies an allegorical rather than a literal reading of the text. Each essay supports the overall aim and thesis of Bauckham’s initiative. However, the question remains as to whether the initiative is successful. The remainder of the analysis addresses various strengths and weaknesses of the work. The strengths of Bauckham’s compilation of essays are significant. First, Bauckham successfully points out several arguments that support the specific community hypothesis could also support the general community hypothesis. For example, during the last century, scholars have presupposed that certain content of the Gospels was directed toward a specific community, but Bauckham explains that the same content could have also been applied to a broader, more general, community.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Similarly, Bauckham appropriately notes that just because Paul’s epistles were written with a specific community in mind does not require the Gospels, which entail a different genre, to do the same.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Furthermore, Bauckham successfully argues that the ancient Roman world during the time of Christ was not isolated into small community pockets, but rather, it was highly interconnected.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Thompson picks up on the notion of an ancient information superhighway between ancient communities.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Although not mentioned, consensus exists around the positive impact of *Pax Romana* on mobility during the time of Christ, which further supports Thompson’s argument. Accordingly, both Bauckham and Thompson make logical and coherent arguments for the possibility of a general audience. A second important strength of the work surrounds Thompson’s essay, which addresses the utilization of codex technology. As Thompson explains, the codex was portable, adaptable, and utilitarian.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) It would be difficult to understand why the codex was so popular among ancient Christians unless the purpose was to employ the benefits of the medium. First, it is reasonable to assume that if an author took the time to write the text, then the purpose of the painstaking task of documentation in antiquity might go beyond communicating with a next-door neighbor. It is not unreasonable to conclude that the codex format was a good fit for authors who desired to easily disseminate a message to a wider audience. Furthermore, the argument of genre addressed by Burridge fits well with the codex vehicle. In other words, if the genre of the Gospels is βίος, then it would seem reasonable that early Christians would have been motivated to tell the story of Jesus utilizing a portable medium. [![03 182x300 - The Gospels for All Christians Book Review](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03-182x300.jpg "The Gospels for All Christians Book Review - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3E8ENAI)What Are the Gospels?: A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography [\[10\]](#_ftn10) Since the strengths and weaknesses of Burridge’s hypothesis have been examined in a previous discussion board, no further analysis is necessary. A third strength revolves around the internal evidence of the Gospel texts. The scholarly consensus is that John is wholly independent of the other Gospels due to its distinctiveness. However, Bauckham successfully points out that two of John’s parenthetical explanations in John 3:24 and 11:2 provide evidence that the author was writing to an audience already familiar with Mark.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The argument assists in both directions. First, if a general circulation of Mark existed, then the internal evidence further supports Bauckham’s thesis with regard to the Gospel of Mark. Second, if a general circulation of Mark existed, then it seems reasonable that John would also assume that his Gospel would someday follow the same path of general dissemination. A fourth strength pertains to allegorization. Barton explains that a type of circularity occurs within scholarly consensus. If the presupposition of a specific community exists, then the meaning of the text must reflect the agenda of the specific community. However, if textual evidence is lacking to support the specific community hypothesis, then, in effect, the hermeneutic is sociologically allegorized.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Similarly, although *Sitz im Leben* is an important aspect of [biblical theology](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-inerrancy/), Watson notes that the life setting is not necessarily theologically neutral.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) More specifically, if the emphasis of *Sitz im Leben* trumps the intended genre for the purpose of furthering a presupposition that lacks evidence, then, once again, an allegorical reading occurs that lends itself to an arbitrary interpretation.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Both Barton and Watson appropriately highlight the inherent risks of applying presuppositions to the hermeneutical process. Weaknesses also exist within the compilation of essays. First, although it is true that the written word may be a substitute for living within the same community, other alternatives may exist. For example, a grandfather may want to leave a written memoir for posterity. In other words, the existence of written Gospels does not require a general dissemination, but neither does it preclude it. Second, the evidence of Christians utilizing the codex format certainly provides the possibility of general dissemination of the Gospels, but it does not absolutely require it. Other factors may have contributed to the use of codex such as ease of access. Similarly, access to transportation is not the same as usage. Third, Bauckham claims that early Christians “had a strong, lively, and informed sense of participation in a worldwide movement.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Although the assertion is possible, further explanation of the significant divergence of thought between Christian communities, as exemplified in Paul’s letter to the Galatians, would need to be addressed as the lack of agreement lends itself to localized diversity. As James Dunn explains in a response to Bart Ehrman’s book, *Jesus Before the Gospels: How the Earliest Christians Remembered, Changed, and Invented Their Stories of the Savior*, the Gospels were “clearly intended for different hearers,” even though authors like Ehrman significantly exaggerate the distinctions between the Synoptics.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Fourth, the authors may, at times, overstate their case. It is certainly possible that the authors of the Gospels had a very specific community in mind, while simultaneously recognizing that the principles would have universal appeal. Accordingly, the authors could have written with both perspectives in mind. Classical literature provides a plethora of examples. F. Scott Fitzgerald’s *The Great Gatsby* was certainly meant to appeal to residents of Long Island, New York in the 1920s. Fitzgerald even alluded to the idea that Jay Gatsby was at least partially autobiographical. Regardless, the treatment of social class, gender, race, and environmentalism all have had universal appeal and application. Similarly, Mark 15:21 refers to specific individuals, which provides a strong local flavor; thus, the authors could be at risk of inappropriately deemphasizing the local context. In sum, it appears Bauckham has provided enough evidence to suggest that the Gospels were written with a general audience in mind. However, the evidence does not appear to preclude the possibility that a local community was also in view. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Richard Bauckham, *The Gospels for All Christians: Rethinking the Gospel Audiences* (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1997). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 2. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 30–43. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Hugo Méndez, “Did the Johannine Community Exist?,” *Journal for the Study of the New Testament* 42, no. 3 (March 2020): 353. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Bauckham, *The Gospels for All Christians*, 22–26. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 26–30. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 30–43. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 50–53. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 72–86. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 120–130. See also Richard A. Burridge, *What Are the Gospels?: A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography* (Waco: Baylor University, 2020). [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Bauckham, *The Gospels for All Christians*, 150–169. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 174–179. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 195–197. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid., 207–217. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid., 3. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) James D. G. Dunn, “Jesus Before the Gospels: How the Earliest Christians Remembered, Changed, and Invented Their Stories of the Savior,” *Modern Believing* 58, no. 3 (2017): 267–268. ## Bibliography - Bauckham, Richard. *The Gospels for All Christians: Rethinking the Gospel Audiences*. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1997. - Burridge, Richard A. *What Are the Gospels?: A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography*. Waco: Baylor University, 2020. - Dunn, James D. G. “Jesus Before the Gospels: How the Earliest Christians Remembered, Changed, and Invented Their Stories of the Savior.” *Modern Believing* 58, no. 3 (2017): 267–268. - Méndez, Hugo. “Did the Johannine Community Exist?” *Journal for the Study of the New Testament* 42, no. 3 (March 2020): 350–374. **Categories:** Academic, Book Reviews --- ### [Historicity of Jonah](https://www.livestransforming.com/historicity-of-jonah/) **Published:** January 26, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Historicity of Jonah [![An Introduction to the Old Testament Second Edition 182x300 - Historicity of Jonah](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/An-Introduction-to-the-Old-Testament_-Second-Edition-182x300.jpg "Historicity of Jonah - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/41Y82Ad)An Introduction to the Old Testament: Second Edition Several compelling reasons exist for reading the book of Jonah as a fictional story or parable. First, the miraculous story of Jonah surviving being swallowed by a fish lends itself to fiction to anyone holding to naturalism (Jon 2:1). The second reason pertains to historical vagueness. Tremper Longman and Raymond Dillard recognize that Jonah is the only character named in the book, the king of Nineveh is not named, and the title “king” is unusual since Nineveh was the name of a city and not an empire (Jon 3:6).[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Furthermore, it seems odd that animals repent (Jon 3:7-8), and the size of Nineveh, a 3 days’ walk, has been questioned (Jon 3:3-4). The idea that the people of Nineveh, who executed such severe atrocities against humanity, would repent is also highly debated.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Finally, the various literary features also support the view that Jonah is a fictional story or a parable. Douglas Judisch references literary arguments advanced by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America that support a fictional account, which include (1) the observation that the Bible includes various genres, (2) the possibility that Jonah is unique among the prophets in its delivery, (3) the concept that Jonah’s name, meaning dove, is a metonym for Israel, and (4) the idea that Jonah is an allegorical parable similar to the story of Nathan in 2 Samuel 2:1-15.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The identity of the king garners much attention. Paul Lawrence explains that some modern scholars assume the reference to the king of Nineveh (Jon 3:6) instead of the king of Assyria is inaccurate, and the reference to nobles (Jon 3:7) is characteristic of the Persian period, rather than the timeframe of 2 Kings 14:25.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Lawrence’s solution revolves around three powerful governors or nobles of the land surrounding Assyria between 808-752 BC.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The hypothesis asserts that the three governors rendered the Assyrian monarchy impotent during the time of Jonah. Accordingly, one of the Assyrian kings may have been limited to ruling Nineveh and may even have made his residence in Nineveh.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Lawrence’s solution solves why the king of Assyria was referred to as king of Nineveh, explains why the king would be living in Nineveh, and resolves Jonah’s reference to the nobles. Jay Lemanski addresses the king’s identity by providing a brief historical survey of the Assyrian empire that begins with the reign of Assyrian king Shalmaneser III (858-824 BC) and moves through four other Assyrian kings before Tiglathpileser ascends the throne in 747 BC.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Lemanski’s point is that, although the king of Nineveh was not the king of the Assyrian Empire, the Assyrian empire experienced significant political instability during the time of Jonah; thus Nineveh could have been an “independent or semi-independent city-state with its own ruler.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) If Lemanski is correct, then Nineveh could have had its own king. Jesus’s statements in Matthew 12:39-41 and Luke 11:29-30 appear to add credibility to the historicity of Jonah. Eugene Merrill, like Lemanski, recognizes the political instability of the region during Jonah’s time and suggests that Nineveh was founded by a fish-god.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Furthermore, the sign mentioned by Jesus that convinced the pagan city to repent must have been quite persuasive. Merrill contends that Jonah’s experience of being swallowed by a whale during a political crisis caused Jonah’s lackluster sermon to be quite effective because the people perceived the prophet as a divine messenger, who was quite persuasive to a city founded by a fish-deity.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Merrill’s hypothesis not only explains why the Ninevites might repent, but also provides support for the historicity of the book. Scholars have addressed several literary issues used to question the historicity of Jonah. Judisch explains that just because the Bible contains a variety of genres does not mean an allegorical reading is appropriate. [\[11\]](#_ftn11) Furthermore, Judisch continues, just because Jonah is a story does not make it unique for other prophets also include stories. [\[12\]](#_ftn12) Just because Jonah’s name means dove does not mean he is not the biological son of Amittai. [\[13\]](#_ftn13) And just because comparisons can be made between the story in 2 Samuel 12 and [the book of Jonah](https://www.livestransforming.com/theology-of-jonah/) does not mean that Jonah is not historical.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Judisch also explains that nothing in Jonah suggests it is not historical; the book includes various geographical and historical references, and both the ancient Jews and Jesus affirmed the historicity of Jonah.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) At minimum, anyone challenging the historicity of Jonah must address Judisch’s arguments. I believe that Jonah should be read as history, but I am not dogmatic in my view. There appears to be valid arguments for both readings. First, it is difficult to ignore the literary masterpiece of the book, but the literary attributes do not preclude the telling of historical events. Second, it is difficult to ignore Jesus’s apparent historical reference to Jonah, but Jesus could have been referring to a parable. Third, it is difficult to believe the miraculous nature of Jonah’s impossible whale adventure, but miracles accomplish the impossible, so if one believes in miracles, the whale story should not be a stumbling block to a historical reading. I do not believe that the inerrancy or reliability of Jonah depends on the story being historical. The book’s theological message and the exegesis applied to Jonah do not depend on its historicity. Accordingly, the most important aspect of the book is its message, which shines a light on God’s grace and mercy irrespective of whether the interpreter is reading a parable or history. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Tremper Longman and Raymond B. Dillard, *An Introduction to the Old Testament*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006), 444. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Erika Belibtreu, “Grisly Assyrian Record of Torture and Death,” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 17, no. 01 (January/February 1991): 1–11. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Douglas Judisch, “The Historicity of Jonah,” *Concordia Theological Quarterly* 63, no. 2 (April 1999): 146–47. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Paul Lawrence, “Assyrian Nobles and the Book of Jonah,” *Tyndale Bulletin* 37 (1986): 121–22. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 130. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 130–31. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Jay Lemanski, “Jonah’s Nineveh,” *Concordia Journal* 18, no. 1 (January 1992): 43–46. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 46. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Eugene H. Merrill, “The Sign of Jonah,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 23, no. 1 (March 1980): 25–27. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 29–30. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Judisch, “The Historicity of Jonah,” 146–52. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid., 153–57. ## Bibliography - Belibtreu, Erika. “Grisly Assyrian Record of Torture and Death.” *Biblical Archaeological Review* 17, no. 01 (January/February 1991): 1–11. - Judisch, Douglas. “The Historicity of Jonah.” *Concordia Theological Quarterly* 63, no. 2 (April 1999): 144–57. - Lawrence, Paul. “Assyrian Nobles and the Book of Jonah.” *Tyndale Bulletin* 37 (1986): 121–32. - Lemanski, Jay. “Jonah’s Nineveh.” *Concordia Journal* 18, no. 1 (January 1992): 40–49. - Longman, Tremper, and Raymond B. Dillard. *An Introduction to the Old Testament*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. - Merrill, Eugene H. “The Sign of Jonah.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 23, no. 1 (March 1980): 23–30. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Themes of the Psalter](https://www.livestransforming.com/themes-of-the-psalter/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Themes of the Psalter At first, the Psalter may appear to be a disparate conglomeration of haphazardly compiled poetry. However, a biblical-theological awareness reflecting upon motifs within the psalms provides a thematic context that not only exposes the Psalter’s unity, but also assists in the interpretive process. The following analysis identifies several of the more prominent thematic threads and includes one specific example of thematic awareness that informs the interpretation of Psalm 23. Although, admittedly, the potential methods or ways to identify and then organize the thematic initiatives of the Psalter may be limited only by one’s imagination, Geoffrey Grogan provides a reasonable approach by focusing on the features that unite the entire Psalter: All the Psalms “concern the God of the psalmists, the God of Israel, his acts for them, and their relationship to him.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) First, regarding the God of the psalmists, Israel’s monotheistic conviction asserts that God is the one and only true God. Within Israel’s monotheistic worldview arises the thematic initiatives of God’s sovereignty over all beings and all creation. God’s sovereignty over all beings prompts questions regarding the reality of other divine beings. Psalm 86:6 states, “There is none like you among the gods,” and Psalm 82:1 states, “God has taken his place in the divine council; in the midst of the gods, he holds judgement.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Whether other divine beings exist is a matter of scholarly debate, but what is not debatable is that Yahweh is the one and only ultimate Creator of all beings and all creation.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Furthermore, the psalmists thematically follow other [biblical writers](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-word-studies/) by strictly prohibiting the worship of false gods regardless of their ontological reality. Furthermore, comparative religious studies might suggest that mythology of the ancient Near East influenced the psalmist’s understanding of Yahweh. Robert Chisolm explains that, in both Ugaritic and Mesopotamian mythology, the gods battle the sea to establish rulership over creation. [\[4\]](#_ftn4) In particular, Baal and Anat defeat the sea and Marduk defeats Tiamat. Psalm 74:13-14 and 89:9-10 reflect mythological overtones where Yahweh crushes Rahab, smashes the heads of Leviathan, and battles the sea monsters. However, Chisolm further explains that Psalm 95:5 and 146:6 demythologize the sea as part of God’s creative work, which highlights God’s sovereignty.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) In other words, the psalmists echo Babylonian and Canaanite mythology to stress Yahweh’s actual sovereign power over all His creation, which is a theological motif present throughout the Psalter. Second, regarding God as the God of Israel, Yahweh is Israel’s king. Certain scholars, such as James Mays, suggest the entire Psalter revolves around the theme of Yahweh’s kingship (Pss 9:7; 93:1; 97:1; 99:1; 146:10).[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Various analogies extend the kinship metaphor. Examples of the literary device include such titles as warrior, judge, benefactor, and shepherd as well as references to military, political, and legal initiatives that emphasize the reign of a king. David Howard asserts that Psalms 1-2 not only introduce the Psalter, but also provide a thematic overview that includes the kingship motif.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) [![Psalms Volume 1 Volume 1 From Biblical Text.to Contemporary Life 182x300 - Themes of the Psalter](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Psalms-Volume-1_-Volume-1_-From-Biblical-Text.to-Contemporary-Life-182x300.jpg "Themes of the Psalter - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/400vQ3P)Psalms Volume 1: Volume 1: From Biblical Text…to Contemporary Life: The NIV Application Commentary For example, Psalm 2 establishes Yahweh as the sovereign king over all the nations. The royal nature of Psalm 2 extends into a messianic psalm that points to kingship far beyond the time of David, a topic explored further when analyzing the Psalter’s canonical context. According to Howard, the kinship motif weaves its way through all five books of the Psalter.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Kingship provides a specific example of how thematic awareness informs the interpretation of Psalm 23. Gerald Wilson explains that the term “shepherd” aligns with the semantic domain of “kingship” in the ancient Near East, where kings fulfilled the role of protector.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The language of protector is evidenced in Psalm 23:2-4 when referring to supplying needs, restoring the soul, leading to righteousness, and comforting the people. The poem then again emphasizes Yahweh’s kingship when His followers join him at the table before his enemies in verse 5. Finally, Wilson highlights that dwelling in the house of the Lord likely refers to taking refuge in the temple, the house of the King, as Yahweh relentlessly pursues (רָדַף) his followers with goodness and mercy.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) In sum, not only does the kingship motif pervade the Psalter, but it also illuminates the Psalter’s meaning specifically regarding a proper interpretation of Psalm 23. Third, Yahweh’s acts for His people are too numerous to comprehensively address, but it is difficult to ignore the critical nature of the exodus event, which thematically weaves its way through the Psalter. The references to the exodus in the Psalter are thematically featured specifically in Psalms 78, 105, 106, 115, and 136. Grogan thematically links the exodus event to Yahweh’s act of creation by highlighting His power to control nature; to the centrality of praise that prioritizes gratitude and intensifies thanksgiving; and to a paradigm represented in later salvific acts.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Chisolm observes that the mythological sea references in Psalms 74 and 89 emphasize Yahweh’s victory over the sea at creation, which provides a paradigmatic framework for the exodus event and, simultaneously, points to a new exodus, a new creative act of deliverance.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Furthermore, Walter Kaiser notes that corporate laments often include reflections upon God’s historical activity, such as the exodus event, which provide the impetus for complaints that precursor praise.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Clearly, God’s divine activity provides the thematic tissue that not only strengthens the message of the Psalter but also unites the poems. Finally, it is difficult to imagine reading the Psalter without keeping Yahweh’s relationship with his people at the forefront of one’s mind. The themes of refuge, righteousness, exile, and suffering all find their way into the relationship between Yahweh and His people. Francis Kimmitt highlights the reciprocal relationship between trust and praise that arises out of God’s refuge and protection.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) As God provides protection and deliverance, trust grows within the relationship, which naturally leads to praise: a theme that pervades the Psalter. More specifically, Howard highlights the relational aspects of both righteousness and wickedness while simultaneously identifying them as organizing motifs not only in Psalms 1-2, but also the rest of the Psalter.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) In Psalm 1, David provides an example of righteousness in contrast to the wickedness of his enemies. Furthermore, Yahweh functions as the righteous king in Psalm 2. In recent years, the paradigmatic righteousness of David is further contrasted with the wickedness of the Israelites that led to the exile. Walter Brueggemann calls the exile “Israel’s most generative theological moment.”[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Accordingly, it is not unreasonable to conclude that the Psalter, and especially book three of the Psalter, may have reflected upon the experience of the Babylonian exile, an experience that ultimately becomes a relational pull upon the Israelites as they move back toward Yahweh. Finally, it would be difficult to complete an analysis of thematic initiatives of the Psalter without addressing the personal theme of suffering that affects so many relationships. Allen Ross highlights several aspects of suffering, which include both God hiding himself and God forsaking the Israelites, which lead to bold and direct prayers confronting God’s hostility.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) However, paradoxically, the cries to Yahweh during suffering not only prove the existence of a relationship, but also points to a God who suffers with his people, a suffering that ultimately finds its way to the cross. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Geoffrey Grogan, *Psalms*, The Two Horizons Old Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2008), 232. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in th*e English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) See Michael S. Heiser, *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible*, First Edition. (Lexham Press, 2015. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Robert Chisolm Jr., “Suppressing Myth: Yahweh and the Sea in the Praise Psalms,” in *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, ed. Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr. (Chicago: Moody, 2013), 75. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 84. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) James L. Mays, *The Lord Reigns: A Theological Handbook to the Psalms* (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1994), 13. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) David M. Howard Jr., “Divine and Human Kingship: As Organizing Motifs in the Psalter,” in *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, ed. Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr. (Chicago: Moody, 2013), 200–203. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 203–207. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Gerald Wilson, *Psalms: From Biblical Text…to Contemporary Life*, vol. 1, The NIV Application Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), 431. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 1:436–437. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Grogan, *Psalms*, 251–259. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Chisolm Jr., “Suppressing Myth: Yahweh and the Sea in the Praise Psalms,” 76–79. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Walter C. Kaiser Jr., “The Laments of Lamentations: Compared to the Psalter,” in *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, ed. Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr. (Chicago: Moody, 2013), 128–129. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Francis X. Kimmitt, “Psalm 46: Praise the Lord Our Help,” in *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, ed. Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr. (Chicago: Moody, 2013), 74. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Howard Jr., “Divine and Human Kingship: As Organizing Motifs in the Psalter,” 202. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Walter Brueggemann, *Reverberations of Faith: A Theological Handbook of Old Testament Themes* (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002), 39. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Allen P. Ross, “The ‘Thou’ Sections of Laments: The Bold and Earnest Prayers of the Psalmists,” in *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, ed. Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr. (Chicago: Moody, 2013), 136–149. ## Bibliography - Brueggemann, Walter. *Reverberations of Faith: A Theological Handbook of Old Testament Themes*. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002. - Chisolm Jr., Robert. “Suppressing Myth: Yahweh and the Sea in the Praise Psalms.” In *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, edited by Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr., 75–84. Chicago: Moody, 2013. - Grogan, Geoffrey. *Psalms*. The Two Horizons Old Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2008. - Heiser, Michael S. *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible*. First Edition. Lexham Press, 2015. - Howard Jr., David M. “Divine and Human Kingship: As Organizing Motifs in the Psalter.” In *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, edited by Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr., 197–207. Chicago: Moody, 2013. - Kaiser Jr., Walter C. “The Laments of Lamentations: Compared to the Psalter.” In *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, edited by Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr., 127–133. Chicago: Moody, 2013. - Kimmitt, Francis X. “Psalm 46: Praise the Lord Our Help.” In *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, edited by Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr., 63–74. Chicago: Moody, 2013. - Mays, James L. *The Lord Reigns: A Theological Handbook to the Psalms*. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1994. - Ross, Allen P. “The ‘Thou’ Sections of Laments: The Bold and Earnest Prayers of the Psalmists.” In *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, edited by Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr., 135–150. Chicago: Moody, 2013. - Wilson, Gerald. *Psalms: From Biblical Text…to Contemporary Life*. Vol. 1. The NIV Application Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Canonical Consciousness of the Psalter](https://www.livestransforming.com/canonical-consciousness-of-the-psalter/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Canonical Consciousness of the Psalter One of the few concepts that most scholars agree upon is that context is crucial for proper biblical interpretation. Canonical consciousness is certainly one of the most powerful contextual tools available to the interpreter. As opposed to focusing solely on comparative religious influences or the subjective nature of certain diachronic methodologies, canonical consciousness attempts to read Scripture holistically in light of the innertextual connections within the Psalter and between the Psalter and the remainder of the canon. Accordingly, the following analysis identifies several innertextual and intertextual links of the Psalter. It also identifies specific examples from Psalm 22 that allows for reflection upon how canonical consciousness provides a context for expositing the Psalter. Although a comprehensive approach to innertextual analysis of the Psalter would likely require multiple volumes, it is difficult to engage in even a cursory analysis without recognizing the connections between the first two Psalms and the rest of the Psalter. Robert Cole explains that many scholars believe that the first two Psalms provide an integrated introduction to the Psalter as a whole.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The lack of superscription of the first two Psalms supports the assertion. Although Cole concedes that the first two Psalms may have been independently written, the “linguistic, structural, and thematic evidence” suggest that an integrated reading is most appropriate.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) David Howard identifies several connections between the first two Psalms including the topic of righteousness versus wickedness, the kingship overtones, the *‘ashre* clauses that focus on the blessed taking refuge in Yahweh, and the motifs of wisdom and Davidic covenant.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Importantly, the links between Psalms 1 and 2 provide a foundation for additional connections with the rest of the Psalter. For example, the topic of righteousness, the language of kingship, Yahweh’s characteristic protection, and covenant language all figure prominently throughout the Psalter. Accordingly, the interpreter must keep these key characteristics, which have been established in the introduction, at the forefront of the interpretive analysis of the entire book. Additional links between the first two Psalms and the rest of the Psalter provide important clues for interpretation. Michael Snearly asserts that Psalm 89 may provide the hinge upon which the entire Psalter rests.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The reason for the assertion is partially due to the innertextual connections with Psalms 1-2. Key words such as king, Torah, eternal, and covenant loyalty not only provide connections between the introduction and Psalm 89 at the end of Book III (Pss 73-89) but also provide links to the entire macrostructure of Book V (Pss 107-145).[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Furthermore, according to Snearly, the kingship language is reflected within Books I-III, while Book IV continues to focus on Yahweh’s sovereignty established in Psalm 2.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) In sum, by ignoring the innertextual links within the Psalter, the interpreter risks missing the author’s intended message by segregating the context of individual Psalms from its overall canonical context. Intertextual analysis between the Psalter and the New Testament and the remainder of the Old Testament also provides important canonical context for interpreting the Psalms. Regarding both the Old and New Testaments, the echoes, allusions, and quotations are vast; a few examples will have to suffice. According to Walter Kaiser, one of the most prominent motifs within the Psalter is the lament or complaint; thus, intertextually reading the lament Psalms in light of [the Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/) book of Lamentations can assist in providing insight into reading both the individual and corporate laments within the Psalter.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The suffering experienced by the Jewish people upon the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple and the subsequent Babylonian exile caused great despair as noted in the exasperation of Lamentations 2:21, “In the dust of the streets like the young and old; my young women and my young men have fallen by the sword; you have killed them in the day of your anger, slaughtering without pity.” [\[8\]](#_ftn8) Reading the lament Psalms in light of its links to the book of Lamentations provides insights in understanding a significant portion of the Psalter. Kaiser explains that the purpose of the individual and corporate laments in the Psalter match the purpose of Lamentations, which is to process grief, not by ignoring the pain or philosophically explaining the suffering, but by expressing and feeling the pain.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) By ignoring the purpose of the lament Psalms in light of the broader context of the book of Lamentations, the interpreter again risks missing the message of the writer. One of the most recognizable individual laments, especially for modern Christians, is Psalm 22, which laments the unjust suffering of a righteous Israelite. Overtones of the wisdom literature of Ecclesiastes is present, but the intertextual connections with the New Testament are what has made Psalm 22 famous. The Psalm commences with the writer expressing great distress of an individual, possibly David. The cry is not so much an accusation of Yahweh, but a belief in Yahweh, a belief that comes with an expectation that God would arrive at the time of need. However, Matthew 27:46 and Mark 15:34 clearly shed light on the ultimate meaning of Psalm 22:1 when Jesus asks the question, “*Eloi, Eloi, lema sabachthani*?” In other words, without an understanding of Jesus’s words, the meaning of Psalm 22:1 is missed. Without question, the previous statement is controversial within the broader context hermeneutical theory. [![Psalms Old and New Exegesis Intertextuality and Hermeneutics 182x300 - Canonical Consciousness of the Psalter](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Psalms-Old-and-New_-Exegesis-Intertextuality-and-Hermeneutics-182x300.jpg "Canonical Consciousness of the Psalter - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4h01p4y)Psalms Old and New\_ Exegesis, Intertextuality, and Hermeneutics However, the meaning of Psalm 22:1 is, at minimum, expanded once Jesus utters his desperate words and the cry takes on messianic overtones that foreshadows future events. The intertextual connections between Psalm 22 and the New Testament move beyond the first verse. Ben Witherington links verse 2 with Jesus’s rhetorical question in Luke 18:7, links verse 5 with Paul’s desire in Philippians 1:20 not to be put to shame, and links verses 6-7 with Jesus’s words in Mark 9:12 regarding being treated with contempt.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Many more connections between Psalm 22 and the New Testament writers exist. However, the point is that the New Testament forcefully communicates that Psalm 22 continues to be relevant to their situation. Canonical consciousness may inform the exposition of Scripture in several ways. First, when teaching any of the Psalms, including the example of Psalm 22, the original context remains a critical aspect of all exegesis and exposition. Second, the broader canonical context of wisdom literature must be taken into consideration. Sometimes the righteous suffer and the wicked prosper. Juxtaposing the message of Proverbs with the book of Ecclesiastes and Job highlights that the righteous do not always experience blessing. Placing Psalm 22 within this broader context of the Old Testament can convey an extremely important message for the modern Christian sucked into the guilt and shame that necessarily results from modern prosperity gospels. Finally, and most poignantly, reading Psalm 22 in light of the contextual tapestry of echoes, allusions, and quotations from the New Testament assists listeners in recognizing that the message of Psalm 22 provides two additional insights. First, it foreshadows a messianic reality, a reality where the Righteous One suffers greatly. Second, it highlights the message that the righteous suffer, which was not only applicable during Old Testament times but also continued into the New Testament with Jesus, Paul, and many other disciples. The message that the righteous suffer also continues into modernity. Although this brief analysis is only the tip of the iceberg, without question, canonical consciousness informs the proper interpretation of the Psalter. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Robert L. Cole, “Psalms 1 and 2: The Psalter’s Introduction,” in *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, ed. Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr. (Chicago: Moody, 2013), 183–188. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 185, 193. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) David M. Howard Jr., “Divine and Human Kingship: As Organizing Motifs in the Psalter,” in *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, ed. Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr. (Chicago: Moody, 2013), 200–201. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Michael K. Snearly, “The Return of the King: Book V as a Witness to Messianic Hope in the Psalter,” in *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, ed. Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr. (Chicago: Moody, 2013), 211. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 211–212. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 212. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Walter C. Kaiser Jr., “The Laments of Lamentations: Compared to the Psalter,” in *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, ed. Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr. (Chicago: Moody, 2013), 127. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in th*e English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Kaiser Jr., “The Laments of Lamentations: Compared to the Psalter,” 132. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ben Witherington, *Psalms Old and New: Exegesis, Intertextuality, and Hermeneutics* (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2017), 104–105. ## Bibliography - Cole, Robert L. “Psalms 1 and 2: The Psalter’s Introduction.” In *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, edited by Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr., 183–196. Chicago: Moody, 2013. - Howard Jr., David M. “Divine and Human Kingship: As Organizing Motifs in the Psalter.” In *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, edited by Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr., 197–207. Chicago: Moody, 2013. - Kaiser Jr., Walter C. “The Laments of Lamentations: Compared to the Psalter.” In *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, edited by Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr., 127–133. Chicago: Moody, 2013. - Snearly, Michael K. “The Return of the King: Book V as a Witness to Messianic Hope in the Psalter.” In *The Psalms: Language for All Seasons of the Soul*, edited by Andrew J. Schmutzer and David M. Howard Jr., 209–218. Chicago: Moody, 2013. - Witherington, Ben. *Psalms Old and New: Exegesis, Intertextuality, and Hermeneutics*. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2017. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Genre of Biblical Wisdom Literature](https://www.livestransforming.com/genre-of-biblical-wisdom-literature/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Genre of Biblical Wisdom Literature Identifying the genre of biblical wisdom literature may be more difficult than any other type of literature. Regarding the book of Proverbs, some scholars assume an overall disunity where random, pithy sayings have been compiled over decades or centuries. Alternatively, according to Ernest Lucas, Knut Heim locates proverbial clusters within certain parts of the book by analyzing literary devices such as repetition and linking devices, while similarly, Bruce Waltke finds proverbial units through the examination of *inclusio*, catchwords, and *chiasmus*.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Other scholars suggest that clusters are manufactured, and some assume that Proverbs consists of an intentional randomness. Consensus is nowhere to be found. Regardless, within any form of biblical literature, the interpreter must consider the possibility that form leads to function in that the organization and literary structure may inform the interpretive process. In general, Lucas, in agreement with Klaus Koch, acknowledges the assumption of an act-consequence nexus.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The linkage is not suggesting a God who rewards and punishes, but a God who has built universal principles into creation whereby actions have consequences. The linkages are general guidelines, not hard and fast rules. Accordingly, Lucas connects the Proverbs with education where “education in ‘life-skills’ has to begin with what is *generally the case*.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The structure of the book certainly supports the wisdom genre, and in light of Lucas’s observation, the category of educational units or couplets may best identify the functional genre of Proverbs. The genre of Proverbs will inform teaching strategies such as the one presented below. [![Now My Eyes Have Seen You 182x300 - Genre of Biblical Wisdom Literature](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Now-My-Eyes-Have-Seen-You-182x300.jpg "Genre of Biblical Wisdom Literature - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3C080Nx)Now My Eyes Have Seen You: Images of Creation and Evil in the Book of Job (Volume 12): New Studies in Biblical Theology Before engaging in a discussion regarding teaching Proverbs and Job, a brief analysis of Job’s genre is in order. Similar to Proverbs, no academic consensus exists regarding the genre of Job. Furthermore, the combination of poetry and narrative within the book of Job increases the difficulty. Robert Fyall summarizes the challenges of genre identification as follows: (1) the circumstances of the book are diverse, (2) the commingling of poetry and prose are demanding, (3) the book is experiential rather than an exposé on theodicy, and (4) the diverse poetry provides further complications.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) However, within an exploration of the validity of Job’s faith, Lindsay Wilson notes various sub-genres including a complaint, a lament, and a legal disputation.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) It is difficult to ignore the poignancy of the complaint accusation against Yahweh by Job in 10:3, “Does it seem good to you to oppress, to despise the work of your hands and favor the designs of the wicked?”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Furthermore, Wilson mentions that not only does Richard Hughes identify seven laments in the book of Job, but he notes that chapters 21 and 30 also must be added to the list.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Reminiscent of both Jeremiah and Ecclesiastes, Job 3:11 represents the genre well, “Why did I not die at birth, come out from the womb and expire?” The remainder of the chapter continues to build upon the initial exasperation. Additionally, Job contemplates the possibility of litigation against God; thus some consider the book’s genre a legal disputation, an argument Job is sure to lose to the Defendant. Finally, some scholars assume a fictional parable or ancient tragedy, but evidence to support the suggestions is limited. Instead, the category of wisdom literature that encompasses the subgenres of laments, complaints, and a legal disputation will be used to inform a teaching strategy for the book of Job. Although genre certainly informs interpretation, the theological messaging of both Proverbs and Job provides the glue necessary for a proper teaching strategy. Fredrick Holmgren summarizes the thematic direction of Proverbs as follows: advice for living, explanations of what often occurs in life, lessons that lead to a pleasant life, and the general idea that the righteous prosper and the wicked are punished.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) However, Holmgren continues, individuals took these pithy statements and pushed them “beyond the limits of good sense.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) In other words, instead of a general rule, individuals often assumed that misfortune always witnessed evil character and that prosperity always pointed to devotion. Reminiscent of a twenty-first century prosperity gospel, believers often embraced the idea that humanity has more control over their lives than reality allows. Accordingly, Job provides an important theological counterbalance to Proverbs, which is crucial to the teaching strategy of the books. According to Fyall, the theological messaging of Job revolves around three great themes: creation, providence, and knowing God.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Christopher Ansberry appropriately connects the thematic initiatives of Proverbs and Job under the headings of worldview, anthropology, and ethics.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) First, the wisdom of Proverbs and Job both capture the ordering of the universe that God providentially controls. Second, both books contribute to character formation. Third, the wisdom of Proverbs and Job point to the importance of ethics, but they both provide a twist. As Ansberry explains, biblical wisdom avoids a deontological approach to ethics that continues to trip up modern believers, and instead, both Proverbs and Job avoid dictating rules and, alternatively, attempt to form and shape a believer’s paradigm.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) In sum, genre analysis of Proverbs and Job provides the foundation, while the great thematic initiatives provide the building blocks for a teaching series. It is likely a common phenomenon to pick and choose from passages of Proverbs or Job to communicate a concept or message. However, a more appropriate approach may be to preach the two books together using topical initiatives. If a teacher were to attempt to create a ten-week series, the first week would require an introduction to wisdom literature. The following nine weeks could be divided by assigning Ansberry’s three categories to three weeks each: worldview, anthropology, and ethics. The key to the approach is the use of both Proverbs and Job in each session in order to provide the proper canonical balance without making the same mistake that Job’s friends did when spewing advice. The possible topics for each category seem quite flexible, so the following examples simply provide potential options. The first week would not only provide the basic introductory content for wisdom literature but also furnish a detailed explanation of how Proverbs and Job balance each other and why it is important to not read one without the other. The passage where Jesus explains to the disciples that neither the blind man nor his parents were at fault for the suffering in John 9:1-5 may be particularly relevant. The second through fourth weeks would focus on the worldview category. Creation and providence would take center stage during these three weeks. The divine order of the cosmos (Prov 3:19-20) built into all creation, the connection between the original Edenic vision and [the new cosmic reality in Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/exegesis-of-romans-8-1-11/), and Yahweh’s providential care could all contribute to the lessons. Furthermore, the important connection between God’s sovereignty and divine relationality could be explored, highlighting that if one trumps the other, then the believer’s view of God is distorted. The fifth through seventh weeks would focus on the anthropological category. The delicate dance between God’s providence and human responsibility could underpin the second teaching category. The former could be emphasized utilizing the book of Job while the teacher points out that humanity cannot control and manipulate Yahweh with righteous behavior; the latter could be emphasized by any number of proverbs while the teacher points out that actions have consequences. The topic of evil and the influence of evil forces within the world also could be examined in light of both Job and Proverbs especially in light of how God uses difficult circumstances of life to forge character. A proper understanding of evil naturally opens the discussion of the importance of expressing the reality of suffering to God just as Job did in his complaints, laments, and disputation. Finally, and maybe most importantly, the teacher could highlight how a relationship with Yahweh, a deep-seated knowing, trumps any form of prosperity. The eighth through tenth weeks could focus on the ethical category. To suggest that the Bible is a book about ethical behavior completely misses the point. In fact, some of the most egregious and shocking behaviors seem to be supported in Scripture such as divine warfare in the Old Testament and Jesus’s relational connections with foreign women in the New Testament. During these three weeks, the teacher could spend time juxtaposing various proverbs with the message of Job to show how motives count. To do good for the purpose of manipulating Yahweh into a reward undermines wisdom. To give advice and judge other believers based on their external circumstances risks completely missing the point of God’s initiatives. To hold grudges against the wicked who seem to prosper appears to undermine one’s understanding of God’s sovereignty. In sum, the educational genre of Proverbs alongside the complaint and disputation genre of Job provides a strong foundation upon which to build a teaching series that focuses on the theological messaging of the books. The key to teaching Proverbs and Job is to teach them in tandem by allowing the message of one to harmonize the other. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Ernest C. Lucas, “The Book of Proverbs: Some Current Issues,” in *Interpreting Old Testament Wisdom Literature*, ed. David G. Firth and Lindsay Wilson (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2017), 37–39. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 42–43. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 44. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Robert Fyall, *Now My Eyes Have Seen You: Images of Creation and Evil in the Book of Job* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2002), 23–24. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Lindsay Wilson, “Job as a Problematic Book,” in *Interpreting Old Testament Wisdom Literature*, ed. David G. Firth and Lindsay Wilson (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2017), 62–72. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6)Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in th*e English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Wilson, “Job as a Problematic Book,” 69. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Fredrick Carlson Holmgren, “Barking Dogs Never Bite, Except Now and Then: Proverbs and Job,” *Anglican Theological Review* 61, no. 3 (July 1979): 341–346. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 346. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Fyall, *Now My Eyes Have Seen You*, 184–190. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Christopher B. Ansberry, “Wisdom and Biblical Theology,” in *Interpreting Old Testament Wisdom Literature*, ed. David G. Firth and Lindsay Wilson (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2017), 176–192. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 189. ## Bibliography - Ansberry, Christopher B. “Wisdom and Biblical Theology.” In *Interpreting Old Testament Wisdom Literature*, edited by David G. Firth and Lindsay Wilson. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2017. - Fyall, Robert. *Now My Eyes Have Seen You: Images of Creation and Evil in the Book of Job*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2002. - Holmgren, Fredrick Carlson. “Barking Dogs Never Bite, Except Now and Then: Proverbs and Job.” *Anglican Theological Review* 61, no. 3 (July 1979): 341–353. - Lucas, Ernest C. “The Book of Proverbs: Some Current Issues.” In *Interpreting Old Testament Wisdom Literature*, edited by David G. Firth and Lindsay Wilson. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2017. - Wilson, Lindsay. “Job as a Problematic Book.” In *Interpreting Old Testament Wisdom Literature*, edited by David G. Firth and Lindsay Wilson. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2017. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Hebel in Ecclesiastes](https://www.livestransforming.com/hebel-in-ecclesiastes/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Hebel in Ecclesiastes Determining the definition of the word *hebel* is key to understanding and interpreting the book of Ecclesiastes. The following brief analysis argues for a uniform translation of the term. Substantive support for a uniform translation will draw from three directions: the summary introduction, the contextual options, and the purpose of [the book of Ecclesiastes](https://www.livestransforming.com/ecclesiastes-and-psychoanalysis/). It is important to acknowledge that a multivalent view is not out of the question. Certain scholars have asserted that *hebel* has multiple senses. Choon-Leong Seow suggests that the term can mean ephemerality, of little consequence, and also incomprehensible, while Douglas Miller contends that *hebel* is used as a symbol to mean insubstantiality, transience, and foulness.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) [![Ecclesiastes 182x300 - Hebel in Ecclesiastes](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Ecclesiastes-182x300.jpg "Hebel in Ecclesiastes - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4j1bMH8)Ecclesiastes Alternatively, other scholars suggest a single meaning for *hebel*. Craig Bartholomew explains that if *hebel* suggests that meaning and value cannot be grasped, then enigmatic or incomprehensible must be the definition.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) In light of Bartholomew’s observation, metaphorical language like the word “wind” has also been suggested since the substance cannot be grasped. Furthermore, Kimmo Huovila and Dan Lioy identify four other options that scholars have used uniformly to translate *hebel*: absurd, temporary, worthless or meaningless, and futile but not worthless.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Interestingly, Eugene Peterson confidently asserts that the meaning of *hebel* shifts with context while, ironically, uniformly translating the term “smoke” in *The Message*.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The introduction of the book argues that *hebel* should be uniformly translated. Ecclesiastes 1:14 states, “I have seen everything that is done under the sun, and behold, all is *hebel* and a striving after wind.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) If all or everything is *hebel* and the term has multiple definitions, then everything is many things. Fox addresses the challenge by stating that if “X is transitory; Y is futile; Z is trivial,” then “all is *hebel*” becomes meaningless.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Fox’s conclusion that the logic leads to meaninglessness may be too strong. However, in light of Ecclesiastes 1:14, instead of suggesting different definitions for different contexts, the multivalent interpreter would be required to prove that each of the 38 instances of *hebel* meant many things within different contexts, a difficult task indeed. In sum, the author’s summation of the book with the word *hebel* argues against the multivalent view. Many of the terms used to uniformly define *hebel* lack coherence. Bartholomew’s definition, enigmatic, as something that cannot be grasped certainly allows for maximum ambiguity. However, the ambiguity is the problem. If the term is puzzling or perplexing or, in some way, undefinable, then defining the term as undefinable does not add much value. Additionally, in light of Ecclesiastes 11:10, Eric Ortlund argues that *hebel* cannot uniformly mean meaningless since “meaningless of life cannot count as a reason to enjoy it.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Furthermore, Huovila and Lioy suggest that defining *hebel* as absurdity is difficult to support since it relies on both an objective situation and a subjective evaluation, which is often not evident within the context of Ecclesiastes.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Finally, Huovila and Lioy are convinced that *hebel* means futile without implying worthlessness, which has much to offer.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The problem is not that the term futility does not provide insight, it is that futility goes too far. Ecclesiastes 2 asserts that toil or work is *hebel*. However, Ecclesiastes 5:19 exhorts the reader to rejoice in his work or toil because it is a gift of God. If *hebel* means futile, then the author is calling readers to rejoice in a gift given by God that is futile, an unlikely possibility. Attempting to solely use the book of Ecclesiastes to define *hebel* provides its own limitations; thus, pulling from external usages may assist. According to Ortlund, the term is not nearly as ambiguous outside of Qohelet where it takes on three senses: “first, breath, and, by extension, something fleeting or impermanent; second, by natural extension, something in vain, pointless, empty or deceitful; third, idols.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Although the term has three senses, all of the distinct meanings outside of Ecclesiastes have one thing in common: lack. Larry Crabb contends that people have one overarching need in life, personal worth, which requires two distinct inputs: significance and security.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Humanity lacks significance and security, and many spend their entire lives attempting to satisfy the inputs to fulfill the ultimate need of personal worth to no avail. Some attempt to find significance and security in education (Eccl 1:18), some in pleasure (2:1-3), some in elicit affairs (2:8), some in prosperity (2:9-10), some in hard work (2:11), some in accomplishments (2:18-19), some in wisdom (2:26), and some in money (5:8-17). None of these possibilities fit nicely into most uniform scholarly definitions. None of these “blessings” are *a priori* enigmatic, absurd, worthless, or futile, and wisdom is not temporary (Prov 8:22-31). Furthermore, none of these potential blessings require a negative connotation. In fact, the book of Proverbs exhorts readers to work hard and welcome prosperity (Prov 14:23-24); thus, to suggest these qualities are absurd or futile misses the mark. Furthermore, significance and security are also unavailable through the deployment of evil activities, such as violence and oppression, and even attempts to eradicate these problems built into the world after the Fall does not satisfy the significance and security that humanity desperately longs for in life (Eccl 4:1-3). In other words, attempting to satisfy the longings of security and significance by eradicating evil is as elusive as using evil to find one’s significance and security. It is now time to refer back to the introduction: “I have seen everything that is done under the sun, and behold, all is *hebel* and a striving after wind” (Eccl 1:14). Two important observations are in order. First, the “all” that is *hebel* refers to activities under the sun meaning human activities in the world. In other words, God is not *hebel*, God’s divine purposes are not *hebel*, and God’s divine actions are not *hebel*. Second, everything under the sun, everything not divine, everything that humanity uses to find security and significance is *hebel*. In sum, absolutely everything under the sun, good or evil, that humanity uses to fill the empty buckets of security and significance is lacking: it is *hebel*. Absolutely everything is lacking except God: God lacks the lack. Accordingly, the author of Ecclesiastes begs the reader to turn their eyes toward God for significance and security that feeds personal worth, the unrelenting need of every human being (Eccl 5:19-20). The only viable option is to fear God, stand in awe of one’s creator, and obey the One who lacks the lack (Eccl 12:13). It is here where Ecclesiastes points to the gospel of Jesus Christ. Upon reading Ecclesiastes, the ancient reader could not help but realize that something was lacking, and any and all efforts to fill what was lacking lacked the ability to accomplish the task. The task of filling the lack could only be accomplished through the work of Christ. The only place where security and significance are found, and thus, the only place where the ultimate need of personal worth is fulfilled is in Christ, “For in him the whole fullness of deity dwells bodily, and you have been filled in him, who is the head of all rule and authority” (Col 2:9-10). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) See Choon-Leong Seow, *Ecclesiastes*, vol. 18C, The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries (New York: Doubleday, 1997), 102. See also Douglas B. Miller, *Symbol and Rhetoric in Ecclesiastes: The Place of Hebel in Qohelet’s Work* (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2002), 15. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Craig G. Bartholomew, *Ecclesiastes* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2014), 106. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Kimmo Huovila and Dan Lioy, “The Meaning of Hebel in Ecclesiastes,” *Conspectus* 27 (March 2019): 37–38. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Eugene H. Peterson, *Five Smooth Stones for Pastoral Work* (Grand Rapids: WM. B. Eerdmans, 1992), 153. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5)Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in th*e English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Michael V. Fox, *A Time to Tear Down and a Time to Build Up: A Rereading of Ecclesiastes* (Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2010), 36. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Eric Ortlund, “The Gospel in the Book of Ecclesiastes,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 56, no. 4 (December 2013): 700. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Huovila and Lioy, “The Meaning of Hebel in Ecclesiastes,” 39. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 48. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ortlund, “The Gospel in the Book of Ecclesiastes,” 700. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Larry Crabb, *Effective Biblical Counseling: A Model for Helping Caring Christians Become Capable Counselors* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 62–63. ## Bibliography - Bartholomew, Craig G. *Ecclesiastes*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2014. - Crabb, Larry. *Effective Biblical Counseling: A Model for Helping Caring Christians Become Capable Counselors*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013. - Fox, Michael V. *A Time to Tear Down and a Time to Build Up: A Rereading of Ecclesiastes*. Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2010. - Huovila, Kimmo, and Dan Lioy. “The Meaning of Hebel in Ecclesiastes.” *Conspectus* 27 (March 2019): 35–49. - Miller, Douglas B. *Symbol and Rhetoric in Ecclesiastes: The Place of Hebel in Qohelet’s Work*. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2002. - Ortlund, Eric. “The Gospel in the Book of Ecclesiastes.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 56, no. 4 (December 2013): 697–706. - Peterson, Eugene H. *Five Smooth Stones for Pastoral Work*. Grand Rapids: WM. B. Eerdmans, 1992. - Seow, Choon-Leong. *Ecclesiastes*. Vol. 18C. The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries. New York: Doubleday, 1997. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Old Testament Covenants in Latter Prophets](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-covenants-in-latter-prophets/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Old Testament Covenants in Latter Prophets ## Old Testament Covenants [![Sealed with an Oath Covenant in Gods Unfolding Purpose Volume 23 182x300 - Old Testament Covenants in Latter Prophets](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Sealed-with-an-Oath_-Covenant-in-Gods-Unfolding-Purpose-Volume-23-182x300.jpg "Old Testament Covenants in Latter Prophets - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40m1yK8)Sealed with an Oath\_ Covenant in God’s Unfolding Purpose (Volume 23): New Studies in Biblical Theology Williamson highlights several important concepts that contribute to a further understanding of the issues related to the Old Testament covenants. First, although Williamson denies an Adamic covenant due to the lack of textual support, the concept itself was new to me.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Specifically, my exposure to the arguments between covenantal theology and dispensationalism has been limited, so the author’s engagement with the possibility of a covenant of grace that subsumes the remaining covenants added to my understanding of Reformed theology.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Second, I had not recognized the reversal of creation and subsequent re-creation associated with the flood story. In the creation story, water precedes human and animal life, but the flood reverses the process and water destroys life. Instead of separating water, the water combines to cause chaos. However, order is ultimately restored in God’s re-creation process, and Noah is commanded to carry out the creation mandate. Thus, according to Williamson, in opposition to federal theology, creation has priority over the covenant, which leads to the renewal of all things and a universal blessing that binds all the Old Testament covenants.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Importantly, Williamson also provides a number of insights that contributed to my understanding of the issues regarding how the Old Testament covenants impacted the message of the prophets. Specifically, Williamson provides threads of connective tissue between [the Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/) covenants and the new covenant message of the prophets by highlighting its national and international aspects and its continuity and discontinuity.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) First, Ezekiel 37:24-28 continues to focus on the nationalistic implications for Israel and its restoration and reunification that looks back at the covenant with Abraham to make Israel a great nation (Gen 12:1-3). However, the everlasting covenant in verse 26 not only looks back to the universal blessing within the Abrahamic covenant, but it also looks forward to a future international blessing that reclaims all the nations through the line of David. Second, the continuity between the previous covenants and the new covenant referred to in the prophets is striking. Williamson highlights the continuity by explaining that the new covenant encompasses the same nation, the same obligation, and the same objective.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The same nation of Israel echoes the covenant promise to Abraham (Gen 12:1-3), the same obligation echoes the Mosaic law covenant (Exod 19:5-6), and the same objective of a divine-human reconciliation echoes the Davidic line (2 Sam 7:12-17) and its ultimate fulfillment in Christ. However, the discontinuity between the prophetic voice of the new covenant and the previous covenants may be even more striking. It is difficult to state the critical distinction more elegantly than Walter Brueggemann who states, “The commandments will not be an external rule which invites hostility, but will now be an embraced, internal identity-giving mark.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The prophetic message points to a radical internalization that not only impacts identity, but also empowers obedience through the power of the Spirit, which beautifully encompasses the previous covenant initiatives of nation, law, and reconciliation into a new eschatological cosmic reality (see Jer 24:7; 31:33; 32:39-40). ## Historical Contingencies and Biblical Predictions Many believers continue to be consumed with an insatiable desire to understand God’s prophetic future. However, Richard Pratt not only asks whether it is possible to know a future but, by exploring the role of historical contingencies subsequent to Old Testament prophecies, he also asks whether believers ought to even speculate about a prophetic future. Pratt’s contribution to my understanding of how to interpret prophetic texts and predictions begins with his assertion that it is possible that the prophets predicted events that did not and will not ever occur because of certain human reactions to those predicted events, which Pratt identifies as historical contingencies. [\[7\]](#_ftn7) More specifically, Pratt identifies three types of prophetic predictions. First, predictions qualified by conditions, which explicitly made prophecy dependent upon human response; second, predictions qualified by assurances, which affirm that some prophecy is inevitable without identifying its method of occurring; and third, predictions without qualifications also known as unqualified predictions, which were subject to implicit conditions, thus also dependent upon human response.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) The essay necessarily engages the age-old debate regarding God’s immutability, which leads to an exploration of the theological implications of understanding the prophetic texts. The argument might be simplified as follows: if God is completely immutable, then God would never change His mind, which calls God’s relationality and man’s responsibility into question. Alternatively, if God is completely mutable, then His omniscience comes into question, and God becomes no different than the capricious and pantheistic gods of the ancient Near East. Accordingly, God’s sovereignty and God’s relationality must be held in tension otherwise either God’s sovereign power or God’s relational love is undermined. Thus, Pratt concludes that God’s providence and immutability are complementary and asserts that the prophets’ “did not utter immutable decrees but providential declarations.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Pratt’s article has contributed to my understanding of how to interpret the prophetic texts and predictions by providing a method of applying God’s sovereign relationality to the prophetic message. By holding God’s immutability and providence in tension, the payoff is a greater understanding for passages where God changes His mind, a greater appreciation for predictions that do not happen, and a greater recognition of the importance of human involvement in prophetic texts. If historical contingencies have the capability to affect outcomes, then the question remains as to whether security in future events is even possible. Pratt solves this problem by suggesting that the Old Testament covenants provided parameters or boundaries for the expectations surrounding future events.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) In other words, regardless of the nature or impact of the historical contingencies, God never violates His divine covenants. Thus, both the prophets and the Old and New Testament believers can find security in God’s promises. Furthermore, these covenantal promises inform and impact the interpretation and exposition of prophetic passages in two significant ways. First, from a practical perspective, the interpreter and expositor can properly and rationally dismiss the embarrassment of unfulfilled modern speculative predictions that come and go by focusing on the subjunctive rather than the imperative, the “might” rather than the “must.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Second, instead of diminishing the importance of prophetic predictions, historical contingencies actually accentuate the role of believers by highlighting the importance of active participation with a God in control of forming a future. In other words, the interpreter should focus less on foreknowledge and more on formation.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) By effectively communicating the reality of historical contingencies within an environment of God’s sovereign relationality, the expositor can encourage believers to rest in God’s sovereignty and simultaneously join in God’s purposes. ## Covenantal Reflection on a Prophetic Text From one who has executed thousands of real estate transactions during his career, it is quite difficult to pass up the opportunity to analyze the real estate deal consummated by the prophet in Jeremiah 32. After being thrown into prison for prophesying the demise of Judah and the exile of Zedekiah, the king asks why Jeremiah speaks such things (Jer 32:1-5). In response, the prophet explains that he is going to buy a piece of real estate for seventeen shekels (Jer 32:6-19). In what appears to be a moment of insanity, Jeremiah seems to buy a worthless piece of land soon to be captured by Babylon. However, the prophet’s act clearly signals that Yahweh has a future for Judah when He states, “Houses and fields and vineyards shall again be bought in this land” (Jer 32:15).[\[13\]](#_ftn13) It is a future both reflected within the previous covenants and ratified in a new covenant. Jeremiah then says a prayer that refers to God as the creator of heavens and earth that echoes the re-creation activity reflected in the flood account and Noahic covenant (Gen 9:11; Jer 32:16-19). The prophet continues his prayer with a reminder of the exodus event and the bountiful land, which alludes to the promises to Abraham (Gen 15:18-21; Jer 32:33). Jeremiah then references the law commands given to the Israelites under the Mosaic covenant that were not obeyed, which resulted in disaster (Exod 19:5-6; Jer 32:23-24). Regardless of the profound disobedience, Yahweh tells Jeremiah to buy the land because Israel has a future; God’s kingdom is eternal through the line of David (2 Sam 7:12-17; Jer 32:25). Jeremiah’s integrative approach provides guidance to the interpreter by weaving a message of continuity that leads not to covenant replacement but to covenant fulfillment, a new covenant that is very much the same as the old covenants, yet radically different. The salvation oracle begins in verse 36: God will gather His people to safety, give them one heart, and make an eternal covenant with them (Jer 32:36-39). Jeremiah not only looks forward to life after the immediate exile, but also to a life lived eternally free from exile. Williamson suggests the ultimate objective of the new covenant is a renewed relationship with Yahweh where the essence or inner being of humanity, both the heart and personality of believers, is fundamentally changed by God Himself.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) The new covenant is initiated by God, deployed by God, and executed by God; thus there is “no possibility of breaking this new covenant.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Critical to exposition, the result of the new covenant is obedience, not an obedience empowered by human effort, but an obedience empowered by God’s effort in man, which fulfills the earlier covenants. Yahweh’s new covenant plan is not centered on changed behavior, but instead, a radical transformation of man’s very essence, a new creation as God places awe in the heart of man through the Spirit that empowers obedience (Jer 32:40; cf 2 Cor 5:17). In sum, Jeremiah’s miserable real estate deal will not put the prophet into bankruptcy after all, but instead, God declares He will restore the fortunes of Israel (Jer 32:44). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Paul R. Williamson, *Sealed with an Oath: Covenant in God’s Unfolding Purpose*, vol. 23, New Studies in Biblical Theology (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2007), 58. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 23:52–54. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 23:75–76. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 23:179–181. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 23:153. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Walter Brueggemann, *A Commentary on Jeremiah: Exile and Homecoming* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 293. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Richard L. Pratt Jr., “Historical Contingencies and Biblical Predictions,” in *The Way of Wisdom: Essays in Honor of Bruce K. Waltke*, ed. Sven K. Soderlund and J. I. Packer (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 183. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 183–190. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 183. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 191. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 195. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 196. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Williamson, *Sealed with an Oath*, 23:164–165. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid., 23:157. ## Bibliography - Brueggemann, Walter. *A Commentary on Jeremiah: Exile and Homecoming*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. - Pratt Jr., Richard L. “Historical Contingencies and Biblical Predictions.” In *The Way of Wisdom: Essays in Honor of Bruce K. Waltke*, edited by Sven K. Soderlund and J. I. Packer, 180-203. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000. - Williamson, Paul R. *Sealed with an Oath: Covenant in God’s Unfolding Purpose*. Vol. 23. New Studies in Biblical Theology. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2007. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Dispensationalism vs Covenantalism in Ezekiel](https://www.livestransforming.com/dispensationalism-vs-covenantalism-in-ezekiel/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Dispensationalism vs Covenantalism in Ezekiel ## Progressive Dispensationalism and Progressive Covenantalism [![Case for Progressive Dispensationalism 182x300 - Dispensationalism vs Covenantalism in Ezekiel](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Case-for-Progressive-Dispensationalism-182x300.jpg "Dispensationalism vs Covenantalism in Ezekiel - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gI0rdl)Case for Progressive Dispensationalism Progressive dispensationalism and progressive covenantalism understand the fulfillment of the promises concerning the restoration of Israel in the Old Testament prophets quite differently. According to Robert Saucy, a key distinctive of progressive dispensationalism is the idea that Israel is a unique entity set apart from all other nations.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The term *Israel* never applies to all of God’s people, but instead, Israel refers to a specific nationality of people. Accordingly, when the Old Testament prophets promise land to Israel, it applies only to that specific nation. Furthermore, according to Saucy, the Old Testament prophecies retain elements that are both spiritual, such as the impact of the Holy Spirit, and material, such as the land, temple, and city of Jerusalem.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Progressive dispensationalism asserts that many of the eschatological promises have been inaugurated in Christ, but others remain unfulfilled. Saucy explains that the land promises to Israel have never been completely fulfilled, the promise of personal and societal renewal by the prophets has been inaugurated by Christ but not fully consummated, and Christ’s kingdom teaching points to a future reign upon His return, thus a future millennium is necessary for the restoration of Israel.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Accordingly, Progressive dispensationalists are premillennialists. Progressive covenantalism views the nation of Israel quite differently. According to Brent Parker, the Old Testament prophetic promises are fulfilled “by Christ, and by extension, the church.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In other words, the church does not replace Israel, but continues the work of Israel. Oren Martin expands the analysis by asserting that the land promises do not require a national Israel; the land promises move beyond geography into a typological fulfillment to the ends of the earth. Typology is the centerpiece of progressive covenantalism. With regards to the Old Testament prophets, Oren Martin provides three typological references: (1) the Servant-King language in Isaiah points to Christ, (2) the exodus language in Jeremiah points to a new exodus led by Christ, and (3) the temple language in Ezekiel refers to Christ.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Like progressive dispensationalism, progressive covenantalism also embraces inaugurated eschatology. However, in progressive covenantalism all of the Old Testament promises have been inaugurated by Christ whereas progressive dispensationalism leaves the material aspects to the millennium.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Accordingly, premillennialism is not required for progressive covenantalism. Amillennialism, postmillennialism, and even premillennialism is available within the system. Two key issues within the theological systems of progressive dispensationalism and progressive covenantalism inform an understanding of how to read the promises within the Old Testament prophets. First, when reading the Old Testament prophetic promises, the interpreter must determine whether the author was writing about a time during the history of the prophet, the New Testament era, or a remotely distant time. Most progressive dispensationalists will lean toward a future fulfillment in the millennium, while many progressive covenantalists will lean toward a historical or New Testament fulfillment. Second, the interpreter must determine whether the Old Testament prophetic promise is literal or typological. Most progressive dispensationalists will look to a literal fulfillment of the material blessings for the nation of Israel, while most progressive covenantalists will look to a figurative fulfillment in Christ. A key passage to the debate is Romans 11. Progressive dispensationalism asserts that Paul has not rejected Israel, but the nation is under temporary judgement (Rom 11:1-15). Furthermore, Saucy explains that the language of full inclusion in verse 12 refers to the restoration of the nation of Israel, and the language of all Israel’s salvation in verse 26 suggests the nation of Israel as the future recipients of the promised physical blessings, blessings that are separate from the church.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Progressive covenantalism counters by arguing that progressive dispensationalism’s inaugurated eschatology is reasonable, but if they include the spiritual aspects as commencing, then they should include the material aspects. According to Richard Lucas, progressive dispensationalists do not include the material aspects within their inaugurated eschatology because it would undermine the theological system that requires a literal fulfillment of land promises to the nation of Israel.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) ## Ezekiel 36-37 The first fifteen verses of Ezekiel 36 are an oracle to the mountains of Israel. The oracle is followed by a flashback to Israel’s history in verses 16-21, which focuses on the desecrated land and the desecrated people of Israel that desecrated Yahweh’s name. Starting with Ezekiel 36:22, the Hebrew verbs take on an eschatological flavor; Yahweh will vindicate His name, will take, will gather, will sprinkle, and will cleanse His people (Ezek 36:22-25). The restoration of Israel continues with verse 26. The question is whether the timeframe the prophet is referring to pertains to an immediate historical future, an intermediate future that points to the New Testament era, or a distant future such as the Millennium. Progressive covenantalists normally assume the prophet is either referring to an immediate fulfillment during the time of Ezekiel or to a fulfillment in Christ during the New Testament era. Progressive dispensationalists assert that language that points to the restoration of the Israel would be referring to the Millennium. Certain New Testament passages may assist in determining the timeframe. Specifically, Ezekiel 36:24 states that Yahweh will gather Israel from all the pagan countries. Although the people of Judah do return from the Babylonian exile to the land of Canaan during Ezekiel’s day, the prophet explicitly uses the phrase *all* (כֹּל) countries, not just Babylon. In Acts 2:5, devout Jews from all (παντὸς) nations were gathered during the Spirit-filled event. In other words, the language of Ezekiel 36:24 appears to move beyond the immediate historical context. Furthermore, Ezekiel 36:25 states that Yahweh will sprinkle clean water on His people and cleanse them from their uncleannesses. Likewise, Hebrews 10:22 exhorts readers to draw near with their “hearts sprinkled clean.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The language appears to take on a relevance during the New Testament era. The manifestation of the indwelling Spirit in Acts 2 also appears to reflect the reality of Ezekiel 36:26 when the prophet states, “a new spirit I will put within you.” Finally, Ezekiel 36:35 makes references to a land that becomes like Eden, which may suggest a remote future such as the Millennium. The famous chapter 37 divides into two main sections. The first section (vv. 1-14) highlights the power of the Spirit to animate dead bones, which pictures the nation of Israel revitalized. In the second section (vv. 15-28), the oracle unites Judah and Israel under one nation, one land, and one king. Importantly, chapter 37 provides a revival of all the nations, which means uniting all twelve tribes. Once again, the Hebrew grammar points to a future eschatological reality. The question is whether the future is immediate, intermediate, or distant. It is difficult to assign the events to the immediate future because of the reconciliation of all the tribes, which did not occur during Ezekiel’s time. However, Acts 2:5 may apply because the devout Jews from all (παντὸς) nations were united at Pentecost. However, more poignantly, Nicholas Piotrowski connects the language of Matthew 1:21, which proclaims that Jesus will “save people from their sins,” with Ezekiel 36:29 and 37:23.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Piotrowski asserts that the two verses in Ezekiel are the only ones in the entire Old Testament that refer to a salvation from an internal enemy such as sin.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) In other words, Ezekiel is pointing to a fulfilment during the New Testament era. However, it may be possible that Ezekiel’s oracle spans beyond the New Testament period. In Ezekiel 37, the prophet focuses on uniting the two nations by reciting Yahweh’s words, “I will set them in their land and multiply them and will set my sanctuary in their midst forevermore” (Ezek 37:26). Per Martin, the language of the land may, according to progressive covenantalists, ultimately be consummated in the new creation (cf. Rev 21-22), but, according to progressive dispensationalists, the land promise refers to a literal fulfillment with the nation of Israel in the millennial age prior to reaching an ultimate new heaven and earth.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Furthermore, the Edenic language of multiplication and sanctuary may point to an eternal reality or, according to progressive dispensationalists, a millennial kingdom that precedes an eternal reality. ## The New Temple in Ezekiel 40-48 In Ezekiel 40-48, the prophet has a vision of a new temple. The temple language interfaces with the same issues of time as discussed above with regard to the eschatological language in Ezekiel 36-37. First, the Edenic language within the chapters clearly appear to point to a time beyond an immediate historical fulfillment. Second, regarding the potential of an intermediate fulfillment, the New Testament provides several references to the temple language of chapters 40-48. First, John 2:19 clearly communicates that the temple will be destroyed and raised in three days, which provides a clear relationship between the temple and the body of Christ. Second, 1 Peter 2:5-6 contends that Christians can believe in the cornerstone of the temple, which is Jesus. If a temple exists, the temple needs priests. Peter identifies a spiritual house built with living stones, believing priests. The confluence of imagery now points the temple language in the direction of both Jesus and believers. Third, Ephesians 2:20-22 also suggests that believers and Christ join into a “holy temple in the Lord.” The temple provides a location for God to dwell (Eph 20:22). Taking the temple language further, the apostle Paul makes it clear in 1 Corinthians 3:16 that his listeners, which include Gentiles, are God’s temple and that the presence of God dwells within them (see also 2 Cor 5:1-5; 6:14-18). It appears that in some way the temple language in Ezekiel 40-48 is at least inaugurated during the [New Testament era in Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/) and His believers who reside in Him. Finally, John specifically asserts that he “saw no temple” because the temple is God and Jesus (Rev 21:22). The question remains as to whether the temple language ought to be read literally or figuratively. Based on the New Testament texts, it is possible to simply assume the new temple is figurative, but two other literal options exist. First, G. K. Beale asserts that a literal fulfillment occurs within the scope of the prophet’s authorial intent when Paul states that “Christians *are* the beginning fulfillment of the actual prophecy of the end-time temple.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) In other words, the temple is literally fulfilled in Christ and the church. Second, progressive dispensationalism suggests that Ezekiel 40-48 specifically refers to physical land redistribution among the tribes and that the references to sin and death, according to Saucy, “make it obvious that this restoration…argues for an interim period.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) In sum, to disconnect the view of ancient Israelites from a literal structure, according to progressive dispensationalism, is not realistic, and thus Ezekiel is pointing to a literal, physical, temple during the Millennium. In light of inaugurated eschatology, the new temple surely commences with Christ, but to suggest that a form of further development in an eternal event or millennial period is absolutely impossible takes logical leaps beyond the evidence. Within chapters 40-48, Ezekiel also engages in sacrificial language (Ezek 40:42; 44:11; 46:24). A theological conundrum occurs if the reader assumes a literal, physical temple because it is then difficult to argue that the sacrifices within the temple are anything but literal, physical sacrifices. Hebrew 10:1-18 asserts that Christ’s sacrifice is the “once for all” sacrifice and that offering the same sacrifices “can never take away sins.” An argument for sacrifices may include the possibility of memorialization that points to the cross, but with the availability of the New Testament, it seems unnecessary. However, once again, in light of inaugurated eschatology, to suggest that Ezekiel’s language of sacrifice has no meaning beyond the Christ event appears to risk unwarranted certainty for as D. Brent Sandy states, “Prophecy always has been – and always will be – subject to misunderstanding until after it is fulfilled.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Robert Saucy, *The Case for Progressive Dispensationalism* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993), 221. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 30. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 101, 229, 291. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Brent E. Parker, “The Israel-Christ-Church Relationship,” in *Progressive Covenantalism: Charting a Course between Dispensational and Covenantal Theologies*, ed. Stephen J. Wellum and Brent E. Parker (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016), 44. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Oren Martin, “The Land Promise Biblically and Theologically Understood,” in *Progressive Covenantalism: Charting a Course between Dispensational and Covenantal Theologies*, ed. Stephen J. Wellum and Brent E. Parker (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016), 261–269. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 272–273. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Saucy, *The Case for Progressive Dispensationalism*, 246–263. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Richard J. Lucas, “The Dispensational Appeal to Romans 11 and the Nature of Israel’s Future Salvation,” in *Progressive Covenantalism: Charting a Course between Dispensational and Covenantal Theologies*, ed. Stephen J. Wellum and Brent E. Parker (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016), 237–242. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in th*e English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Nicholas G Piotrowski, “‘I Will Save My People from Their Sins’: The Influence of Ezekiel 36:28b-29a; 37:23b on Matthew 1:21,” *Tyndale Bulletin* 64, no. 1 (2013): 33–34. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 33–344. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Martin, “The Land Promise Biblically and Theologically Understood,” 273–274. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Gregory K. Beale, “Eden, the Temple, and the Church’s Mission in the New Creation” 48, no. 1 (March 2005): 24. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Saucy, *The Case for Progressive Dispensationalism*, 230. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Brent Sandy, *Plowshares and Pruning Hooks: Rethinking the Language of Biblical Prophecy and Apocalyptic* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2002), 184. ## Bibliography - Beale, Gregory K. “Eden, the Temple, and the Church’s Mission in the New Creation” 48, no. 1 (March 2005): 5–31. - Lucas, Richard J. “The Dispensational Appeal to Romans 11 and the Nature of Israel’s Future Salvation.” In *Progressive Covenantalism: Charting a Course between Dispensational and Covenantal Theologies*, edited by Stephen J. Wellum and Brent E. Parker. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016. - Martin, Oren. “The Land Promise Biblically and Theologically Understood.” In *Progressive Covenantalism: Charting a Course between Dispensational and Covenantal Theologies*, edited by Stephen J. Wellum and Brent E. Parker. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016. - Parker, Brent E. “The Israel-Christ-Church Relationship.” In *Progressive Covenantalism: Charting a Course between Dispensational and Covenantal Theologies*, edited by Stephen J. Wellum and Brent E. Parker. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016. - Piotrowski, Nicholas G. “‘I Will Save My People from Their Sins’: The Influence of Ezekiel 36:28b-29a; 37:23b on Matthew 1:21.” *Tyndale Bulletin* 64, no. 1 (2013): 33–54. - Sandy, Brent. *Plowshares and Pruning Hooks: Rethinking the Language of Biblical Prophecy and Apocalyptic*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2002. - Saucy, Robert. *The Case for Progressive Dispensationalism*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Ezekiel 36:16-32 - Interpretive Issues](https://www.livestransforming.com/ezekiel-36-16-32-interpretive-issues/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Ezekiel 36:16-32 – Interpretive Issues ## Reflections on the Rhetorical Features and Literary Genre The following summarizes a few brief reflections on the rhetorical features and literary genre of the passage as a whole. Regarding literary structure, the entire book of Ezekiel forms a chiastic arrangement. Jiří Moskala identifies the symmetry by leaning on the work of Richard Davidson: The outermost segments focus on Yahweh’s entrance into a defiled temple in chapters 1-11 (A) and restored temple in 40-48 (A1), and then moves inward to the oracles of judgement in 12-23 (B) and restoration in 34-39 (B1), which is followed by Jerusalem’s siege in 24 (C) and fall in 33 (C1) and, finally, the oracles against the foreign nations in 25-28:10 (D) and 29-32 (D1).[\[1\]](#_ftn1) However, the center of the chiasm in 28:11-26 (E) is decisive for interpretation not only for the book of Ezekiel, but also specifically for Ezekiel 36:16-32. Moskala identifies four key thematic elements of the interpretive center: the theocentric nature of the passage (28:11-26), the judgment on the fallen cherub (28:11-19), the vindication of God’s holiness (28:20-26), and the restoration of God’s people (28:25-26).[\[2\]](#_ftn2) [![Interpreting the Prophetic Books An Exegetical Handbook 182x300 - Ezekiel 36:16-32 - Interpretive Issues](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Interpreting-the-Prophetic-Books_-An-Exegetical-Handbook-182x300.jpg "Ezekiel 36:16-32 - Interpretive Issues - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3W4TyKQ)Interpreting the Prophetic Books: An Exegetical Handbook (Handbooks for Old Testament Exegesis) Furthermore, the pinnacle of Ezekiel’s chiastic artistry is found in miniature within 36:16-32. Ezekiel’s theocentric focus is on display in God’s judgement (36:16-21), the vindication of God’s holiness (36:22-23), and the restoration of God’s people (36:24-32), which ultimately points to the genre of the passage. Gary Smith explains that a salvation oracle or an oracle of hope highlights the positive aspects of God’s promises to deliver His people from a problematic situation.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Certainly, the people of God have a problem; they desecrated God’s land, reputation, and name (Ezek 36:16-21). However, God also promises deliverance through the cleansing properties of sprinkled water and the transformative characteristics of a new, Spirit-filled heart (Ezek 36:22-32). Accordingly, the genre of Ezekiel 36:16-32 is a salvation oracle. Although these observations summarize a few rhetorical features and the literary genre of the passage as a whole, each subunit may also feature various features and subgenres. ## Interpretive and Theological Issues Although the interpretive and theological issues abound within the passage, the following analysis will briefly address three specific issues. First, in Ezekiel 36:22, Yahweh commands the prophet to tell Israel that His motivation for acting on their behalf has nothing to do with the people of Israel. It appears that Yahweh no longer cares about His people. His motivation and objective revolve completely around vindicating His name, which appears similar to the motivation of modern-day leaders struggling with narcissistic personality disorder. However, Robert Jenson correctly recognizes the antinomy of God’s involvement throughout history on both sides of the conflicts.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) God did initiate the problem by exiling the Israelites, but God will also solve the problem by vindicating His name. As Steven Tuell explains, God’s activity will not be swayed by and will have absolutely nothing to do with Israel.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) God will not be motivated by Israel’s thinking, worthiness, righteousness, repentance, emotional outbursts, or behavior. The payoff, according to Daniel Block, is that the theocentric perspective of Ezekiel appears to “dismiss any hint of merit on Israel’s part.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Accordingly, by God focusing solely on vindicating His name, He not only eliminates the possibility of building a relationship with Israel founded upon human effort, but also moves towards executing a plan to reconcile both His land and His people to Himself through the process of vindicating Himself: a gracious act indeed. Second, an important theological question that arises in Ezekiel 36:26-27 is whether the indwelling nature of the Spirit in Ezekiel, which points to the coming Spirit in Acts 2, differs from the operation in the Old Testament. More specifically, a common assertion is that under the Old Covenant the Spirit comes and goes, while under the New Covenant the Spirit indwells believers. In other words, the question of whether the reference to the spirit in Ezekiel should be interpreted anthropologically or theologically continues to be debated. According to Verena Schafroth, if understood theologically, then the new spirit in verse 26 can be identified with God’s Spirit in verse 27, but it would differ substantially from the operation in the Old Covenant.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) However, alongside most scholars, if understood anthropologically, then the spirit and heart would be synonymous and represent the human volition, thus God is providing a new attitude of spirit towards God.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In a sense, neither the traditional theological nor the anthropological perspectives encompass the nuance of the passage, but the topic needs further investigation and an ultimate resolution. Third, the theological issue of the extent of human responsibility and freedom arises within the relationship between God’s re-creation activity and Israel’s obedience referred to in Ezekiel 36:27b. Christopher Wright refers to verse 27 and elegantly sums up the connection by stating, “It speaks of spiritual reality with ethical results. It speaks of cleansing and moral transformation, of radical inward change and radical outward obedience.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The relationship between the heart and the hands is not new to Ezekiel. In Deuteronomy 10:12-16, Israel is called to walk in Yahweh’s ways, to serve God with all their heart, keep His commandments via the circumcision of their hearts. In the case of Ezekiel, it is clear that God is causing Israel to walk in His ways and to obey (v. 27b). However, due to the involvement of Yahweh, Paul Joyce contends that the initiative limits or undermines Israel’s responsibility.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Greenberg takes the argument a step further by explaining that since Israel’s restoration is now irreversible, human freedom is curtailed.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The question remains as to whether the theocentric focus of Ezekiel requires an abdication of human responsibility or freedom. ## Relevance to the Latter Prophets and Church Life Ezekiel 36:16-32 is important for the study of the Latter Prophets for at least two reasons: its focus on the breakdown of the covenantal relationship between Yahweh and His people and its focus on the work of the Spirit that restores the covenant relationship. In particular, the passage addresses all three parts of a covenantal triangle: God, His land, and His people. Accordingly, the passage looks back at the Old Covenant and the original exodus and looks forward to the New Covenant and a new exodus. At the beginning of the passage, the covenantal relationship is completely broken. The land is desecrated, the people are desecrated, and Yahweh’s name is desecrated. All three aspects of the covenant need to be restored. The land needs cleansed and rest from defilement that occurs through the process of exile. The people need cleansed from their transgressions, and Yahweh’s name needs cleared. The activity of God solves these problems by gathering the people from the nations and restoring them to their land, cleansing the people through the sprinkling of clean water, and giving a new heart by putting God’s Spirit within the people. Ultimately, Yahweh’s reputation is restored on His way to reclaiming the pagan nations. [The passage in Ezekiel 36](https://www.livestransforming.com/ezekiel-36-recovery-of-honor/), in my opinion, is critically important to the church today with regard to understanding Yahweh’s role and the believer’s role in obeying God. Ezekiel clearly communicates that it is Yahweh that causes His people to walk in his statutes and obey the rules (v. 27). Believers do not cause themselves to obey God; God empowers believers to obey God. Ezekiel explains that it is by God cleansing people with sprinkled water, by God removing the heart of stone and replacing it with a new heart, and by God putting his Spirit within His people that people obey. These three initiatives cause people to obey. Although some scholars assert Ezekiel’s words reduce human freedom, human responsibility is not abdicated. Instead, it is grace that leads to and empowers obedience. As the believer lives out his or her new Spirit-filled identity, the believer becomes who they are. For example, as the believer puts on or appropriates his new God-filled self, he will no longer need to attempt to fill the self with things, other people, or accomplishments, idolatrous acts indeed. Furthermore, by living purified by Yahweh’s clean water and living with a newly transplanted heart, the shame and guilt are eradicated that would lead to the depression and anxiety that find their way into the sinful behavior of sexual affairs, alcohol, or drugs to cover the pain. Finally, by living purified and living newly created, the believer has the opportunity to experience the fruit of the Spirit rather than live in the deeds of the flesh. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Jiří Moskala, “Notes on the Literary Structure of the Book of Ezekiel,” in *Meeting with God on the Mountains: Essays in Honor of Richard M. Davidson*, ed. Jiří Moskala (Berrien Springs, MI: Old Testament Department, Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary, Andrews University, 2016), 104, 110. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 105–109. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Gary V. Smith, *Interpreting the Prophetic Books: An Exegetical Handbook* (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2014), 39. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Robert W. Jenson, *Ezekiel*, ed. R. Reno, Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible (Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2009), 278. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Steven Tuell, *Ezekiel*, ed. W. Ward Gasque, Robert L. Hubbard Jr., and Robert K. Johnston, Understanding the Bible Commentary Series (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009), 246. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Daniel I. Block, *The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 25–48* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 351. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Verena Schafroth, “An Exegetical Exploration of ‘Spirit’ References in Ezekiel 36 and 37,” *Journal of the European Pentecostal Theological Association* 29, no. 2 (2009): 66–67. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Christopher J. H. Wright, *Knowing the Holy Spirit Through the Old Testament* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2006), 128. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Paul Joyce, “Ezekiel and Moral Transformation,” in *Transforming Visions: Transformations of Text, Tradition, and Theology in Ezekiel*, ed. William A. Tooman and Michael A. Lyons (Eugene: The Lutterworth Press, James Clarke & Co Ltd., 2010), 155–156. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Moshe Greenberg, *Ezekiel 21-37: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary*, vol. 22A, Anchor Yale Bible (New Haven: Yale University, 2008), 735. ## Bibliography - Block, Daniel I. *The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 25–48*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. - Greenberg, Moshe. *Ezekiel 21-37: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary*. Vol. 22A. Anchor Yale Bible. New Haven: Yale University, 2008. - Jenson, Robert W. *Ezekiel*. Edited by R. Reno. Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible. Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2009. - Joyce, Paul. “Ezekiel and Moral Transformation.” In *Transforming Visions: Transformations of Text, Tradition, and Theology in Ezekiel*, edited by William A. Tooman and Michael A. Lyons, 139–158. Eugene: The Lutterworth Press, James Clarke & Co Ltd., 2010. - Moskala, Jiří. “Notes on the Literary Structure of the Book of Ezekiel.” In *Meeting with God on the Mountains: Essays in Honor of Richard M. Davidson*, edited by Jiří Moskala, 102–110. Berrien Springs, MI: Old Testament Department, Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary, Andrews University, 2016. - Schafroth, Verena. “An Exegetical Exploration of ‘Spirit’ References in Ezekiel 36 and 37.” *Journal of the European Pentecostal Theological Association* 29, no. 2 (2009): 61–77. - Smith, Gary V. *Interpreting the Prophetic Books: An Exegetical Handbook*. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2014. - Tuell, Steven. *Ezekiel*. Edited by W. Ward Gasque, Robert L. Hubbard Jr., and Robert K. Johnston. Understanding the Bible Commentary Series. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009. - Wright, Christopher J. H. *Knowing the Holy Spirit Through the Old Testament*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2006. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Judges: Iconography and Culture](https://www.livestransforming.com/judges-iconography-and-culture/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Judges: Iconography and Culture ## **Introduction** The cultural milieu of any particular ancient society creates a retroactive version of empathy that places the reader inside the shoes of individuals from thousands of years ago. Iconography provides a similar experience but provides images that act as a time machine allowing readers to travel into the past through the use of virtual art galleries. The question is exactly what was the ancient culture of the Israelites that sets up the time period of the Judges, and how exactly does the extant ancient Near Eastern iconographical evidence support the thematic initiatives of the book of Judges? Without an understanding of the Israelite culture and iconographical evidence, the reader may miss crucial interpretive elements within the narrative. A recognition of the cultural elements of settlement, domestication, technology, and religion combined with an awareness of the iconography that supports the thematic initiatives of the book of Judges provide a framework for enhanced understanding of the famous narratives. Accordingly, the following analysis provides a brief summary of the pertinent cultural components of ancient Israel followed by a summary of the relevant iconographical data. ## **Cultural Overview** Sometime, likely in the early fourteenth century BC, Joshua’s conquest of Canaan came to an end. However, it was clear to the Israelites that despite the land allotment to the tribes, the entirety of the land had not been conquered. Specifically, Carl Rasmussen explains that the southwestern portion eventually controlled by the Philistines, the coastal plain, the Jezreel Valley, and the land of Canaan north of Dan all remained unconquered.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Thus, the Israelite settlement consisted primarily of the extended hill country of Judah, Ephraim, and Manasseh, portions of Galilee, and parts of Gilead and Moab. The dating of the oppression of Israel, according to Robert Chisolm, likely began around 1330 BC and the final Samson narrative ends around 1130 BC.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Domestically, the Israelites likely lived primarily as farmers among the more sparsely populated areas growing crops such as grapes, olives, figs, almonds, and wheat. Technologically, Rasmussen notes a recent invention of rock-hew, plaster-line cisterns that created the opportunity for families to live further away from springs, which opened the possibility of territorial expansion.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) However, without question, the most important aspect of the Israelites’ cultural milieu for purposes of evaluating the book of Judges was the religious beliefs of their neighbors. The Israelites struggled with the Canaanite religion from the start. and unfortunately, the threat lasted right up to the time of the Babylonian captivity in 586 BC. The risks associated with the Canaanite religion can be summarized into four categories: (1) polytheism, (2) Baalism, (3) fertility cults, and (4) syncretism. According to Joel Burnett, polytheism was particularly evident in the Transjordanian neighbors east of the Jordan, which included the Ammonites, Edomites, and Moabites who worshipped Baal, Bel, Mot, and Adad in addition to other national deities.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Although polytheistic, Baalism was the most prominent opponent of Yahweh during the time of Judges. Wilhelm Herrmann describes the situation as an environment where the worship of Baal pervaded the entire Canaanite area spreading throughout the Mediterranean region.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Baal appealed to the Israelites as the lord of the earth because Baalism promised blessings such as rain to nourish the crops. Likewise, according to Thomas Brisco, the fertility aspects of the Canaanite religion appealed to the Israelites, which, once again, promised blessing.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Finally, the unfortunate temptation to some faithful Israelites was to engage both Yahwehism and Baalism, which led to various forms of syncretism. It was within a cultural environment of recently established rural settlements deeply influenced by the religious beliefs of its neighbors that Israel’s story engages Yahweh’s appointed judges. ## **Iconographic Overview** An iconographic survey of the book of Judges first requires a brief definition and then an explanation of scope. First, according to Daniel Bodi, iconographical analysis examines visual representations such as ancient reliefs relevant to the book or time period under investigation.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Next, the extent of ancient Near Eastern iconography pertaining to the Former Prophets and the book of Judges in particular prevents a comprehensive examination of the visual representations. Accordingly, the following analysis focuses on iconography that supports the basic thematic framework of the book of Judges. ![Figure 1. Relief Luxor First court of columns first year of Ramses II 300x168 - Judges: Iconography and Culture](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-1.-Relief-Luxor-First-court-of-columns-first-year-of-Ramses-II-300x168.jpg "Judges: Iconography and Culture - Lives Transforming")Figure 1. Relief: Luxor: First court of columns, first year of Ramses II. The first visually represented motif in [the ancient Near East](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-ancient-near-east-context/) is the power of God over enemies. The enemy oppressors of the Israelites during the time of Judges were numerous and included kings such as Cushan-Rishathaim of Aram-Naharaim, Eglon of Moab, Jabin of Hazor, as well as the Midianites, Ammonites, and Philistines. John Walton, Victor Matthews, and Mark Chavalas identify the time of Shamgar and Jael as a period of lawlessness characterized by dangerous roads requiring travelers to boycott normal thoroughfares and, instead, travel through the back woods and hillsides.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) The song of Deborah recognizes the risk in Judges 5:6-7 and states, “In the days of Shamgar, son of Anath, in the days of Jael, the highways were abandoned, and travelers kept to the byways. The villagers ceased in Israel; they ceased to be until I arose; I, Deborah, arose as a mother in Israel.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) [![The Symbolism of the Biblical World 182x300 - Judges: Iconography and Culture](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Symbolism-of-the-Biblical-World-182x300.jpg "Judges: Iconography and Culture - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fK5pFq)The Symbolism of the Biblical World However, with the power of Yahweh on the side of Israel, it is not Israel running but, instead, Israel’s enemies as shown in the limestone relief (fig. 1) where, according to Othmar Keel, military troops from a Canaanite city are retreating into the woods.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) ![Figure 2. Cylindrical Seal Assyria 300x223 - Judges: Iconography and Culture](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-2.-Cylindrical-Seal-Assyria-300x223.jpg "Judges: Iconography and Culture - Lives Transforming")Figure 2. Cylindrical Seal: Assyria. The power of Yahweh over enemies extends beyond the foreign nations to beasts. Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas acknowledge that lion hunting was a sport for heroes and kings, and a relief from Tel Halaf pictorially displays an image of a warrior fighting a lion, and the story of the Sumerian king, Gilgamesh, killing a lion with bare hands was common knowledge.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) However, in Judges 14:5-6, Yahweh’s power is credited for Samson’s ability to tear a lion to pieces with his hands, a concept that is, according to Keel, similarly represented on an Assyrian cylindrical seal (fig. 2).[\[12\]](#_ftn12) ![Figure 3. Ivory carving Megiddo 300x133 - Judges: Iconography and Culture](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-3.-Ivory-carving-Megiddo-300x133.jpg "Judges: Iconography and Culture - Lives Transforming")Figure 3. Ivory carving Megiddo. The second visually represented motif is the power of God over Israel’s enemies in general, and more specifically, God’s power over a specific type of Canaanite weaponry. Although the cycle of disintegration continues throughout the book of Judges, the Israelites and, specifically, Deborah would have agreed with the Psalmist’s words, “Some trust in chariots and some in horses, but we trust in the name of the Lord our God” (Ps 20:7). In Judges 4:12-13, ![Figure 4. Temple relief 300x222 - Judges: Iconography and Culture](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-4.-Temple-relief-300x222.jpg "Judges: Iconography and Culture - Lives Transforming")Figure 4. Temple relief at Tell el-Retaba. Sisera calls upon 900 chariots of iron as represented by the ancient Near Eastern ivory carving of the chariot likely leading captives into exile (fig. 3). According to Keel, war chariots had been used by the Canaanites for centuries, but the valuable weapons were no match for Yahweh (Judg 4:14; 5:23).[\[13\]](#_ftn13) ![Figure 5. Basalt Relief Carchemish 300x244 - Judges: Iconography and Culture](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-5.-Basalt-Relief-Carchemish-300x244.jpg "Judges: Iconography and Culture - Lives Transforming")Figure 5. Basalt Relief: Carchemish. The third visually represented motif is God’s mercy and grace. In Judges 6:9-10, Yahweh reminds the Israelites just before exhorting them to not fear the gods of the Amorites that He had delivered them from the “hand of the Egyptians and from the hand of all who oppressed.” Daniel Block explains that the phrase “from the hand of Egypt” is appropriate in light of the prevalent use of the hand and the raised arm in iconographic portrayals of pharaoh’s control over his enemies such as represented in a temple relief at Tell el-Retaba (fig. 4).[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Moreover, Brent Strawn suggests that the outstretched arm represents military action and power; thus it is reasonable to conclude that the outstretched arm imagery also is applicable to Yahweh and the defeat of His enemies (cf. Exod 6:6).[\[15\]](#_ftn15) ![Figure 6. Terra cotta 140x300 - Judges: Iconography and Culture](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-6.-Terra-cotta-140x300.jpg "Judges: Iconography and Culture - Lives Transforming")Figure 6. Terra-cotta The fourth motif is God’s presence and victories represented by musical imagery. First, a horn or trumpet was a common instrument, along with tambourines and cymbals, in the ancient Near East. In Exodus 20:18, it is Yahweh who blows the trumpet and appears amid the lightning or torchlight, which announces to the Israelites they are to join Him on the mountain. However, in the book of Judges, Gideon provides trumpets and jars with torchlights to all his men (Judge 7:16). ![Figure 7. Relief Armana 300x165 - Judges: Iconography and Culture](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-7.-Relief-Armana-300x165.jpg "Judges: Iconography and Culture - Lives Transforming")Figure 7. Relief Armana. The horn is visually represented in ancient Near Eastern iconography in a basalt relief (fig. 5), and, according to Keel, similar to the event on the mountain, God’s “presence could be ensured by blowing the ram’s horn and burning torches.”[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Furthermore, music also played a celebratory role. Although a tragic ending ensues, after Yahweh intervenes, Jephthah comes home victoriously and his daughter celebrates with tambourines, represented by an ancient terra-cotta figure (fig. 6), and dancing, which is represented by an ancient relief from Armana (fig. 7) (Judg 11:34). Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas note that tambourines have been identified in archaeological reliefs as a small drum with leather stretched over a hoop without the modern-day rattle.[\[17\] ](#_ftn17)The fifth motif is God’s safety and refuge as represented by rocks and mountains. For example, in Judges 20:44, the Benjamites seek safety by turning and fleeing “toward the wilderness to the rock of Rimmon.” Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas explain that the rock of Rimmon is likely with the el-Jaia cave in the Wadi es-Swenit about one mile outside of Gibeah, the location of limestone cliffs that could hide hundreds of men.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Likewise, in Judges 6:2, when the Midianites defeated Israel, the Israelites hid in the mountains. ![Figure 8. Relief Karnak 300x209 - Judges: Iconography and Culture](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-8.-Relief-Karnak-300x209.jpg "Judges: Iconography and Culture - Lives Transforming")Figure 8. Relief Karnak According to Keel, mountaintops, represented by men climbing a mountain to safety on a limestone relief from Karnak (fig. 8), would not only have been understood practically by the Israelites but also would often have been understood spiritually as cosmic symbolism for Yahweh’s protection.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) [](#_ftn19) ![Figure 9. Dolerite Zinjirli 300x285 - Judges: Iconography and Culture](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-9.-Dolerite-Zinjirli-300x285.jpg "Judges: Iconography and Culture - Lives Transforming")Figure 9. Dolerite Zinjirli. The final visually represented motif is God’s kingship. Granted, Israel has a bittersweet relationship with the concept of kingship, but, without question, Israel’s ancient Near Eastern neighbors influenced the nation’s ideology of kingship. The incompetence of rulers and the lack of kings is evident throughout the book of Judges (cf. 8:27-28; 9:7-15; 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). However, although Yahweh is ultimately the king of Israel, human kingship is never completely ruled out. Accordingly, Keel explains that not only does Israel finally move toward a monarchy, but also, Israelite kingship bears some resemblance to the divinized kings of Egypt and Akkad, which is reflected in ancient Near Eastern iconography such as the dolerite image from Zinjirli (fig. 9). ## **Conclusion** By imagining a travel through time into the ancient past, an opportunity arises to move the ancient cultural elements and iconographic data representing real people and places into the present. Culturally, the Israelites experienced an unconquered foreign people group within an agrarian society while, simultaneously, facing the daily temptation of the Canaanite religion. Iconographically, modern readers have access to imagery that represents many of the motifs within the book of Judges including God’s power, sovereignty, mercy, grace, presence, victory, safety, refuge, and kingship. A recognition of the cultural elements of settlement, domestication, technology, and religion combined with an awareness of the iconography that supports the thematic initiatives of the book of Judges provide a framework for enhanced understanding of the famous narratives. From a practical perspective, when a student, teacher, or expositor of the stories of the Judges engages in ancient empathy, he offers his listeners the opportunity to travel back through time into a deep river of understanding. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Carl G. Rasmussen, *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010), 121. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Robert B Chisholm, “The Chronology of the Book of Judges: A Linguistic Clue to Solving a Pesky Problem,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 52, no. 2 (June 2009): 252. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Rasmussen, *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible*, 121. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Joel Burnett, “Transjordan: The Ammonites, Moabites, and Edomites,” in *The World around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East*, ed. Bill T. Arnold and Brent A. Strawn (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016), 347–348. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Wilhelm Herrmann, “Baal,” ed. Karel van der Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst, and Bob Becking, *Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Brill, 1999), 133. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Thomas V. Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas*, Holman Reference (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1998), 91. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Daniel Bodi, “Mesopotamian and Anatolian Iconography,” in *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 165. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000), 251. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 275. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Othmar Keel, *Symbolism of the Biblical World: Ancient Near Eastern Iconography and the Book of Psalms*, trans. Timothy J. Hallett (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1997), 101. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary*, 266–267. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Keel, *Symbolism of the Biblical World*, 58–59. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Keel, *Symbolism of the Biblical World*, 238. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Daniel I. Block, *Judges*, vol. 2 of *Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary*, ed. John H. Walton (Zondervan, 2009), 151–152. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Brent A. Strawn, “‘With a Strong Hand and an Outstretched Arm’: On the Meaning(s) of the Exodus Tradition(s),” in *Iconographic Exegesis of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament: An Introduction to Its Theory, Method, and Practice*, ed. Isaak J. De Hulster, Brent A. Strawn, and Ryan P. Bonfiglio (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015), 107. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Keel, *Symbolism of the Biblical World*, 341. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary*, 263. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Ibid., 275. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Keel, *Symbolism of the Biblical World*, 181. ## Bibliography - Block, Daniel I. *Judges*. Vol. 2 of *Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary*. Edited by John H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. - Bodi, Daniel. “Mesopotamian and Anatolian Iconography.” In *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, edited by Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018. - Brisco, Thomas V. *Holman Bible Atlas*. Holman Reference. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1998. - Burnett, Joel. “Transjordan: The Ammonites, Moabites, and Edomites.” In *The World around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East*, edited by Bill T. Arnold and Brent A. Strawn. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016. - Chisholm, Robert B. “The Chronology of the Book of Judges: A Linguistic Clue to Solving a Pesky Problem.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 52, no. 2 (June 2009): 247–255. - Herrmann, Wilhelm. “Baal.” Edited by Karel van der Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst, and Bob Becking. *Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Brill, 1999. - Keel, Othmar. *Symbolism of the Biblical World: Ancient Near Eastern Iconography and the Book of Psalms*. Translated by Timothy J. Hallett. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1997. - Rasmussen, Carl G. *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010. - Strawn, Brent A. “‘With a Strong Hand and an Outstretched Arm’: On the Meaning(s) of the Exodus Tradition(s).” In *Iconographic Exegesis of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament: An Introduction to Its Theory, Method, and Practice*, edited by Isaak J. De Hulster, Brent A. Strawn, and Ryan P. Bonfiglio. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015. - Walton, John H., Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas. *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Judges: Interpretive Issues](https://www.livestransforming.com/judges-interpretive-issues/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Judges: Interpretive Issues ## **Introduction** An analysis of the critical-interpretive issues of the book of Judges allows the student to identify and engage in disparate views that inform coherent conclusions. Unfortunately, scholars not only disagree regarding the outcomes of the arguments, but they also disagree on which interpretive issues need debated. If the critical-interpretive issues are ignored, then the student risks the possibility of engaging in a discussion that does not exist. An identification of the primary critical-interpretive issues within the book of Judges provides the interpreter the opportunity to sharpen hermeneutical acumen while, simultaneously, joining an ongoing conversation surrounding relevant scholarly initiatives. The following analysis identifies three of the most debated topics in recent times by juxtaposing differing scholarly perspectives. First, a discussion regarding the methodology of Israel’s entrance into Canaan ensues followed by an analysis of the complex chronological [issues surrounding the period of the Judges](https://www.livestransforming.com/judges-background-issues/), and, finally, the research concludes with a brief assessment of the distinct views of judgeship. ## **Interpretive Issues** ## The Entrance ### **Invasion and Conquest** Scholarly debate continues around the relationship between the book of Judges and the settlement methods documented in Joshua. Conservative scholars often lean toward the conquest model. Joshua 10:40 is representative, which states that “Joshua struck the whole land…and all their kings. He left none remaining.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) [![A Biblical History of Israel Second Edition 182x300 - Judges: Interpretive Issues](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/A-Biblical-History-of-Israel-Second-Edition-182x300.jpg "Judges: Interpretive Issues - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BN2bmG)A Biblical History of Israel, Second Edition 1. F. Albright championed the conquest model with the support of archaeological evidence, and, more recently, Yigael Yadin carries the baton.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Iain Provan, V. Philips Long, and Tremper Longman recognize that the conquest model builds its case primarily upon archaeological evidence from the destruction of Canaanite cities such as Bethel, Debir, Eglon, Hazor, and Lachish during the Late Bronze Age.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Yadin builds on Albright’s work by recognizing that the archaeological evidence does, at times, contradict the biblical account, but the excavations at sites like Hazor cannot be ignored (cf. Josh 11:10-11). Yadin explains that his excavations at Hazor provide evidence of the destruction and conflagration of a large Canaanite city in the late thirteenth century BC.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Pottery provides an important key to the dating of the destruction of Hazor. Yadin explains that Mycenean IIIB pottery found in Hazor’s destruction layer was not used after about 1230 BC.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) However, the dating of the destruction of Hazor to the thirteenth century creates two additional chronological challenges. Judges 4:2 refers to the king of Hazor, which states, “And the Lord sold them into the hand of Jabin king of Canaan, who reigned in Hazor.” If Yadin is correct and Hazor was destroyed in the thirteenth century by Joshua (cf. Josh 11), then how is it possible for Deborah to be fighting against the king of Hazor in Judges 4? Some scholars, such as Benjamin Mazar, answer the question by reversing the chronological sequence of Joshua and Judges, but Yadin concludes the reference to the king of Hazor in Judges 4 is an editorial gloss assigned to a later date.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The issues surrounding the dating continue with attempts to reconcile the destruction of Hazor in the thirteenth century with the dating of the Exodus. In Judges 11:26, Jephthah claims that Israel had possessed the Transjordan territory for 300 years. Provan, Long, and Longman place Jephthah in the eleventh century BC, which resolves the issue by putting the conquest in the fourteenth century.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Alternatively, Wright discounts the round number of 300 years and, regardless, assumes that characters within a story may provide incorrect chronological data.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In sum, although the conquest model continues to garner favor, many scholars disagree. ### **Infiltration and Revolt** Two popular alternative views to the conquest model also exist, the exogenous peasant infiltration model and the endogenous peasant revolt model. According to Provan, Long, and Longman, the peasant infiltration arose from the work of Albrecht Alt who asserted that the Israelites entrance into Canaan occurred over a long period in an environment of relative peace.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Alt did not completely subvert the existence of military campaigns, but instead, the military encounters were isolated.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Martin Noth picked up Alt’s theory and, according to Larry James, expanded it by adding the concept of a twelve-tribe amphictyony, which is a union of people centered around a religious temple and common religious beliefs.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Both Alt’s theory and Noth’s expanded version of Alt’s theory have faced criticism from the archaeological evidence provided by proponents of the conquest model. However, Provan, Long, and Longman point out that much of the archaeological evidence supporting a thirteenth-century destruction of cities occurred subsequent to Alt’s work, and regardless, Noth was not convinced the destructions were at the hands of the Israelites.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Furthermore, James concludes that the genealogical reality of the tribal relationships as described in the Pentateuch provides the explanation for a common religion and language; thus Noth’s subjective theory of amphictyony is not necessary.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The peasant revolt model is a hypothesis that provides another alternative to the conquest model. According to Provan, Long, and Longman, George Mendenhall differed from both the conquest and peasant infiltration models and argued that Israel emerged through a sociocultural transformation from within Canaan.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Mendenhall did not believe that the Bible provided sufficient information for historical reconstruction for the activities of God seem “to modern man the very antithesis of history, for it is within the framework of economic, sociological and political organization that we of today seek understanding.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Accordingly, Mendenhall assumes that the conquerors were indigenous people of Canaan who were mostly peasant farmers joining forces in religious solidarity through their relationship with Yahweh to challenge the dysfunction of the societal system’s oppressive taxation.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Understandably, critics have accused Mendenhall of reductionism, and K. Lawson Younger identifies the following criticisms of the peasant revolt model: (1) nomadism does not require egalitarianism, (2) farmers and urban dwellers often live in an interdependent reality, (3) egalitarian, anti-imperialistic tendencies appear to contradict the worldview espoused in Joshua.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Although grasping the historical realities of the Israelite people during the time of the Judges offers the opportunity to significantly enhance the interpreter’s understanding of the narratives, at the present time, no scholarly consensus exists regarding Israel’s entrance into Canaan. ## The Chronology ### **Overlapping Judgeships** The chronological conundrum revolves around 1 Kings 6:1, which states, “In the four hundred and eightieth year after the people of Israel came out of the land of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign over Israel … he began to build the house of the Lord.” To reconcile the 480 years with the narrative, the interpreter must first compile the events and sum them. Daniel Block uses the following formula: (1) the desert wanderings (40 years), (2) conquest (7 years), (3) the judges (410 years), (4) the period of Eli and Samuel (52 years), (5) the Saul and David monarchy (80 years), and (6) the years of Solomon’s reign (4 years).[\[18\]](#_ftn18) The sum of the time frame from the desert wanderings to the fourth year of the Solomonic monarchy is 593 years rather than the 480 years as documented in 1 Kings 6:1. Scholars have proposed a multitude of solutions to reconcile the perceived discrepancy. Although David Washburn provides the most straightforward approach by simply overlapping certain judgeships, the complexity resides in the details. For example, Judges 3:31 states that after Ehud was Shamgar, thus the two judges are not contemporaries. However, Washburn asserts that, based on Judges 5:6, Deborah and Shamgar were contemporaries and their judgeships overlapped.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Furthermore, Washburn notes that the introductory formula to the Jephthah narrative is not strictly sequential, and there is no rest period prior to the Jephthah narrative.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Accordingly, Washburn claims that the judgeships of Jephthah and Gideon overlap. Finally, Washburn also suggests that Samson overlaps Jephthah and Gideon and the minor prophets of Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, Jair, and Tola are also contemporaries.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Although Washburn does not claim chronological perfection, he does condense the timeframe. Gershon Galil takes a different tactic by examining the potential overlap between Judges and the Philistine oppression in Samuel and by viewing the chronological framework of Judges through the lens of Deuteronomistic History. First, regarding the former, twenty-one years prior to Samuel’s victory over the Philistines (cf. 1 Sam 6:1; 7:2) the battle of Eben-hezer was fought and since Eli died from the shock experienced as a result of the battle, “it is clear that the last 19 years of Eli overlapped the first period of the Philistine oppression.”[\[22\]](#_ftn22) In other words, the judgeships of Jephthah and Samson that faced the Philistine oppression overlapped with the period of Eli and the time of the exiled Ark that faced the same oppressive forces. Second, according to Galil, since the minor judges were not part of the deuteronomistic version of Judges, then they do not become part of the Deuteronomist’s chronology.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) In sum, according to Galil, the overlap of the period of Philistine oppression along with the exclusion of the minor judges provides the data necessary to reconcile the chronology of the narratives to 1 Kings 6:1. ### **Literary Parallels** Although overlapping the dates and events of judgeships provides the most common approach to reconciling the dates of the stories with 1 Kings 6:1, Robert Chisolm proposes an alternative approach that utilizes linguistic evidence. The solution revolves around the statement in Judges 3:7 and 6:1, “The people of Israel did what was evil in the sight of the Lord.” Chisolm identifies an A-B-B-A-B-B pattern where A represents Judges 3:7 and 6:1, and B represents the same phrase, but it commences with the verb וַיֹּסִפוּ, “and they added,” thus resulting in the statement, “The Israelites *again* did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 10:6; 13:1).[\[24\]](#_ftn24) In other words, the ABB-ABB literary pattern creates two panels where the Othniel, Ehud, and Deborah cycles run concurrently with the Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson cycles. Chisolm also applies the theory of literary panels to specific dates and recognizes the difficulty of reconciling Judges 11:26 with his hypothesis. First, regarding the dates, Chisolm begins panel one with the Cushan-Rishathaim oppression (Judg 3:8) at approximately 1336 BC and panel two with the Midianite oppression (Judg 6:1) at 1334 BC, and then he concludes panel one with the land resting after deliverance (Judg 5:31) at 1130 BC and panel two with Samson (Judge 15:20) at 1130 BC. By removing almost 200 years from the chronological sequence, Chisolm provides a potential resolution to the 1 Kings 6:1 dilemma.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Second, Judges 11:26 asserts that Israel occupied the trans-Jordanian area for 300 years. The statement is problematic because Jephthah’s speech would have occurred only 185 years after the trans-Jordan invasion based on the literary reconstruction, thus Chisolm suggests that Jephthah could have used hyperbole or was simply inaccurate.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Although no consensus exists regarding the methodology to reconcile the narrative chronology of the book of Judges with 1 Kings 6:1, several viable options exist. ## The Definition ### **Leaders and Judges** The Hebrew term for judge (שׁפט) has a broad semantic range; thus, the nature of the judges referred to in the book of Judges (cf. 2:16) remains debated. Although the term certainly does not align with the modern courtroom perspective, Deborah does seem to render a type of judgement that may engage in settling disputes in Judges 4:4-5. Richard Schultz summarizes the semantic range of the term as follows: (1) a preservation of social justice, (2) a divine establishment of justice through deliverance or punishment, (3) an official of Israel, and (4) a human ruler or governor.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) The final category, according to Block, fits the cognate expressions found in Akkadian, Ugaritic, and Phoenician and support the concept that the verb to judge, שָׁפַט, refers to a human leading or ruling.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) In light of the possibility, Tomoo Ishida explains that, under the influence of Martin Noth, scholars have distinguished between major and minor judges and their respective functions.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) More specifically, Noth determined that the major judges were originally identified as judges, but the minor judges were a later redaction by the deuteronomistic historian who decided to identify them by the same title as the major judges even though their functions were different: the major judges led military campaigns, and the minor judges ruled the amphictyony.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) However, additional investigations into texts from Mari and Ugarit led Ishida ultimately to conclude that the judges were military leaders who “organized local tribal confederations called ‘Israel,’ and went to war as the commander of the arm of their confederations.”[\[31\]](#_ftn31) Although not conclusive, contextual clues from Judges 3:10 also support the basic construct of military rule, “The Spirit of the Lord was upon him, and he judged Israel. He went out to war, and the Lord gave Cushan-rishathaim king.” Finally, Richard Schultz identifies the common formula “and x judged Israel for y years” (cf. Judg 10:2, 3; 12:7, 8–9, 11, 13–14; 15:20; 16:31), which points to the meaning, “to lead.”[\[32\]](#_ftn32) ### **Saviors and Deliverers** Not all scholars agree that שָׁפַט means to strictly rule or lead within the context of the book of Judges. Judges 2:16 extends the semantic range to encompass the possibility of a savior or deliverer, “Then the Lord raised up judges, who saved them out of the hand of those who plundered them.” Accordingly, Block asserts that the salvific definition of the judges in verse 16 communicates three important facts: (1) the judges’ power came from Yahweh, (2) the judges’ purpose was soteriological, and (3) the judges’ function was instrumental.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Furthermore, Schultz explains that Noth’s hypothesis that distinguishes between major and minor judges and applies the latter to duties relegated to the amphictyony lacks textual evidence and, besides, the minor judges, at times, engaged in military activity (cf. 3:31; 10:1, 3).[\[34\]](#_ftn34) Intertextual evidence also supports a nonjudicial use of the term. In 1 Samuel 8:5, the elder of Israel made the following request to Samuel and Ramah, “Appoint for us a king to judge us like all the nations.” The context of the request resides within a military threat from the Philistines; thus, it appears the elders are looking neither for judicial oversight nor merely a military ruler but instead, a military ruler that will deliver them from their enemy. Accordingly, Schultz is correct and agrees with Block that the soteriological nature of the office pertained primarily to deliverance from foreign oppression.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) ## **Conclusion** The critical-interpretive issues within the book of Judges illuminate just how much diversity of interpretation exists within scholarship. First, regarding the entrance into Canaan, the options range from a conquest to an infiltration as well as the possibility of an endogenous revolt. Next, the issue of reconciling the chronological narrative in Judges with 1 Kings 6:1 allows for numerous options, most of which land into various methods of judgeship overlap or the possibility of literary panels as a result of linguistic analysis. Finally, the issue of the nature and function of the judges rests on the result of semantic analysis of the term שׁפט, which could suggest a judicial function, a ruler or leader, or a savior or deliverer. Without question, the primary critical-interpretive issues within the book of Judges provides interpreters the opportunity to sharpen hermeneutical acumen and join the ongoing scholarly conversation. From a practical perspective, analyzing the interpretive options allows for deeper understanding and offers the possibility of integrating differing viewpoints into the work of the burgeoning student or expositor. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) See W. F. Albright, “The Israelite Conquest of Canaan in the Light of Archaeology,” *Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research*, no. 74 (1939): 11–23 and Yigael Yadin, “Is the Biblical Account of the Israelite Conquest of Canaan Historically Reliable,” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 8, no. 2 (March 1982): 16–21. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Iain Provan, V. Philips Long, and Tremper Longman, *A Biblical History of Israel*, 2nd ed. (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2015), 192. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Yadin, “Is the Biblical Account of the Israelite Conquest of Canaan Historically Reliable,” 19. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 20. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Yadin, “Is the Biblical Account of the Israelite Conquest of Canaan Historically Reliable,” 23. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Provan, Long, and Longman, *A Biblical History of Israel*, 192. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 193–194. Note: The original German sources from Albrecht Alt are not readily accessible. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Yadin, “Is the Biblical Account of the Israelite Conquest of Canaan Historically Reliable,” 5. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Larry James, “An Evaluation of Martin North’s Idea of Amphictyony as Applied to Israel,” *Restoration Quarterly* 19, no. 3 (1976): 165. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Provan, Long, and Longman, *A Biblical History of Israel*, 194. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) James, “An Evaluation of Martin North’s Idea of Amphictyony as Applied to Israel,” 167, 174. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Provan, Long, and Longman, *A Biblical History of Israel*, 194. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) George E. Mendenhall, “The Hebrew Conquest of Palestine,” *The Biblical Archaeologist* 25, no. 3 (1962): 66. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Mendenhall, “The Hebrew Conquest of Palestine,” 73-85. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) K. Lawson Younger, “Early Israel in Recent Biblical Scholarship,” in *The Face of Old Testament Studies: A Survey of Contemporary Approaches*, ed. David W. Baker and Bill T. Arnold (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2004), 181–182. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Daniel I. Block, *Judges, Ruth: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*, ed. Kenneth A. Mathews and David S. Dockery, vol. 6, New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999), 61. For purposes of the analysis, Solomon’s fourth regnal year is assumed to be around 966 BC, which would place the exodus event circa 1446 BC. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) David L Washburn, “The Chronology of Judges: Another Look,” *Bibliotheca sacra* 147, no. 588 (October 1990): 419–420. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Ibid., 422–423. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Ibid., 423–425. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Gershon Galil, “The Chronological Framework of the Deuteronomistic History,” *Biblica* 85, no. 3 (2004): 419. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Galil, “The Chronological Framework of the Deuteronomistic History,” 420-421. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Robert B Chisholm, “The Chronology of the Book of Judges: A Linguistic Clue to Solving a Pesky Problem,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 52, no. 2 (June 2009): 251. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Chisholm, “The Chronology of the Book of Judges: A Linguistic Clue to Solving a Pesky Problem,” 252. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Ibid., 255. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Richard Schultz, “שָׁפַט,” in *New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis*, ed. Willem A. VanGemeren, vol. 4 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997), 214–219. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Block, *Judges, Ruth*, 6:24–25. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Tomoo Ishida, “The Leaders of the Tribal Leagues: Israel in the Pre-Monarchic Period,” *Revue Biblique* 80, no. 4 (1973): 515. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Ibid. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Ibid., 527. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Schultz, “שָׁפַט”, 215-216. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Block, *Judges, Ruth*, 6:23. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Schultz, “שָׁפַט”, 218. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Ibid. ## Bibliography - Albright, W. F. “The Israelite Conquest of Canaan in the Light of Archaeology.” *Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research*, no. 74 (1939): 11–23. - Block, Daniel I. *Judges, Ruth: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*. Edited by Kenneth A. Mathews and David S. Dockery. Vol. 6. New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999. - Chisholm, Robert B. “The Chronology of the Book of Judges: A Linguistic Clue to Solving a Pesky Problem.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 52, no. 2 (June 2009): 247–255. - Galil, Gershon. “The Chronological Framework of the Deuteronomistic History.” *Biblica* 85, no. 3 (2004): 413–421. - Ishida, Tomoo. “The Leaders of the Tribal Leagues: Israel in the Pre-Monarchic Period.” *Revue Biblique* 80, no. 4 (1973): 514–530. - James, Larry. “An Evaluation of Martin North’s Idea of Amphictyony as Applied to Israel.” *Restoration Quarterly* 19, no. 3 (1976): 165–174. - Mazar, Amihay. “Additional Philistine Temples at Tell Qasile.” *The Biblical Archaeologist* 40, no. 2 (May 1977): 82–87. - Mendenhall, George E. “The Hebrew Conquest of Palestine.” *The Biblical Archaeologist* 25, no. 3 (1962): 66–87. - Provan, Iain, V. Philips Long, and Tremper Longman. *A Biblical History of Israel*. 2nd ed. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2015. - Schultz, Richard. “שָׁפַט.” In *New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis*, edited by Willem A. VanGemeren. Vol. 4. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997. - Steinmann, Andrew E. “The Mysterious Numbers of the Book of Judges.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 48, no. 3 (September 2005): 491–500. - Washburn, David L. “The Chronology of Judges: Another Look.” *Bibliotheca sacra* 147, no. 588 (October 1990): 414–425. - Weippert, Manfred. *The Settlement of the Israelite Tribes in Palestine: A Critical Survey of Recent Scholarly Debate*. Translated by James D. Martin. London: S.C.M., 1971. - Wright, G. Ernest. *Biblical Archaeology*. Rev. London: Gerald Duckworth, 1962. - Yadin, Yigael. “Is the Biblical Account of the Israelite Conquest of Canaan Historically Reliable.” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 8, no. 2 (March 1982): 16–23. - Younger, K. Lawson. “Early Israel in Recent Biblical Scholarship.” In *The Face of Old Testament Studies: A Survey of Contemporary Approaches*, edited by David W. Baker and Bill T. Arnold. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2004. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Judges: Biblical Theological Themes](https://www.livestransforming.com/judges-biblical-theological-themes/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Judges: Biblical Theological Themes ## **Introduction** Thematic analysis of the book of Judges provides an opportunity for the expositor to examine and identify meaningful patterns to guide the interpretive process. However, scholars disagree not only on which patterns of meaning create thematic initiatives but also on which themes take a primary versus a secondary or even tertiary role. By ignoring the patterns of meaning, the interpreter risks missing the glue that binds the author’s message together. By digging deep into the biblical theological themes and motifs within the book of Judges and identifying their place within the larger canonical context, the expositor enhances both theological awareness and interpretive acuity. The analysis that follows develops the themes of Judges by juxtaposing various scholarly perspectives that explore key topics that include the Canaanization of Israel, the covenantal relationship with Yahweh, human leadership, God’s sovereignty, and thematic breadth. Finally, the research concludes with an examination of the book of Judges place within the larger canonical context of Scripture. ## **Biblical Themes** ### The Foundation #### **Idolatry** The central theme of idolatry is evident not only within the content, but also within the structure of all three sections of Judges. Various structural elements of the book of Judges provide insights into the process of Canaanization. First, according to Block, the prologue (Judg 1:1-3:6) provides the military (1:1-36) and theological (2:1-3:6) context of the book with 2:23 functioning as the interpretive conclusion.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The opening verse of the book asks who will go up and fight the Canaanites (1:1). However, the author explains in 2:22-23 that the Canaanites were left in the land to test Israel’s commitment to Yahweh. As Block explains, Yahweh purposely allowed the Canaanites to remain.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) [![The Book of the Judges An Integrated Reading 182x300 - Judges: Biblical Theological Themes](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Book-of-the-Judges_-An-Integrated-Reading-182x300.jpg "Judges: Biblical Theological Themes - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fKQiLJ)The Book of the Judges\_ An Integrated Reading Allowing the Canaanites to remain in the Promised Land provides the backdrop for Israel’s Canaanization throughout the entire book of Judges. Second, both internal and external patterns of unity surround the body of Judges (3:7-16:31). Internally, Judges 2:11-21 foreshadows a pattern of Canaanization within the body of the narratives where the Israelites pursue other gods and abandon Yahweh (2:12-13), but then Yahweh raises a judge who saves them (2:16). Barry Webb asserts that the repetitive pattern provides the structural glue that unites the book.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Externally, the order of the narratives themselves provide evidence of Canaanization. Block explains that the order of the stories is not chronological but instead, rhetorical, which reflects a downward spiraling.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Beginning with the paradigmatic judge, Othniel, the apostasy gradually develops and climaxes with the story of Samson. Finally, as the narrative progresses, Block notes the disappearance of structural markers such as the formula, “The people of Israel did what was evil in the sight of the Lord” (e.g. 2:11).[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The literary disintegration follows the decline of Israel into apostasy. Third, structural elements within the epilogue (17:1-18:31) also support the Canaanization of Israel. The first element is the repetition of the phrase, “In those days there was no king in Israel” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). Although scholars often assume the refrain points to a pro-Davidic polemic, Block disagrees and suggests that Israel recognized “no one, not even God, as king.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Second, the first section of the epilogue (17:1-18:31) describes the episodes of the Danites, while the second section describes the Benjamites (19:1-21:25). The relevance, according to Block, is that the former represents religious Canaanization and the latter represents moral Canaanization.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The structure of all three sections of Judges, the prologue, body, and epilogue, support the thematic development of the Canaanization of Israel. #### **Covenant** Although the thematic emphasis placed on the Canaanization of Israel by Block has a close connection to Israel’s covenantal relationship with Yahweh, certain scholars assert that the Sinaitic covenant is the primary thematic element running through Judges. Paul Williamson highlights the bilateral nature of the Mosaic covenant that requires obedience (cf. Deut 11:13-17; Exod 19:5-6) and should result in the mediation of God’s blessing to the nations rather than Israel becoming like the nations.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Steven McKenzie explains that it was Martin Noth who popularized the notion of a Deuteronomistic History, which assumes that the books of Deuteronomy through 2 Kings were a single literary work.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Accordingly, Deuteronomy provides both the historical backdrop and the standards necessary for keeping the covenant relationship intact, which is clearly at risk in the book of Judges (cf. 2:20-23). Scholars, such as J. P. U. Lilley, recognize that a covenant motif exists in Judges, but they also contend that “it is not dominant.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Alternatively, Lauren A. S. Monroe posits that the cycle of covenant breaking in Judges 2 is the Deuteronomistic *Schema* that sets the “theological agenda for the book.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The placement of Judges within the original Deuteronomistic History provides support for the emphasis upon the covenantal theme. In the original Deuteronomistic History, Webb explains that Judges 2:6-10 and following was a continuation of Joshua 23, which served as the Deuteronomist’s introduction of the judgeships, while 1 Samuel 12 was the conclusion of the judgeships.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) In sum, the covenantal framework established in the Pentateuch and, specifically, within the theological scheme of Deuteronomy weaves its way through Joshua, into the book of Judges, and throughout the entirety of the Deuteronomistic History. ### The Authority #### **Leadership** All the major and minor judges of Israel along with many foreigners provide a form of leadership within the narratives of Judges. Unfortunately, the character and competency of the leaders were often, but not always, either lacking or completely absent. P. Deryn Guest more specifically delineates the theme of leadership into two subthemes: the satirization of kingship and the flawed judge.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) First, the satirization of kingship, specifically foreign kings, begins in earnest with the colorful Moabite king, Eglon (3:12-30). According to Guest, Eglon’s overstressed obesity is the most obvious satirical device, which may indicate gullibility and greediness that mock the Moabite monarchy.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Second, the flawed judge subtheme focuses attention upon the Israelite judges. The half-hearted response of Barak to Deborah’s command (4:1-24), Gideon’s cold-blooded execution of two foreign kings (8:4-21), and Samson’s self-gratifying initiatives (14:1-16:31) all feed the flawed judge motif.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) The question that surrounds the theme of leadership asks why the author included such a myriad of flawed leaders. Marc Brettler answers the question using a literary-historical approach that posits that Judges is a political allegory with the purpose of encouraging the Davidic monarchy.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) In other words, during the time of the United Monarchy, a pro-Davidic redactor reconstructed the past for the purpose of providing legitimacy to a monarchial reality. The evidence supporting a political allegory centers around the southern tribe of Judah to which David belonged. Specifically, Brettler explains that the southern leaders are the only positive leaders; the northern leaders are often characterized negatively or with ambiguity.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Similarly, Brian Neil Peterson notes that scholars have also recently further emphasized that the purpose of Judges was specifically tied to an anti-Saulide polemic.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Although the etiological nature of the book of Judges remains debated, the theme of leadership remains at the center of the discussion. #### **Sovereignty** If leadership is influence, then the individual judges certainly qualified as leaders. However, the question remains as to the identity of the ultimate influencer. Accordingly, Michael Wilcock has singled out God’s sovereignty as a primary thematic initiative. During the time of the judges, Wilcock contends that it was not the human rulers who led, but it was God who was in complete control.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Even the misguided Jephthah clearly understood that it was the Lord who was the Judge (11:27), a Judge behind the judges. However, in surprising twists and turns, it is the unsuspecting nature of God’s sovereign freedom that highlights God as the only Judge (cf. Gen 18:25; Pss 96:13; 98:9; Acts 17:3). God’s sovereign freedom reveals itself in unpredictable ways. For example, the Ehud narrative uses the troubling elements of deception, gore, humor, and even assassination to tell the story (3:12-30). Further, Guest asserts that God exhibits His sovereign freedom through literary ambivalence and the utilization of flawed characters as vehicles for theological conversation.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Although God’s unpredictable sovereignty manifests itself throughout the judgeships, deeper meaning emerges as the reader digs into the topic of God’s sovereign freedom. The ambiguity, unpredictability, and surprise of the narratives accentuate the ironic importance of ignorance and bewilderment that unlocks theological meaning. The verb “to know” (ידע) is used multiple times during the Samson narrative. For example, Webb explains that Manoah does not know the visitor (13:6), and the secret to Samson’s strength is also not known (16:9).[\[21\]](#_ftn21) The Philistines use coercion and bribery to extract knowledge regarding Samson’s strength from Delilah (16:4-6). However, Webb points out that, although the Philistines obtain the knowledge they desire, they do not know that Yahweh, in His sovereign freedom, has given Samson to the Philistines to destroy them and their god, Dagon.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) The elusive knowledge may lead the readers to question God’s actions. However, God’s unpredictability is predictable. Ignorance and bewilderment are necessary to remove humanity’s ability to control outcomes and manipulate Yahweh because it is Yahweh, not the judges, who is in control. ### The Breadth #### **Singularity** The debate surrounding thematic breadth of the book of Judges continues to rage. Certain scholars assume the original author had a singular agenda in mind. However, others contend that a single theme necessarily leads to reductionism. Tammi Schneider focuses a significant amount of effort on the role of several women in Judges both from a positive perspective, providing legitimacy to men, and a negative perspective, acting as foils.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Unfortunately, the women in Judges also play a more tragic role. Three references to women in the final chapters of the book of Judges reveal the profound corruption of Israel. The first woman was the Levite’s concubine who was horrifically raped, abused, and dismembered (19:24-30). The second group included 400 women remaining from the destruction of Jabesh-gilead handed over to the Benjamites when Israel attempts to save them from extinguishment (21:12-14). The third group of women who were celebrating at a festival in Shiloh were also given to the Benjamites (21:19-21). Schneider observes that the nameless women were used as pawns and kept from protection to reveal the absolute corruption of Israel.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Although the role of women in the book of Judges may provide a singular focus, the topic of women also effortlessly engages the broader thematic initiatives. First, it is difficult to disconnect the victimization of women from the continued idolatrous activity, which, by definition, risks the Israelites’ covenantal relationship with Yahweh. Second, regarding the theme of leadership, Schneider suggests the depravity associated with the abuse of women may point to a reason needed to legitimize the monarchy through the Davidic line.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Third, although difficult to observe at any given point in time, God’s unpredictable sovereign freedom continues to reveal itself during the unimaginable episodes involving the abuse of women. Accordingly, even if a singular thematic emphasis appears to emerge, the variegated theological messaging requires the reader to engage the possibility of diversity. #### **Multiplicity** The diversity of content and biblical theological initiatives provides ample opportunity for scholars to insist on a multiplicity of themes in the book of Judges. Lee Roy Martin suggests that the thematic breadth of a work arises from several narrative mechanisms including repetition, the narrator’s text, the location of narrative elements, and narrative techniques such as plot and setting.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Scholars recognize that narrowing the book of Judges to a single theme not only risks a reductionistic reading, but it also may thwart a wholistic examination of the narrative mechanisms. Cheryl Brown emphasizes multiple traditional thematic initiatives such as the covenant, disunity, and grace. [\[27\]](#_ftn27) The covenant theme clearly manifests itself in both the idolatry motif that risks undermining the covenantal relationship (2:20-23) and the concept of a Deuteronomistic History, which ties the book of Judges back to the Sinaitic covenant. The breakdown of the divine-human relationship is also revealed in the disunity observable in the civil war between the Benjamites and the Israelites that concludes the book (20:1-48). Finally, God continues to demonstrate His grace throughout the book by forgiving and restoring Israel and faithfully controlling the direction of the nation through His acts of sovereign freedom. Additionally, Robert O’Connell emphasizes the multiplicity of themes in less traditional thematic initiatives such as kingship, the priority of Judah, and social justice. [\[28\]](#_ftn28) The etiological nature of the themes of kingship and Judean priority are supported by the possibility of a pro-Davidic and anti-Saulide initiative. Also, the emphasis on the role of women certainly provides support for the thematic element surrounding the topic of social justice. In sum, the diversity of topics, assortment of [biblical theological](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-word-studies/) directives, and multifaceted narrative mechanisms require scholars to take seriously the potential thematic breadth of the book of Judges. ## **Canonical Analysis** Canonically, the book of Judges provides a bridge between the book of Joshua and the book of 1 Samuel. The bridge highlights the stark contrast between the unified nation of Israel at the end of Joshua and the complete breakdown of unity at the beginning of 1 Samuel. Martin summarizes the contrast by stating, “The Israelites moved from victory to defeat, from unity to fragmentation, and from faithfulness to idolatry.”[\[29\]](#_ftn29) The book of Judges also provides an explanation for the continued existence of foreigners. Accordingly, according to Martin, Israel’s archenemy at the end of Judges, the Philistines, remain intact at the beginning of 1 Samuel.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Finally, the concept of monarchy looms large. Martin notes that, although kingship is not explicitly required, the idea is prevalent, and the conclusion prepares its way.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) The immediate canonical context of Judges engages important themes identified within the book. First, the contrast between Joshua and 1 Samuel exhibits the transition from faithfulness to faithlessness that highlights the theme of idolatry and covenant breaking. Second, the continuation of foreign influence at the end of Joshua and the beginning of 1 Samuel illuminate the theme of Israelite Canaanization. Finally, the prevalence of a monarchial setup for the books of Samuel provide support for an etiological explanation of the book of Judges, more specifically, a pro-Davidic and anti-Saulide polemic. The broader canonical context of the Old Testament addresses the important question of how Judges fits within the covenantal framework that extends blessings to all nations (Gen 12:1-3). According to J. Clinton McCann, nothing in the book of Judges undermines God’s will for His universal engagement of all nations, but the question is whether the Israelites will play their role in fulfilling their part.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) The answer to the question in the book of Judges is “no” (cf. 2:20-23). Next, the cycle of disobedience where Israel commits idolatry, calls to Yahweh, and receives His mercy both looks back to the Exodus (cf. Exod 32:1-14) and forward to the Latter Prophets (cf. Isa 40-55). McCann suggests that each deliverance in Judges provides a new mini-exodus event, events that also reflect a new exodus in the Latter Prophets, especially from the book of Isaiah upon the return from exile.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) In short, the broader canonical context, like the immediate context, sheds light on the thematic initiatives in the book of Judges. ## **Conclusion** A deep thematic and canonical analysis of the book of Judges highlights an assortment of meaningful patterns. First, the Canaanization of Israel is evident in all three major sections of Judges and the covenantal theme weaves the Sinaitic covenant into the book of Judges as the Israelites risk destroying their relationship with Yahweh. Second, the leadership theme not only spotlights the flaws of the judges and prepares for a monarchial establishment, but also illuminates Yahweh’s sovereign freedom. Third, a singular thematic focus sheds light on important subthemes, but risks reductionism, while a multiplicity of themes broadens the thematic spectrum, but risks blurring the prominence of the varied motifs. Finally, an exploration of the canonical context of Judges looks backward to furnish exegetical nuance and looks forward to present thematic resolution. Certainly, digging deep into the biblical theological themes and motifs within the book of Judges and identifying their place within the larger canonical context enhances both theological awareness and interpretive acuity of the biblical expositor. The practical significance of digging deep into the thematic initiatives of Judges moves beyond the acquisition of knowledge and provides the expositor an opportunity to communicate a life-changing message. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Daniel I. Block, *Judges, Ruth: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*, vol. 6 of *The New American Commentary*, ed. Kenneth A. Mathews and David S. Dockery (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999), 77. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Block, *Judges, Ruth*, 6:134. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Barry G. Webb, *The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading* (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2008), 30–32. See also Kenneth Gros Louis, “The Book of Judges: Elijah and Elisha,” in *Literary Interpretations of Biblical Narratives* (Nashville, 1974), 141–162. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Block, *Judges, Ruth*, 6:145. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 149. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Block, *Judges, Ruth*, 6:476. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 6:476. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Paul R. Williamson, *Sealed with an Oath: Covenant in God’s Unfolding Purpose*, vol. 23, New Studies in Biblical Theology (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2007), 96–97. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Steven L. McKenzie, *Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2010), 15. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) J. P. U. Lilley, “A Literary Appreciation of the Book of Judges,” *Tyndale Bulletin* 18 (1967): 102. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Lauren A. S. Monroe, “‘They Behaved Even Worse than Their Ancestors’: Reconsidering the Deuteronomistic Origin of Judges 2:11-19,” *Revue Biblique* 119, no. 3 (July 2012): 347. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Webb, *The Book of the Judges*, 19. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) P. Deryn Guest, “Judges,” in *Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible*, ed. James D. G. Dunn (Grand Rapids: WM. B. Eerdmans, 2003), 190–206. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid., 191–192. Guest also recognizes the satirization of foreign kingship in the narratives of Deborah, Gideon, and Samson, see 193-206. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Guest, “Judges,” 194–201. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Marc Brettler, “The Book of Judges: Literature as Politics,” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 108, no. 3 (1989): 416. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Ibid. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Brian Neil Peterson, “The Book of Judges: An Apology for Kingship,” in *The Authors of the Deuteronomistic History: Locating a Tradition in Ancient Israel* (1517 Media, 2014), 197–198. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Michael Wilcock, *The Message of Judges*, The Bible Speaks Today (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1993), 15. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Guest, “Judges,” 192. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Webb, *The Book of the Judges*, 173. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Ibid. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Tammi J. Schneider, *Berit Olam: Judges* (Collegeville, MN: Michael Glazier, 2000), 287–289. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Schneider, *Berit Olam*, 289. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Ibid. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Lee Roy Martin, *The Unheard Voice of God: A Pentecostal Hearing of the Book of Judges*, *The Unheard Voice of God* (Netherlands: Brill, 2008), 95. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Cheryl A. Brown, “Judges,” in *Joshua, Judges, Ruth*, ed. W. Ward Gasque, Robert L. Hubbard, and Robert K. Johnston, Understanding the Bible Commentary Series (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2012), 132–133. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Robert H. O’Connell, *The Rhetoric of the Book of Judges* (New York: Brill, 1997), 1. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Martin, *The Unheard Voice of God*, 102. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Ibid. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Ibid. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) J. Clinton McCann, *Judges: Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching*, 1st ed. (Louisville: John Knox, 2002), 13–14. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) McCann, *Judges: Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching*, 15. ## Bibliography - Block, Daniel I. *Judges, Ruth: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*. Edited by Kenneth A. Mathews and David S. Dockery. Vol. 6. New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999. - Brettler, Marc. “The Book of Judges: Literature as Politics.” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 108, no. 3 (1989): 395–418. - Brown, Cheryl A. “Judges.” In *Joshua, Judges, Ruth*, edited by W. Ward Gasque, Robert L. Hubbard, and Robert K. Johnston. Understanding the Bible Commentary Series. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2012. - Guest, P. Deryn. “Judges.” In *Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible*, edited by James D. G. Dunn. Grand Rapids: WM. B. Eerdmans, 2003. - Lilley, J. P. U. “A Literary Appreciation of the Book of Judges.” *Tyndale Bulletin* 18 (1967): 94–102. - Louis, Kenneth Gros. “The Book of Judges: Elijah and Elisha.” In *Literary Interpretations of Biblical Narratives*, 141–162. Nashville, 1974. - Martin, Lee Roy. *The Unheard Voice of God: A Pentecostal Hearing of the Book of Judges*. *The Unheard Voice of God*. Netherlands: Brill, 2008. - McCann, J. Clinton. *Judges: Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching*. 1st ed. Louisville: John Knox, 2002. - McKenzie, Steven L. *Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2010. - Monroe, Lauren A. S. “‘They Behaved Even Worse than Their Ancestors’: Reconsidering the Deuteronomistic Origin of Judges 2:11-19.” *Revue Biblique* 119, no. 3 (July 2012): 347–365. - O’Connell, Robert H. *The Rhetoric of the Book of Judges*. New York: Brill, 1997. - Peterson, Brian Neil. “The Book of Judges: An Apology for Kingship.” In *The Authors of the Deuteronomistic History: Locating a Tradition in Ancient Israel*, 165–198. 1517 Media, 2014. - Schneider, Tammi J. *Berit Olam: Judges*. Collegeville, MN: Michael Glazier, 2000. - Webb, Barry G. *The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading*. Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2008. - Wilcock, Michael. *The Message of Judges*. The Bible Speaks Today. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1993. - Williamson, Paul R. *Sealed with an Oath: Covenant in God’s Unfolding Purpose*. Vol. 23. New Studies in Biblical Theology. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2007. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Judges: Background Issues](https://www.livestransforming.com/judges-background-issues/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Judges: Background Issues ## **Introduction** The riveting narratives within the book of Judges are some of the most well-known and beloved stories in all of Scripture. From the fascinating account of Gideon’s fleece to the intrigue of Samson’s escapades, the adventures in the book of Judges have mesmerized both children and adults alike. The question is what contextual, archaeological, and literary evidence exists to support an understanding of the meaning and historical realities of the texts. By ignoring the biblical and extra-biblical clues, the interpreter risks not only misinterpreting the content, but also ignoring the historical veracity of the texts. The historical and canonical context, relevant archaeological data, and ancient literary parallels enhance understanding of the text and support the historicity of the book of Judges within a framework of the ancient Near East. The following brief analysis first provides an overview of the book’s background along with an analysis of its historical and canonical context. Next, a survey of the major relevant archaeological material commences with an emphasis on the excavations at Tel Miqne, Tel Balata, and Tel Qasile. Finally, a survey of relevant ancient Near Eastern literary parallels completes the analysis, which focuses specifically upon the Merneptah Stela, the Amarna Letters, the Ugaritic collections, and the Great Karnak Inscription of Merneptah. ## **Historical and Canonical Introduction** At the end of the book of Joshua, the Israelites had not conquered all of the land allocated to them by Yahweh. The book of Judges continues the story of the Israelites now residing in Canaan, a small strip of land west of the Mediterranean Sea and east of Mesopotamia. Unfortunately, the Canaanite influence upon Israel resulted in a downward spiral of apostasy. Although Yahweh chooses various judges or rulers to lead His people, the Israelites continue a circular pattern of apostasy, oppression, repentance, deliverance, and a generation of peace. At the conclusion of the book of Judges, the corruption of the people of Israel seems almost hopeless. Appropriately assessing the historical context of the book of Judges requires an investigation of both the compositional and referential historical context. First, regarding the compositional historical context, Mark Boda provides three developments: early critical scholarship, later critical scholarship, and modern literary unity.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Early critical scholarship leaned on the work of Julius Wellhausen’s documentary hypothesis, which suggests the original form of Judges arose from both the Jahwist (J) and Elohist (E) sources with redactions occurring by later editors.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) In a study from 1943, Martin Noth represents later critical scholarship by espousing a Deuteronomistic History (DtrH), which, Steven McKenzie explains, assumes that the books of Deuteronomy through 2 Kings were a single unified story written by an author around 562 BC through a process of compilation, editorialization, and composition.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) More recently, Barry Webb represents a form of modern literary unity by utilizing a synchronic approach that focuses on the final form of the text.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In other words, Webb makes a case for a coherent unity of the entire book of Judges. Regarding referential historical context, the debate regarding alternative views of the historicity of Judges is beyond the scope of a background introduction. However, according to Boda, a general consensus does exist among scholars regarding the rise of the Israelite monarchy around 1000 BC; thus the dating of the book of Judges must precede the time of David.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) [![Judges Ruth An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture Volume 6 182x300 - Judges: Background Issues](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Judges-Ruth_-An-Exegetical-and-Theological-Exposition-of-Holy-Scripture-Volume-6-182x300.jpg "Judges: Background Issues - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4acMKkj)Judges, Ruth\_ An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture (Volume 6) Accordingly, the likely timeframe of the events in the book of Judges occurred around the Early Iron Age. However, at this point, attempting to establish the details of the chronology within the book of Judges becomes quite difficult. Although many of the place names in the book of Judges align with the geography of the ancient Near East, according to Daniel Block, not a single character within the narrative of Judges exists within the extra-biblical sources of the ancient Near East.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Thus, reliance upon internal evidence from the biblical account is necessary, which presents a significant challenge. By working through the narratives, the total number of years from the Exodus to the time Solomon began building the temple is approximately 590 years, but 1 Kings 6:1 states the timeframe is 480 years.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Boda’s explanation is that the book of Judges may not follow a strict chronology and that overlapping timeframes have occurred in the narrative.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In addition to the general dating and specific chronology of referential history, various possibilities exist regarding the nature of Israel’s conquest of the land, specifically due to lack of structure within a loose tribal confederacy. McKenzie asserts that since no archaeological evidence exists supporting an Israelite conquest, alternative methods of settlement including infiltration and peasant revolt models have been espoused.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Further, Boda acknowledges that some scholars avoid the subject altogether and consider the book of Judges a myth.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) However, alongside Boda, this research assumes the biblical account reconstructs Israel’s historical past. The book of Judges places itself within the canon of both the Jewish Hebrew Bible and the [Christian Bible](https://www.livestransforming.com/bible-interpretation-historical-context/) directly after the book of Joshua. However, the Hebrew Bible assigns Judges to the Former Prophets alongside Joshua, Samuel, and Kings, while the Christian Bible assigns Judges to the Historical Books that include Ruth, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. In one sense, Judges is prophetic with regards to the warnings presented and, in another sense, the book of Judges is historical with regards to presenting the ongoing story of Israel. Judges also finds its place within the canon intertextually. According to Block, the reference to Sisera, the Philistines, and the king of Moab in 1 Samuel 12:9-11 clearly shows that the author was aware of the book of Judges.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Furthermore, the prophets Isaiah and Hosea both allude to the time frame of the Judges. Isaiah appears to reflect on Gideon by referring to the days of Midian (Isa 9:4), and Hosea refers to the corruption during the days of Gibeah (Hos 9:9, 10:9) as well as the evildoers of Gilead (Hos 6:8). Finally, Block also notes the potential allusions to the Song of Deborah in Psalm 68:7-14 and the list of Israelite oppressors in Psalm 83.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Without question, the book of Judges appropriately resides within the biblical canon. The compositional and referential historical and canonical context of the book of Judges not only enhances an understanding of the book of Judges but also supports the historicity of its events. ## **Archaeological Survey** Israel entered the land as a people group in covenant with Yahweh commissioned to drive out the Canaanites. However, many nations were left in the land during the time of the Judges “to test Israel” (Judg 3:1).[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Judges 3:3 lists the remaining nations and specifically refers to the five cities of the Philistines. Block explains that the Philistines were one of the groups of Sea Peoples who migrated into Canaan around 1200 BC and formed the Philistine Pentapolis of city-states, which included Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) All five sites have been excavated. One prominent site is Tel Miqne, which, according to Trude Dothan and Seymour Gitin, is associated with the city of Ekron.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) The Iron Age architecture confirmed the location of a major city during the time period of the events of Judges.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) The excavations, according to Dothan, suggest a large urban district associated with the Sea Peoples based on the evidence from pottery and cultic installations.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) In Judges 9, the notables from the Canaanite city of Shechem contributed 70 shekels to Abimelech, Gideon’s son, which he used to murder 70 of his half-brothers (Judg 9:1-21). Ultimately, the people of Shechem began to worry about their involvement, and a clan revolted, which led to Abimelech setting fire to the Shechem Temple killing about one thousand (Judg 9:22-49). According to Lawrence Stager, Tell Balata began excavation in 1913, and the Temple at Shechem was discovered in 1926.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Excavation resumed between 1956 and 1973 by American excavators who dated the construction of the temple before the events of Gideon between 1650 and 1550 BC.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) In contrast, Stager asserts that the temple adorned with an altar and pillars was not destroyed until around 1100 BC due to its nature and size, and thus was the temple referred to in Judges 9:46.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Another famous temple in the book of Judges is seen in the story of Samson. After Delilah cuts Samson’s hair, the Philistines capture him, gouge out his eyes, and put him to work (Judg 16:1-22). The Philistine noblemen brought Samson to the temple in Gaza where they had planned a sacrifice to their god, Dagon (Judg 16:23-27). Samson locates the two pillars of the temple and pushes them over killing the Philistines (Judg 16:28-31). According to Block, a Philistine temple to Dagon has not yet been located in the city of Gaza.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) However, a Philistine temple has been excavated at a site called Tell Qasile originally settled by the Philistines around 1100 BC.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) The main room of the temple measured approximately eighteen feet by twenty-four feet, and several bones were found at the site suggesting sacrificial offerings.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Importantly, the archaeological evidence reveals two support columns made of wood, which were set on stone footings to support the structure of the building providing evidence that Philistine temples such as the one toppled by Samson existed during the time of Judges.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Many additional excavations that potentially reflect sites referred to in Judges also exist. For example, the town of Laish (cf. Judg 18:7) is located at Tell Dan and demonstrates the presence of Aegeans, the town of Bethel (cf. Judg 4:5) is located at Tell Beitin, the town of Succoth (cf. Judg 8:5) is identified with Tell Deir Alla, and the town of Timnah (cf. Judg 14:1) is located at Tell Batash where evidence shows a transfer of power from Canaanites to the Philistines and then to the Israelites.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Furthermore, a treasure trove of archaeological artifacts have been uncovered that relate to the timeframe of Judges. For example, food-processing implements such as millstones (cf. Judg 9:53) were ubiquitous, looms have been found in domestic settings (cf. Judg 16:13-14), archaeology has uncovered an abundance of images of deities (cf. Judg 17:3-4), and slinging stones were also common in the archaeological finds (cf. Judg 20:16).[\[26\]](#_ftn26) The relevant archaeological data enhances understanding and supports the historicity of the book of Judges within a framework of the ancient Near East. ## **Ancient Near Eastern Literature** A survey of the relevant ancient Near Eastern literature to the book of Judges must commence with the Merneptah Stela, the Amarna letters, the Ugaritic collections, the Merneptah relief at Karnak, and a brief reference to Hittite literature. First, it is impossible to ignore the importance of the Merneptah Stela. The Egyptian Pharaoh, Merneptah, began his reign in 1213 BC and, according to Block, the Merneptah Stela was erected in approximately 1208 BC to commemorate the king’s victories in Canaan.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Importantly, the stela is the earliest attestation of Israel in extra-biblical literature.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) James Hoffmeier notes that many scholars observe a parallelism in the inscription between Hurru and Israel suggesting a significant presence of Israelites in the region.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) Furthermore, Hoffmeier continues, the writing of Israel on the stela appears to indicate an ethnic group rather than a region or city, which aligns with the image of Israel represented in the book of Judges.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) The Amarna letters are a collection of literary finds that may parallel the importance of the Merneptah Stela. Victor Matthews and Don Benjamin explain that in 1887 a woman found the collection of 382 tablets in Egypt that documented various diplomatic exchanges between rulers and vassal kingdoms in Canaan.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) The significance of the Amarna letters resides not in the identification of Israelites, but instead, in highlighting the social unrest during the fourteenth century BC that parallels a similar political landscape of the time of Judges.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) Many references to place names, individuals, and topics within the Amarna letters also occur in the book of Judges. For example, Block explains that the letters refer to the city of Jerusalem (cf. Judg 1:7) as a vassal of the Pharaoh at the time, the city of Ashkelon (cf. Judg 1:18) as a Canaanite city conquered by Merneptah, the city of Gezer (cf. Judg 1:29) as a flourishing economic and political center, and the Sidonians (cf. Judg 3:3) as a leading member of the anti-Egyptian coalition.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Other important parallels reference tribal confederations. Harry Hoffner notes that a Hittite text called “The Deeds of Šuppiluliuma” found within the Amarna letters identifies a number of tribes or tribal groups, which parallel the tribal confederacy involved in the conflicts recorded in the book of Judges.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) The discovery of a collection of Ugaritic texts from approximately the twelfth century provides another rich source of relevant ancient Near Eastern literature. According to Block, the Ugaritic collection, especially the poetry, has provided significant ritual and mythological texts referring to the Canaanite deities referenced in the book of Judges.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) For example, in the Ugaritic mythological literature, Block explains Astarte (Ashtaroth) is the spouse of Baal and the reference to Baals (cf. Judg 2:13) refer to local manifestations of the deity.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) The goddess named Asherah is associated with Baal in the book of Judges and is also referred to in Ugaritic poetry (cf. Judg 3:7). Nick Wyatt explains that in the Baal cycle, Asherah is the wife of the god El and the mother of seventy gods who intercedes for Baal.[\[37\]](#_ftn37) Although a comprehensive analysis of the parallels between Ugaritic literature and the book of Judges is beyond the scope of the analysis, one more example assists. The importance of a son as documented in Judges 13 also has parallels in Ugaritic poetic literature. In the story of *Aqhat*, a son not only was important for the wellbeing of the parent but had important implications for the afterlife.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) A major parallel comes from the Great Karnak Inscription of Merneptah. First, the inscription dated to the thirteenth century is the only extra-biblical reference to the Sea Peoples and states that the Egyptian forces defeated “the foreign countries \[or ‘peoples’\] of the sea.”[\[39\]](#_ftn39) Furthermore, the victory hymn of Tuthmosis III was also found in a temple at Karnak, which parallels Deborah’s victory hymn in Judges 5.[\[40\]](#_ftn40) Finally, although Hittite references are less prominent, a Hittite incarnation does reference both the country of Sidon and the country of Tyre when listing geographical names (cf. Judg 3:3).[\[41\]](#_ftn41) The ancient literary parallels enhance understanding of the text and support the historicity of the book of Judges within a framework of the ancient Near East. ## **Conclusion** Although reading the biblical stories in the book of Judges provides entertainment akin to the action and drama of modern motion pictures, by placing the book of Judges and its captivating stories within its historical and canonical context, the interpreter can move beyond entertainment into illuminating understanding. Furthermore, by identifying relevant archaeological data, not only does the motion picture come alive, but its historicity also solidifies. Finally, the ancient Near Eastern literary parallels support the book’s historicity and also deeply immerses the reader into the cultural milieu of the ancient Israelites. Without question, the historical and canonical context, relevant archaeological data, and ancient literary parallels enhance understanding of the text and support the historicity of the book of Judges within a framework of the ancient Near East. From a personal perspective, by engaging the contextual, archaeological, and literary factors related to the book of Judges, not only does the content provide a deeper understanding of the text and a strong apologetic for historical veracity, but also, it provides a foundation for the enhancement of biblical exposition. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Mark J. Boda, *Numbers-Ruth*, ed. Tremper Longman and David E. Garland, vol. 2, The Expositor’s Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 1048–1049. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 2:1049. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Steven L. McKenzie, *Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2010), 14. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Barry G. Webb, *The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading* (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2008), 36–40. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Boda, *Numbers-Ruth*, 2:1050. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Daniel I. Block, *Judges*, ed. John H. Walton, vol. 2, Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary (Zondervan, 2009), 97. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 2:99–100. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Boda, *Numbers-Ruth*, 2:1051. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) McKenzie, *Introduction to the Historical Books*, 51. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Boda, *Numbers-Ruth*, 2:1050. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Daniel I. Block, *Judges, Ruth: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*, ed. Kenneth A. Mathews and David S. Dockery, vol. 6, New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999), 26–27. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 6:26. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Block, *Judges, Ruth*, 6:137–138. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Trude Dothan and Seymour Gitin, “Ekron of the Philistines: How They Lived, Worked and Worshiped for Five Hundred Years,” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 16, no. 1 (January 1990): 20-25. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid., 20-25. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Trude Dothan, “Ekron of the Philistines, Part 1: Where They Came From, How They Settled Down and the Place They Worshiped In,” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 16, no. 1 (January 1990): 35-36. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Lawrence E Stager, “The Shechem Temple: Where Abimelech Massacred a Thousand,” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 29, no. 4 (July 2003): 26–29. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Ibid., 26–35. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Block, *Judges*, 2:203. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) “Philistine Temple Discovered Within Tel Aviv City Limits,” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 1, no. 2 (n.d.): 1, 6-9. See also Amihay Mazar, “Philistine Temple at Tell Qasile,” *The Biblical Archaeologist* 36, no. 2 (May 1973) and “Additional Philistine Temples at Tell Qasile,” *The Biblical Archaeologist* 40, no. 2 (May 1977). [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) “Philistine Temple Discovered Within Tel Aviv City Limits,” 1, 6–9. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) “Philistines Temple Discovered,” 6-9. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Steven M. Ortiz, “Judges” in *ESV Archaeology Study Bible,* ed. John D. Currid (Wheaton: Crossway, 2018), 337, 346, 355. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Ibid., 350. 358. 359. 364. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Block, *Judges*, 2:101. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Ibid. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) James K. Hoffmeier, *Context of Scripture: Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World*, ed. William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger, vol. 2 (Boston: Brill, 2003), 41. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Ibid. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Victor H. Matthews and Don C. Benjamin, *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East* (New York: Paulist Press, 2016), 155. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Ibid., 156. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Block, *Judges*, 2:107. 111, 114, 122. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Harry A. Hoffner, *Context of Scripture: Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World*, ed. William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger, vol. 1 (Boston: Brill, 2003), 185. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Block, *Judges*, 2:102. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Ibid., 2:119. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Nick Wyatt, *Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible*, ed. Karel van der Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst, and Bob Becking, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 99–100. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Simon B. Parker, *Ugaritic Narrative Poetry*, vol. 9, Writings from the Ancient World (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 52–53. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) Block, *Judges*, 2:103. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Ibid., 2:143. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) James Bennett Pritchard, *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*, 3rd ed. with Supplement. (Princeton: Princeton University, 1969), 351–352. # Bibliography - Block, Daniel I. *Judges*. Edited by John H. Walton. Vol. 2. Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Zondervan, 2009. - ———. *Judges, Ruth: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*. Edited by Kenneth A. Mathews and David S. Dockery. Vol. 6. New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999. - Boda, Mark J. *Numbers-Ruth*. Edited by Tremper Longman and David E. Garland. Vol. 2. The Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. - Dothan, Trude. “Ekron of the Philistines, Part 1: Where They Came From, How They Settled Down and the Place They Worshiped In.” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 16, no. 1 (January 1990): 26–36. - Dothan, Trude, and Seymour Gitin. “Ekron of the Philistines: How They Lived, Worked and Worshiped for Five Hundred Years.” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 16, no. 1 (January 1990): 20–25. - Hoffmeier, James K. *Context of Scripture: Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World*. Edited by William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger. Vol. 2. Boston: Brill, 2003. - Hoffner, Harry A. *Context of Scripture: Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World*. Edited by William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger. Vol. 1. Boston: Brill, 2003. - Matthews, Victor H., and Don C. Benjamin. *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East*. New York: Paulist Press, 2016. - Mazar, Amihay. “Additional Philistine Temples at Tell Qasile.” *The Biblical Archaeologist* 40, no. 2 (May 1977): 82–87. - ———. “Philistine Temple at Tell Qasile.” *The Biblical Archaeologist* 36, no. 2 (May 1973): 42–48. - McKenzie, Steven L. *Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2010. - Ortiz, Steven M. “Judges.” In *ESV Archaeology Study Bible*, edited by John D. Currid, 325-370. Wheaton: Crossway, 2018. - Parker, Simon B. *Ugaritic Narrative Poetry*. Vol. 9. Writings from the Ancient World. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997. - “Philistine Temple Discovered Within Tel Aviv City Limits.” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 1, no. 2 (n.d.): 1, 6–9. - Pritchard, James Bennett. *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*. 3rd ed. with Supplement. Princeton: Princeton University, 1969. - Stager, Lawrence E. “The Shechem Temple: Where Abimelech Massacred a Thousand.” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 29, no. 4 (July 2003): 26–35, 66–69. - Webb, Barry G. *The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading*. Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2008. - Wyatt, Nick. *Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible*. Edited by Karel van der Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst, and Bob Becking. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Judges: Diachronic vs Synchronic](https://www.livestransforming.com/judges-diachronic-vs-synchronic/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Judges: Diachronic vs Synchronic [![The Book of the Judges An Integrated Reading 182x300 - Judges: Diachronic vs Synchronic](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Book-of-the-Judges_-An-Integrated-Reading-182x300.jpg "Judges: Diachronic vs Synchronic - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4a7FINy)The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading In his book, *The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading*, Barry Webb makes an intriguing comment, “Any formulation of authorial purpose would have to emerge from a consideration of the object and formal characteristics of the text as a whole, and would take account of the fact that an author may conceivably have more than one purpose, not all equally in view in any one paragraph or section.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The meaning of Webb’s statement focuses on one phrase: the text. More specifically, the object of the text pertains to the content of the final form and includes elements such as plot, theme, and character development within the text as a whole. The formal characteristics of the content pertain to the form or structure of the text and includes elements such as chiastic structures, literary devices, and canonical placement. The focus of Webb’s synchronic effort is on the rhetorical unity of the text. In the final phrase of the quote, Webb expands his synchronic perspective by clarifying its relationship to the intent of the author. Webb asserts that the author may have multiple purposes. At this point, careful analysis is necessary. First, based on Webb’s analysis, it is difficult to separate an author’s purpose with an author’s intent. Accordingly, the assumption is that Webb assumes that the possibility exists that the author may intend a multiplicity of purposes or intentions. Second, although synchronic analysis may identify the reader as the arbiter of meaning or purpose, Webb’s statement appears to maintain that the author determines meaning. Accordingly, Webb does not appear to directly suggest that the author’s words have multiple meanings of which the reader may choose, but instead, Webb uses rhetorical criticism to argue that the author, in a given paragraph or pericope, may have multiple intentions or purposes that require communication. Examples regarding multiple intentions from the Samson narrative will commence below. Third, Webb also concludes that multiple purposes may not have equal weight. In other words, a primary theme may be the center of attention, while a secondary theme may lie in the background of the narrative. Furthermore, hints of thematic development may also occur, both textually and canonically, based on intertextual connections such as quotations, allusions, and echoes. Webb’s approach to the book of Judges differs markedly from McKenzie’s diachronic analysis. Unlike Webb’s focus on the final form of the text, McKenzie focuses on the development of the text using diachronic methods such as literary source criticism, redaction criticism, form criticism, and historic reconstruction.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Literary source criticism investigates the various sources used to develop the text rather than focusing on the final form of the text. Redaction criticism also focuses on the development of the text but focuses primarily on the involvement of editors or redactors. Form criticism analyzes the scope, the genre, and the setting of the text, which ultimately points to the text’s purpose. A nuanced distinction appears to exist between form criticism and a synchronic approach. Form criticism stands outside of the text and analyzes its constituent parts through a process of classification. With synchronic analysis, scope and genre continue to be meaningful, but the method attempts to apply the concepts to the final form of the text in a wholistic way. Finally, as opposed to focusing on the final form of the text, historical reconstruction, similar to source, redaction, and form criticism stands outside the text and analyzes its historical veracity based on archaeological data and ancient Near Eastern literature. Although Webb’s synchronic approach differs significantly from McKenzie’s diachronic approach, if the interpreter dodges the fringes, then it is possible for the approaches to complement one another.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) In sum, diachronic approaches focus on the development of the text by analyzing sources and redactions *over time*, while synchronic approaches focus on the unity of the text at a *certain time* with emphasis on its final form. In other words, Webb approaches the text horizontally, and McKenzie approaches the text vertically. The two approaches, diachronic and synchronic, lead to different paths when interpreting the story of Samson. Compositionally, the diachronic perspective focuses the interpreter on the development of the narrative. For example, McKenzie investigates the potential pre-Deuteronomistic sources used by the compiler of the Samson narrative and acknowledges the scholarly debate surrounding whether the sources for each of the major judges were received as independent entities or as a collection.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) McKenzie then analyzes how the Deuteronomist (Dtr) compiled the sources, ordered the content, and engaged the theology politically, chronologically, and geographically.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Finally, McKenzie examines the potential post-Dtr additions or redactions to the Samson narrative.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Importantly, due to the distinctions between the Samson narrative and the other judges, scholars often debate whether the story of Samson was a later addition. The diachronic approach naturally points toward what may be called a paradigm of commingled distinctives. Granted, diachronic analysis has the benefit of illuminating certain distinctions. However, the risk of diachronic interpretation is that the interpreter may view the Samson narrative as a disconnected fragment added to the end of the major judges, a fragment that may be interpreted in accordance with the traditions of [ancient Near Eastern literature](https://www.livestransforming.com/ancient-near-east-background-of-the-bible/) for the sole purpose of highlighting the distinctiveness of Samson’s revenge to entertain the reader. Alternatively, the synchronic perspective focuses the interpreter on the unity of the text. As opposed to highlighting the potential distinctions and identifying the disparate sources and redactors, Webb focuses attention on the thematic similarities. For example, Webb asserts that all six of the major episodes of the judges attend to the competition between Yahweh and the pagan gods.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Furthermore, instead of focusing on the distinctions between the judges, Webb focuses on Yahweh’s consistent unpredictability in their utilization, an unpredictability that highlights the thematic thread asserting that humans have no ability to manipulate Yahweh.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Accordingly, the synchronic approaches naturally point toward what may be called a paradigm of cooperative unity. In its extreme, synchronic analysis could lead to postmodern interpretations, discounted distinctions, or forced unities in texts such as the Samson narrative. However, the benefits of synchronic interpretation include placing a high value on the final form of the text, the canonical relationships, the redactional unity, and the unifying motifs. Specifically, Webb illuminates the meaning of Samson by interpreting the narrative in light of networks or patterns of unifying motifs such as Israel’s apostasy, the rise of judges, empowered women, the use of weaponry, and “an unusually high concentration of motifs which have occurred in earlier episodes.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Furthermore, narrative sections may, as Webb mentions, take account of the fact that an author may conceivably have more than one purpose. For example, the Dagon pericope may contribute to multiple thematic developments such as the risk of accommodating religion to political norms, the downward spiral of both the judges and Israel, the subversion of pagan gods, and the power of God’s sovereignty as He furthers His purposes through Samson. Although both diachronic and synchronic approaches have strengths and weaknesses, it is difficult to ignore the critical importance of the text. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Barry G. Webb, *The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading* (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2008), 29. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Steven L. McKenzie, *Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2010), 26–35. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Webb, *The Book of the Judges*, 38–39. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) McKenzie, *Introduction to the Historical Books*, 59–60. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 63–64. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 64–66. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Webb, *The Book of the Judges*, 166–168. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 170–174. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 176–178. # Bibliography - McKenzie, Steven L. *Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2010. - Webb, Barry G. *The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading*. Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2008. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Foreignors in the Fomer Prophets](https://www.livestransforming.com/foreignors-in-the-fomer-prophets/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Foreignors in the Fomer Prophets The issue of the role and treatment of foreigners in the Former Prophets has been hotly debated. The debate not only occurs within seminaries, but also by proponents of atheism in attempts to prove the cruelty of Yahweh and, more practically, by recent political initiatives regarding immigration policy. Accordingly, it is difficult to imagine a more relevant topic for study, a study that begins by tracing the development of foreigners through Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and, finally, the books of Kings. [![Including the Stranger Foreigners in the Former Prophets Volume 50 182x300 - Foreignors in the Fomer Prophets](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Including-the-Stranger_-Foreigners-in-the-Former-Prophets-Volume-50-182x300.jpg "Foreignors in the Fomer Prophets - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/407tgJ8)Including the Stranger\_ Foreigners in the Former Prophets (Volume 50) Although the controversial topic of genocide normally pervades the discussions surrounding the book of Joshua, it is two members of the supporting cast that actually take center stage in the discussion of foreigners: Rahab and Achan. The story of Rahab is familiar. Joshua sends spies to spy out the land, and they stay with the prostitute, Rahab, who not only assists the spies, but also appears to acknowledge Yahweh as God by admitting that her heart had melted and by stating, “for the Lord your God, He is God” (Josh 2:11). Rahab also negotiates the safety of her family, which appears to undermine both the command to completely destroy the Canaanites and the prohibition to make a covenant with them in accordance with Deuteronomy 7:2. At this point, David Firth asks the appropriate question, “What sort of Israel is it when it can include not only a foreigner, but a Canaanite?”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) In contrast to Rahab, Achan, a member of Judah’s tribe, stole a coat, 200 shekels of silver, and a bar of gold (Josh 7:20-21) and, as a result, “They burned them with fire and stoned them with stones” (Josh 7:25). Rahab was saved, and Achan and his family were killed; Rahab followed God, and Achan disobeyed God; Rahab became an insider, and Achan became an outsider. Rahab and Achan’s legacy remains intact typologically throughout the Old and New Testament. In the book of Judges, the topic of my extended research, foreigners take on two contrasting roles: the role of deliverance and the role of punishment. Firth recognizes the positive interaction with foreigners in Judges 1:11-16, specifically with regard to Caleb’s Kenizzite family and the settlement with the Kenites.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) However, a more forceful example is the character of Jael. The reader of the Deborah cycle likely believes that Barak will be the hero until he places conditions to his efforts. At this point, Deborah becomes the likely heroine. However, when Sisera escapes, Yahweh’s unpredictable predictability enters the story, an unpredictability that undermines man’s effort to control or manipulate God while simultaneously furthering His purposes through the attribute of sovereign freedom. In surprising fashion, it is Jael, a foreign woman, who, according to Firth, “abandoned the political commitments of her husband to fight for Israel, and in so doing has become the most blessed of women.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The book of Judges also tells of the influence of foreign nations and individuals who oppose Yahweh. For example, Gideon’s family was involved in Baal worship, Abimelech’s murder of his brother reflects the influence of Yahweh’s opposition, and Jephthah’s child sacrifice appears to be a pinnacle of Canaanization. Accordingly, Daniel Block goes so far as to conclude that the overarching theme of the book of Judges is “the Canaanization of Israelite society during the period of settlement.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Finally, it is difficult to exclude at least a passing reference to the influence of foreign women on Samson: Timnah, the lady from Gaza, and Delilah. Finally, echoes of Achan appear not only in the individuals, but also in the Canaanization of the entire nation of Israel as the book of Judges continues to move toward a grisly close. The books of Samuel utilize foreigners to evaluate Israelites. The two representative examples of foreigners are Doeg and Uriah. First, according to Firth, Saul’s chief herdsman, Doeg the Edomite, implies that Ahimelech, an Israelite priest, conspired to assist David.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Accordingly, Saul orders Doeg to murder eighty-five priests and the people of Nob (1 Sam 22:18-19). In other words, under the influence of a foreigner, Saul assaults an Israelite city rather than carrying out Yahweh’s directives. Second, it would be difficult to even imagine the tragic reality of David’s adultery with Bathsheba and the subsequent cover up and murder of Uriah if it were not for the continued reality of similar indiscretions in so many Catholic and Protestant churches in the twentieth and twenty-first century. In sum, Uriah, the Hittite, will simply do no wrong. As a foreign descendant of the Canaanites, Uriah provides a standard for righteousness. The great reversal is again in sight. Saul and David become Canaanites, while Uriah, the Hittite, becomes an Israelite. At this point, it would be difficult for any interpreter not to begin connecting the dots between the Abrahamic promise (Gen 12:1-3) as the message of Yahweh’s desire to bless all nations weaves through the Former Prophets. Unlike the books of Samuel, Kings does not so much use foreigners to evaluate Israel, but instead shows how foreigners who oppose Israel provide a destructive influence. First, the episodes with Pharaoh’s daughter, the Queen of Sheba, and Hiram, the king of Tyre foreshadow the damage that foreigners have on Solomon’s kingship. However, importantly, Firth provides a reminder that the foreigners are not the threat; ethnicity is not the issue, for “if these foreigners embrace faith in Yahweh, then even if they never become Israelite they are still a part of the people of God.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Yahweh’s love for foreigners continues in the stories of the prophets Elijah and Elisha. Elijah, a foreigner himself, a Tishbite, calls on Yahweh to revive the son of a foreign woman, and not only does Yahweh have mercy on the woman, but the events also lead the woman to confess her faith in Yahweh (1 Kgs 17:17-24). Furthermore, within the Elisha episode, Naaman, an Aramean general, discovers Yahweh and is healed (2 Kgs 5:1-14). However, Firth explains that the forgiveness is only granted in Kings in the episode of Naaman, a foreigner, while Gehazi, an insider, takes on Naaman’s skin disease, which is another echo of the Rahab and Achan reversal.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) While many other foreigners pervade the books of the Former Prophets, the message is clear: it is not ethnicity. Instead, it is faith that forges a relationship with Yahweh and shapes the interpreter’s understanding of the Former Prophets. Without a doubt, the promises of the Old Testament and its stories shape the New Testament understanding of foreigners. Specifically, Firth references two stories in the Gospel of Matthew: the healing of the centurion servant and the encounter with the Canaanite woman.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) First, in Capernaum, Jesus heals a centurion, a non-Israelite, a member of the Roman guard recorded in Matthew 8:5-13. What astounds Jesus is neither religious duty nor ethnicity, but the foreigner’s faith. The centurion’s faith is ironically contrasted with the lack of faith by Israel (Matt 8:11-12). Again, the foreigner takes on the identity of an Israelite and the Israelites play the part of a foreigner. Second, Jesus meets a Canaanite woman in Matthew 15:21-28. Once again, the expectation is that a Canaanite would not be part of the people of Israel. Even Jesus seems to question the authenticity of the foreigner. However, Jesus recognizes the woman’s faith and heals her daughter. Again, a foreigner becomes part of the family of God. Jesus provides a bridge between what had begun as a promise to Abraham to bless *all* nations and what continued through the [Old Testament prophets](https://www.livestransforming.com/knowing-jesus-through-the-old-testament/), manifested itself in His work on the cross, extended to the Gentiles in Paul’s ministry, and will culminate in Christ’s return: A gospel message for all people to the ends of the earth. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) David G. Firth, *Including the Stranger: Foreigners in the Former Prophets* (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2019), 24. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 73. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 77. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Daniel I. Block, *Judges, Ruth: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture,* vol. 6 of *The New American Commentary*, ed. Kenneth A. Mathews and David S. Dockery (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999), 58. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Firth, *Including the Stranger*, 108. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 146. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 155–156. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 181–183. # Bibliography - Block, Daniel I. *Judges, Ruth: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*. Vol. 6 of *The New American Commentary*. Edited by Kenneth A. Mathews and David S. Dockery. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999. - Firth, David G. *Including the Stranger: Foreigners in the Former Prophets*. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2019. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Mosaic Authorship of Deuteronomy](https://www.livestransforming.com/mosaic-authorship-of-deuteronomy/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Mosaic Authorship of Deuteronomy [![The Gospel according to Moses 182x300 - Mosaic Authorship of Deuteronomy](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Gospel-according-to-Moses-182x300.jpg "Mosaic Authorship of Deuteronomy - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DU0RPh)The Gospel according to Moses During Moses’s lifetime, neither the alphabet nor a fully functional language, such as Hebrew, even existed. Moses could not have possibly known all the content written in the Pentateuch that occurred long after he lived. Accordingly, the reason for anonymity is obvious. No one individual would take credit for a document pieced together over hundreds of years by various sources. In sum, the Pentateuch’s phrase “Moses wrote” must be discarded. So go the arguments of historical criticism. However, Daniel Block provides two other options. First, Deuteronomy’s anonymity is consistent with other books of the Old Testament.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Second, Block also points out that, in order to accentuate the message, it is rare that any Mesopotamian document states the name of the author.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) If the ancient Israelites thought that the recognition of the author might, in some way, diminish the readers focus on the message, then one would expect that anonymity would be the norm. The foundation for Block’s reconstruction of the book of Deuteronomy is built upon a framework established by three participants: Yahweh, Moses, and a narrator(s). Identifying these three voices, in some ways, is rather straightforward. For example, Deuteronomy 31:14 begins, “And the Lord said,” and Deuteronomy 32:44 states that “Moses came and recited all the words” thus, the textual sources are obviously attributed to Yahweh and Moses, respectively. However, a narrator referring to Moses at various times in the third person is evidence of a third participant. Based on the framework established by the three participants, Block then asserts that the content from Deuteronomy provides the internal evidence necessary to understand the development of the text.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Block provides three specific pieces of evidence. First, based on texts such as Deuteronomy 4:12-14, 5:22; 9:9-17, and 10:1-5, the Decalogue was “pre-existent canonical Scripture.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Second, the internal evidence also supports a first edition of the Torah with both an oral (cf. 1:5) and a written aspect (cf. 17:18-20).[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Third, evidence also exists for a second edition of the Torah, a supplement given to Moses and Joshua in the Tent of Meeting that was written and attached to the first edition.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Arising from the framework of participants and internal textual evidence, Block then reconstructs the development of the book of Deuteronomy in seven stages. According to Block, the Decalogue was Israel’s first canonical text, then Moses’s second speech was added, followed by the integration of the “Song of Yahweh” revealed through a theophanic visit.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The two additional speeches of Moses were then placed into the corpus prior to a narrator integrating Moses’s benediction, several preambles and conclusions, and finally, the entire book of Deuteronomy into the Pentateuch.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Merits to Block’s proposal abound. First, Block takes the text seriously. Although the statement may sound naïve or condescending, it is difficult to understand how critical scholars, at times, seem to take the texts from authors like Homer more seriously than the text of Scripture. Second, Block avoids unnecessary extremes. Block acknowledges that the text points to authors that exist in addition to or in participation with Moses, and he avoids an all-or-nothing approach. Third, Block provides internal textual evidence to support his perspective. The evidence of a pre-existent canon and a progressive evolution of content within the book of Deuteronomy itself are compelling. Fourth, Block utilizes sound logic to reconstruct a proposed [literary development of Deuteronomy](https://www.livestransforming.com/mosaic-authorship-of-deuteronomy/). Based on the evidence supporting both oral and written content, Block not only provides a coherent reconstruction, but also an approach that is sensitive to the inerrancy of Scripture. Block’s proposal differs from critical scholarship in several ways. However, first, the mention of a few themes relevant to a critical analysis of Mosaic authorship is in order. Questioning Mosaic authorship took off when Benedict de Spinoza highlighted the third-person references and anachronisms within the Pentateuch, which caused him to conclude that it is “clearer than the sun at noonday that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses, but by someone who lived long after Moses.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) As a result of the rejection of Mosaic authorship, the attempt to identify the anonymous authors began in earnest. In sum, repetition, potential contradictions, and anachronistic observations were considered evidence for a multiplicity of distinct authors.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Efforts by Julius Wellhausen and others ultimately led to the scholarly acceptance of a late date of the Pentateuch written by various anonymous authors.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Block’s proposal avoids many of the pitfalls of critical scholarship. Block recognizes supplemental material exists without the necessity of moving the date of the original content centuries later than Moses. Block recognizes various sources without the need to reject Moses as an author. Block recognizes that third person and anachronistic content is due to the participation of a narrator, rather than undermining the integrity of Scripture or denying Moses’s historicity. Block himself asserts that he not only holds to the inerrancy of Scripture, but that he is in sharp contrast with historical criticism by dating Deuteronomy four centuries earlier, accepting Moses’s historicity, and taking the text seriously.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Block asserts that expressions such as the “‘Book of Moses,’ and ‘Torah of Moses,’ do not demand that Moses’s own hand produced the book.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) In a sense, Block’s assertion is correct. Duane Christensen and Marcel Narucki provide an interesting analogy. They explain that someone highly interested in physics or chemistry may state that they looked up the word “nuclear fission” in Webster’s dictionary even though Noah Webster died in 1843.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Would the person be lying? Christensen and Narucki suggest that the answer is negative and also claim that when Jesus refers to the phrase, words of Moses, He is simply saying, “It stands written in the books that you and I recognize as the Torah of Moses, the Pentateuch.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) The analogy is not perfect, but the point is that a piece of intellectual property can be properly and correctly ascribed to an individual without exhaustive participation. Furthermore, if a scribe wrote the words of Moses’s speech down on a piece of papyrus, it seems that although Moses’s hand did not produce the written text, it would certainly be attributed to Moses. On the other hand, if Block suggests, which it does not appear that he does, that Moses’s hand did not write any of the book or that Moses’s figurative “hand” was not part of the composition as a whole, then Block misses the mark. Block’s chapter has informed my understanding of Mosaic authorship in four ways. First, although I have never denied the inerrancy of Scripture, Block’s analysis affirms, confirms, and assures me of the doctrine, especially with regards to the book of Deuteronomy. Second, Block has enhanced my psychological flexibility regarding the application of the inspiration of Scripture, which moves beyond letters and encompasses a broad stroke of communicative activities, while simultaneously providing proper boundaries for the doctrine of inerrancy. Third, Block provides additional support for the sovereignty of God throughout history. Similar to God’s hand in the *Pax Romana* or the Jewish dispersions, the readers can see His perfect timing in humanity’s developmental utilization of letters, literacy, and language to reveal Himself to His creation. Finally, Block enhanced my cognitive abilities by encouraging creative thinking and interpretive integration of disparate topics and concepts in his analysis of Mosaic authorship. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Daniel I. Block, *The Gospel According to Moses: Theological and Ethical Reflections on the Book of Deuteronomy* (Eugene: Cascade, 2012), 22. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 23. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 31. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 33–38. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 39–40. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 41–42. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 42–43. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Benedict de Spinoza, *The Chief Works of Benedict de Spinoza: Introduction, Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, Tractatus Politicus*, trans. R. H. M. Elwes, Revised., vol. 1, Bohn’s Philosophical Library (London: George Bell and Sons, 1891), 124. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Thomas B. Dozeman, “The Authorship of the Pentateuch,” *Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought* 32, no. 4 (1999): 94. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 105. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Block, *The Gospel*, 51fn94. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 45–46. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Duane L Christensen and Marcel Narucki, “The Mosaic Authorship of the Pentateuch,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 32, no. 4 (December 1989): 468. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid. # Bibliography - Block, Daniel I. *The Gospel According to Moses: Theological and Ethical Reflections on the Book of Deuteronomy*. Eugene: Cascade, 2012. - Christensen, Duane L, and Marcel Narucki. “The Mosaic Authorship of the Pentateuch.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 32, no. 4 (December 1989): 465–471. - Dozeman, Thomas B. “The Authorship of the Pentateuch.” *Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought* 32, no. 4 (1999): 87–112. - Spinoza, Benedict de. *The Chief Works of Benedict de Spinoza: Introduction, Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, Tractatus Politicus*. Translated by R. H. M. Elwes. Revised. Vol. 1. Bohn’s Philosophical Library. London: George Bell and Sons, 1891. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [David’s Swan Song in 2 Samuel 23.1-7](https://www.livestransforming.com/davids-swan-song-in-2-samuel-23-1-7/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # David’s Swan Song in 2 Samuel 23.1-7 The meaning and purpose of any passage of Scripture arise first and foremost from its context. Scholars have recognized that David’s swan song in 2 Samuel 23:1-7 resides within a chiastic structure in the final chapters of the books of Samuel. Grace Ko identifies six elements to the chiasm, which include two narratives, two lists of warriors, and two poems: A: Famine: Divine Judgement on Saul’s sin (21:1-14) B List of David’s warriors (21:15-22) C David’s Song of Thanksgiving (22:1-51) C’ David’s last words (23:1-7) B’ List of David’s warriors (23:8-39) A’ Plague: Divine punishment on David’s sin (24:1-25)[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The form and structure of Samuel’s conclusion shed light on the purpose of the books of Samuel as a whole and, in turn, provide insight into the purpose of David’s swan song. The outer tier of the chiasm focuses on the consequences of unrighteous kingship, while the middle tier highlights God’s providence and involvement in building the kingdom of Israel. However, the core of the chiasm consists of two Davidic poems that fully integrate Yahweh’s involvement. According to Ko, the chiastic core celebrates Yahweh’s attributes, commemorates Yahweh’s election of David, and spells out the ideal attributes of kingship: justice and righteousness.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The attributes of kingship provide the foundation for the purpose of David’s swan song. Accordingly, in agreement with David Tsumura, the purpose of David’s final words is to declare that “if his successors are guided by righteous principles of government, his dynasty, under the blessing of God, will be established and prosper.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) David’s swan song is a short poem that is long on metaphors, and the poetic devices of David’s swan song, at times, provide relational connections to [ancient Near Eastern literature](https://www.livestransforming.com/ancient-near-east-background-of-the-bible/) that enhance the meaning of the text. According to Tsumura, the long title in verse 1 parallels certain Egyptian poetry such as “The Great Hymn to the Aten,” and the noun “raised” likely refers to David’s divine inauguration to kingship.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The phrase, “word is on my tongue,” in verse 2 is also an important poetic literary device.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) P. Kyle McCarter explains that David’s language suggests that he is representing himself as a prophet communicating a message to the whole nation of Israel.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Additionally, according to Arnold Anderson, the metaphors in verse 3 appear rather self-evident as the author uses the word “Rock” to metaphorically refer to God in the restatement of the second line and uses the “fear of God” to suggest living in a relationship of awe with Yahweh in the final line of the verse.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The central metaphor of the poem occurs in verse 3 with a comparison between a just rulership and the light, the sun, and the rain in verse 4. The author states that the ruler “dawns on them like the morning light, like the sun shining forth on a cloudless morning, like rain that makes grass to sprout from the earth” (Judg 23:4). The metaphorical meaning is apparent. Just rulers provide the same beneficial influence upon followers as the sun and rain provide to grass; both the followers and the grass thrive. Importantly, McCarter explains that strong connections exist between the concept of kingship and the imagery of the sun within the thematic content of the ancient Near East.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) For example, in Egyptian literature, a hymn to Amon-re states, “The lord of rays, who makes brilliance…, who extends his arms to him whom he loves, (but) his enemy is consumed by a flame.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Additionally, McCarter notes that in Ugaritic correspondence Hittite kings are referred to using the title “Sun.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Finally, Mesopotamian literature also provides similar imagery. In the Code of Hammurabi, the Babylonian king says to “rise like the sun over the black-headed (people), and light up the land,” for the king is “the sun of Babylon, who causes light to go forth over the lands of Sumer and Akkad.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Additional references regarding the role of the king in the ancient Near East and how the ancient kings perceived themselves also informs the discussion. Jeffrey Niehaus explains that in Egypt Ra, the sun god, was both creator and king, and Egypt’s solar god was considered a good shepherd.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Furthermore, in Sumerian and Babylonian literature, kingship had its roots in the concept of a god who takes on the role of a shepherd.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) [![1 2 Samuel An Introduction And Survey 182x300 - David’s Swan Song in 2 Samuel 23.1-7](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/1-2-Samuel_-An-Introduction-And-Survey-182x300.jpg "David’s Swan Song in 2 Samuel 23.1-7 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4amxYYx)1 & 2 Samuel\_ An Introduction And Survey In sum, kingship in the ancient Near East had overtones of both the sun as a source of life and as a shepherd who protected the flock. It is within the context of just rulership that Tsumura asserts that verse 5 refers to the eternal covenant God made with David in 2 Samuel 7, “an everlasting covenant, ordered in all things and secure” (2 Sam 23:5). Alternatively, verses 6-7 contrast righteous kingship by using the metaphorical language of thorns, irons, spears, and an all-consuming fire. According to David Firth, the termבְּלִיַּ֫עַל personifies wickedness and contrasts with righteousness, and בְּלִיַּ֫עַל is also like thorns that cannot be grasped by a human hand without pain, which contrasts with the sprouting or growth that results from the leadership of a righteous king.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) The ultimate outcomes of the unjust rulers were dealt with using an iron and shaft, which merismatically refers to the weapon necessary to overtake the wickedness of a ruler whose is destined to be consumed by fire.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) It is now evident how comparative analysis affects the reading of David’s song. Rulers in the ancient Near East were considered the source of life. Like the morning sunshine upon a rosebud trying to bloom, the leader’s role was to be a source of nourishment that facilitated growth. Like the rain falling upon a newly planted seed trying desperately to crack open its hard, dry shell, the ruler provides the resources necessary for followers to thrive. Like the original occupation of King David, the leaders become the shepherd, the protector, and the servant. It is just such a Servant who will eventually fulfill the everlasting covenant that brings order and security in all things now and forever. **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Grace Ko, “2 Samuel 21-24: A Theological Reflection on Israel’s Kingship,” *Old Testament Essays* 31, no. 1 (2018): 114–116. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 128–129. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) David Toshio Tsumura, *The Second Book of Samuel*, ed. E. J. Young, R. K. Harrison, and Robert L. Hubbard, New International Commentary on the Old and New Testament (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2019), 323. See also Samuel Driver, *Notes on the Hebrew Text and the Topography of the Book of Samuel* (Oxford: Clarendon, 1913), 361–362. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Tsumura, *The Second Book of Samuel*, 324. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) P. Kyle McCarter, *II Samuel*, vol. 9 of *The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries* (Garden City, New York: Anchor Bible, 1984), 480–481. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Arnold A. Anderson, *2 Samuel*, vol. 11 of *Word Biblical Commentary* (Dallas: Word, 1989), 325. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) McCarter, *II Samuel*, 9:484. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) James Bennett Pritchard, *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*, 3rd ed. with Supplement. (Princeton: Princeton University, 1969), 365. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) McCarter, *II Samuel*, 9:484. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Pritchard, *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*, 164. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Jeffrey J. Niehaus, *Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology* (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic & Professional, 2008), 34–35. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 41–50. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) David G. Firth, *1 and 2 Samuel* (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2009), 528. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid. # Bibliography - Anderson, Arnold A. *2 Samuel*. Vol. 11 of *Word Biblical Commentary*. Dallas: Word, 1989. - Driver, Samuel. *Notes on the Hebrew Text and the Topography of the Book of Samuel*. Oxford: Clarendon, 1913. - Firth, David G. *1 and 2 Samuel*. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2009. - Ko, Grace. “2 Samuel 21-24: A Theological Reflection on Israel’s Kingship.” *Old Testament Essays* 31, no. 1 (2018): 114–134. - McCarter, P. Kyle. *II Samuel*. Vol. 9 of *The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries*. Garden City, New York: Anchor Bible, 1984. - Niehaus, Jeffrey J. *Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology*. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic & Professional, 2008. - Pritchard, James Bennett. *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*. 3rd ed. with Supplement. Princeton: Princeton University, 1969. - Tsumura, David Toshio. *The Second Book of Samuel*. Edited by E. J. Young, R. K. Harrison, and Robert L. Hubbard. New International Commentary on the Old and New Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2019. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [The Biblical Creation Account](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-biblical-creation-account/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Biblical Creation Account Kenneth Turner provides insightful advice gift-wrapped in wisdom for those who may easily lose sight of the broader landscape of non-negotiables of the creation account. Turner presents seven ways to maintain balance between emphasis and priority, or, more informally, keeping the main thing the main thing. Numerous initiatives assist the student in avoiding the pitfalls of emphasizing secondary issues above the primary issues regarding the biblical creation account. First, biblical inerrancy is non-negotiable. Some contend that inerrancy is the doctrine by which evangelicalism stands or falls.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Since evangelical scholars cannot agree on whether Genesis 1-2 is literal or literary, at least evangelical scholars can agree on the basic tenet of inerrancy. Unfortunately, that is also not true. Even evangelical views of inerrancy are hotly debated.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, before throwing out the heretic label, it is necessary to deeply understand the nuances of the perspective, regardless of whether the discussion centers on inerrancy, creation, or other topics of biblical theology. For the purpose of this brief analysis, the assumption is that inerrancy is the “doctrine that the Bible is fully truthful in all of its teachings.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) [![Reading Genesis 1 2 An Evangelical Conversation 182x300 - The Biblical Creation Account](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Reading-Genesis-1-2_-An-Evangelical-Conversation-182x300.jpg "The Biblical Creation Account - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4h3ga6F)Reading Genesis 1-2\_ An Evangelical Conversation Without question, the doctrine of inerrancy must be a primary focus when engaging the text of Genesis 1-2. Second, Yahweh as creator is non-negotiable. Turner explains that Genesis 1 is about glorifying God, challenging pagan views of the ancient Near East, and celebrating the creation of humanity.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Regardless whether Genesis 1 is literary or literalistic, functional or material, or compared and contrasted to the ancient Near East, one thing is certain: Yahweh created it all. Accordingly, worship must follow. Although asserting that Genesis 1-2 is solely a polemic against the ancient Near Eastern worldview takes the argument too far, it would be difficult to believe that the author did not intend to tell the story in a way that an ancient Israelite would understand. Accordingly, comparing and contrasting the biblical account of creation with the ancient cognitive environment provides an opportunity to read the account in its ancient context, which may enhance understanding. Third, Genesis 1-2 is not a scientific essay, which is another non-negotiable. Granted, engaging the scientific community, and exploring those potential relationships is not off limits. However, reading science back into the creation account is not only anachronistic, but completely misses the purpose of the first two chapters of Scripture. Accordingly, Turner suggests that more involvement of Old Testament scholars is necessary to seek authorial intent as well as the literary, historical, and theological context of the text.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Furthermore, Bruce Waltke contends that, rather than a scientific exposition, the purpose of the creation account is to ground the “covenant people’s worship and life in the Creator.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Fourth, humility is non-negotiable. The magisterial account of creation alongside the stunning display of the universe must cause even the most ardent scientist to pause. To suggest that humanity even has a glimpse into what it really takes to create, whether *ex nihilo* or functionally, vastly overstates the capacity of humanity. Accordingly, Turner correctly explains that interpretive differences may arise, and it is uncharitable “to insist that anyone else who disagrees with one’s own position is dubious or duplicitous in motive.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) A patient and humble attitude is non-negotiable when interpreting Genesis 1-2. In light of the soliloquy chronicled in the previous paragraph, great care must be taken in either affirming or refuting the traditional view. Several concepts identified by Jud Davis would support a continued affirmation of the traditional view of Genesis 1-2. However, the handling of the biblical creation account by the New Testament authors may be the most important. Two examples will suffice. First, in Mark 10:6, Jesus states, “But from the beginning of creation, ‘God made them male and female.’” [\[8\]](#_ftn8) Without digging too deeply into the details in this brief essay, it is sufficient to simply point out that there is no reason to believe that Jesus’s statement was referring to a literary device or something other than two real individuals. Second, Paul’s language in Romans, which asserts that death spread to all man through one man, certainly appears to suggest a real, rather than a literary or figurative man. Tom Schreiner concurs by stating, “There is little doubt that Paul believed he \[Adam\] was historical.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Although refuting the traditional view certainly has its risks, with the non-negotiables firmly in place, attempts to resolve the seven obstacles identified by Davis may be at least partially possible without undermining the tenets of evangelicalism. First, although it does appear that Mark 10:6 and other [New Testament passages](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/) affirm the Genesis account with very similar language, the agreement does not necessarily preclude a non-literal reading. For example, if the first two books of Genesis were literary, one would not expect the New Testament writers to utilize language different than Genesis to move its meaning to a more literal reading. Instead one would expect the New Testament writers to authentically represent the Genesis account as it stands. Second, some scholars use the argument that no evidence exists in the ancient, medieval, or modern commentaries to support a non-literal view of Genesis. It is ironic that the Reformers were so adamantly opposed to tradition, yet evangelicals find their own traditions to hold onto tightly. Granted, the traditional approach does not rise to the authority of a papal bull, but the analogy is relevant. Furthermore, in areas of texts that are not scientific, but may be interpreted scientifically, the church tradition has a less than stellar track record. At this juncture, simply pointing to, without rehashing, Galileo’s proofs of Copernicus’s heliocentric model of the universe is sufficient. Third, regarding the need for the importance of numbers and timelines, it would seem that if the creation account were deeply concerned about getting the chronology exactly correct, the Bible could have clearly documented the arithmetic. Fourth, regarding the need for clarification on inerrancy, according to Article 12 of the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, it appears that inerrancy covers science in Scripture, but if Genesis 1-2 is not a scientific essay, then attempting to provide a inerrant scientific explanation appears tenuous. Fifth, scholars continue spending hours attempting to clarify the definition of the phrase יוֹם אֶחָד, but it is likely to literally mean one twenty-four-hour day. However, the literal meaning of the word will simply not mean the same as a contextually based literary meaning, regardless how many times the ancient texts use the phrase literally. Finally, it is certainly true that more discussions with Christians within the discipline of science is valuable. However, if Genesis 1-2 is not a scientific essay, using science to prove the reality of inerrant Scripture that is already true seems unnecessary. In sum, it appears that focusing on the non-negotiables is key when interpreting Genesis 1-2 with well-meaning, intelligent laymen and scholars. The Bible is inerrant, Yahweh is the creator of everything, Genesis 1-2 is not a scientific essay, and humility is an absolute must. With these non-negotiables in hand, I can honestly assert that I do not have the answers to how to interpret Genesis 1-2, but I stand in awe of the Creator of the universe who somehow in all His majesty deeply loves His creation. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) R. Albert Mohler et al., *Five Views on Biblical Inerrancy*, ed. J. Merrick, Stephen M. Garrett, and Stanley N. Gundry (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2013), 9. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 11–12. See the contentious discussion regarding the calling for Robert Gundry’s resignation from the Evangelical Theological Society in 1983 by Norman Geisler. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Millard J. Erickson, *Christian Theology*, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013), 188. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Richard Averbeck et al., *Reading Genesis 1-2: An Evangelical Conversation*, ed. J. Daryl Charles (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2013), 191–192. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 200–201. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Bruce K. Waltke, “The Literary Genre of Genesis, Chapter One,” *Crux* 27, no. 4 (December 1991): 9. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Averbeck et al., *Reading Genesis 1-2*, 194. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Thomas R. Schreiner, Robert Yarbrough, and Joshua Jipp, *Romans*, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 277. # Bibliography - Averbeck, Richard, Todd S. Beall, C. John Collins, Jud Davis, and Victor P. Hamilton. *Reading Genesis 1-2: An Evangelical Conversation*. Edited by J. Daryl Charles. Peabody: Hendrickson, 2013. - Erickson, Millard J. *Christian Theology*. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013. - Mohler, R. Albert, Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Michael F. Bird, Peter Enns, and John R. Franke. *Five Views on Biblical Inerrancy*. Edited by J. Merrick, Stephen M. Garrett, and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2013. - Schreiner, Thomas R., Robert Yarbrough, and Joshua Jipp. *Romans*. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018. - Waltke, Bruce K. “The Literary Genre of Genesis, Chapter One.” *Crux* 27, no. 4 (December 1991): 2–10. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Evangelical Perspectives of Genesis 1-2](https://www.livestransforming.com/evangelical-perspectives-of-genesis-1-2/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Evangelical Perspectives of Genesis 1-2 ## **Discussion Board Prompt** Having read chapters 1 through 5 of Reading Genesis 1-2: An Evangelical Conversation, respond to the following two prompts in an initial post, followed by discussion with peers: 1. Based on the presentation of each position from the book, state the point from each chapter that you believe presents the strongest argument for that position. This of course does not mean that you agree with the ultimate conclusions of each position, but you should recognize a sound exegetical argument for what it is (whether based in literary, historical, or theological support). Be sure to articulate the “strong argument” from each position with clarity, and state why you think that particular point carries “strength of argument.” 2. Based on the presentation of each position from the book, state (in your opinion) what you believe is the weakest argument from each position. In other words, where (specifically) does the position encounter exegetical or philosophical problems that weaken the overall plausibility of the position? As you read through the positions you will likely favor one over the others; even so, be honest in assessing any potential weaknesses within that position. In discussion, remember to keep any criticism of others within the scope of collegial “conversation.” Within evangelical scholarship, over the past decade, there has been renewed interest in the “hermeneutics” of Genesis 1-11 (in particular, 1-2), and it is in the interest of furthering this conversation that we have discussion around this topic with our peers. Our focus is on the hermeneutical approaches to the text… less so on matters of science that relate to general positions in terms of creation (although some of this may come into play… keep the focus where it belongs). ## **Discussion Board 1[\[1\]](#_ftn1)** [![Reading Genesis 1 2 An Evangelical Conversation 182x300 - Evangelical Perspectives of Genesis 1-2](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Reading-Genesis-1-2_-An-Evangelical-Conversation-182x300.jpg "Evangelical Perspectives of Genesis 1-2 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4h3ga6F)Reading Genesis 1-2\_ An Evangelical Conversation Richard Averbeck provides what he calls a literary day, inter-textual, and contextual reading of Genesis 1-2. Averbeck’s approach is, for the most part, a non-literal reading of Genesis 1-2 that is significantly informed by [an ancient Near Eastern context](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-ancient-near-east-context/). Although not completely coherent, his Hebrew syntax analysis, lexical study, and intertextual examination is insightful. However, because the author of Genesis told the story in a way that would make sense to the ancient Israelite readers, Averbeck’s strongest argument for a non-literal contextual reading resides in the parallels with the ancient Near East. While carefully avoiding direct borrowing, Averbeck compares and contrasts Genesis 1-2 with the ancient literature of Mesopotamia, Ugarit, and Egypt in order to illuminate the meaning of the text. Averbeck’s weakest argument is his attempt to avoid literalism by explaining that the seven-day structure of the week is an analogical initiative to reinforce the rhythm of life for the ancient Israelites. Even Averbeck admits that there is “no other seven-day creation story in the Bible or the ancient Near East.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) His argument is that God’s efforts provide an analogical pattern for the Israelites’ work week and God’s rest is analogically or anthropomorphically patterned after the ancient Near Eastern temple residences of the gods. Averbeck’s connections are not illogical, they simply lack evidence, and thus, provide a weak argument. Todd Beall approaches Genesis 1-2 utilizing a literalistic approach to the text. Genesis 1-2 is considered historical narrative and ought to be viewed as history. Beall’s strongest argument is the intertextual connections between the Old Testament and the New Testament. Although not all New Testament references to the book of Genesis are equally clear, it is difficult to dismiss every reference as neither literal nor historical. For example, Paul states that “Adam was formed first, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived, but the woman was deceived and became a transgressor” (1 Tim 2:13-14).[\[3\]](#_ftn3) It is difficult to understand this passage as Paul referring to somebody other than real individuals, a man named Adam and a woman named Eve. Beall appears to stake a significant portion of his argument upon the utilization of a consistent genre when interpreting all fifty chapters of Genesis. Unfortunately, the cornerstone of Beall’s polemic appears to be the weakest argument due to the nature of genre classification. Grant Osborne observes significant overlap between genres within any given text. For example, epistolary content can appear in various genres such as narratives or apocalyptic material (cf. Rev 2-3). Certain scholars even suggest that “every form contains all genres and so is ‘non-genre’ because each type actually comprises a mixture of genres.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Clearly, the diversity of genre can be taken to an inappropriate extreme. However, to suggest that a book, chapter, or even pericope requires a completely consistent genre appears to miss the point of genre and sub-genre analysis. John Collins’s view appears to be a non-literal reading that rests on the idea that the six days of creation were analogical days rather than the first days of the universe. Collins’s strongest argument is the reading of Genesis 1-11 as a coherent whole because the literary context of any passage provides the basis for its meaning. By pointing out the coherence of the chapters within the broader ancient Near Eastern context and linking the content of chapters 1-11 together, Collins provides a strong argument for integration that highlights the meaning of the first two chapters. From the foundational argument of unity, Collins then teases out the details of his overarching assertion of analogical days. Collins’s weakest argument centers upon his reasoning around Genesis 1:1 with regard to his syntactical and lexical analysis. First, Collins asserts that Genesis “begins with God creating everything.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) However, all Hebrew Bibles that have pointing show a vocal *shewa* (בְּרֵאשִׁ֖ית) under the *bet*; thus, no definite article exists. Accordingly, the first verse is rendered syntactically as a dependent clause, “When God began…” (Gen 1:1). For Collins to assert that verse 1 is the absolute beginning, he must address and overcome the issues surrounding syntax. Furthermore, Collins also claims that verse 1 clearly implies that God “created from nothing.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Although the verb ברא can mean creation *ex nihilo*, it is not required to mean out of nothing (cf. Gen 2:7). Tremper Longman argues for a non-literal literary approach to Genesis 1-2 while suggesting that the biblical creation account has nothing to do with *how* God created the universe. The strongest argument proposed by Longman is his assessment of genre, and more specifically, the observation of pervasive figurative language within the first two chapters of Genesis. For example, Genesis 2:7 states, “The Lord God formed the man of dust from the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life.” Without question, God does not have lungs and thus does not actually breathe on dust to create a human. The anthropomorphic language is not explaining how God literally created man. Accordingly, Bruce Waltke suggests that Genesis provides a “literary-artistic” genre with the purpose of communicating a theological message.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) In sum, Genesis is not science and is not explaining how creation happened in a literal way. The weakest argument pertains to Longman’s use of intertextuality. Longman provides a brief analysis of parallel creation accounts from the Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. Under normal circumstances, intertextual analysis would contribute significantly to the breadth and depth of the passage under study. However, one would always expect to find figurative language within the creation accounts written in poetry regardless whether the language was attempting to convey a literal description of history. Accordingly, the intertextual examination adds very little to the overall argument of a non-literal reading of Genesis 1-2. John Walton asserts that Genesis 1 ought to be read as ancient cosmology. More specifically, the creation referred to in Genesis 1 is not materialistic, but instead, a functional creation. Walton’s strongest argument arises from a clear reading of the text in light of the cognitive contextual environment of the ancient Near East. Although few scholars prior to Walton focused on the topic, when God began creating the heavens and the earth, “The earth was without form and void” (Gen 1:1-2). In other words, at the start of the magisterial story, earth material already existed. Walton then supports the plain reading of the text and the functional aspects of the creative process with Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Sumerian parallels that explicate the cognitive environment of the ancient Near East.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Walton’s weakest argument also pertains to his functional perspective of creation. The challenge to Walton’s argument can be summarized in the following colloquialism: everything is good until it is not. The contribution of Walton’s work should not be underestimated. However, a plain reading of the text also makes it difficult to conclude that every instance of the creative process in Genesis 1-2 pertains to functionality. For example, in Genesis 2:7-8, God formed the man and then formed the woman from the man. It is difficult to imagine that Genesis 2 had nothing to do with material creation, and that God solely added functionality to a humankind that already existed. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Richard Averbeck et al., *Reading Genesis 1-2: An Evangelical Conversation*, ed. J. Daryl Charles (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2013). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 27. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Grant R Osborne, “Genre Criticism: Sensus Literalis,” *Trinity Journal* 4, no. 2 (1983): 7. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Averbeck et al., *Reading Genesis 1-2*, 89. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Bruce K. Waltke, “The Literary Genre of Genesis, Chapter One,” *Crux* 27, no. 4 (December 1991): 9. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) John H. Walton, *The Lost World of Genesis One: Ancient Cosmology and the Origins Debate* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2009), 21–34. # Bibliography - Averbeck, Richard, Todd S. Beall, C. John Collins, Jud Davis, and Victor P. Hamilton. *Reading Genesis 1-2: An Evangelical Conversation*. Edited by J. Daryl Charles. Peabody: Hendrickson, 2013. - Osborne, Grant R. “Genre Criticism: Sensus Literalis.” *Trinity Journal* 4, no. 2 (1983): 1–27. - Waltke, Bruce K. “The Literary Genre of Genesis, Chapter One.” *Crux* 27, no. 4 (December 1991): 2–10. - Walton, John H. *The Lost World of Genesis One: Ancient Cosmology and the Origins Debate*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2009. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [The Spirit in Biblical Interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-spirit-in-biblical-interpretation/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Spirit in Biblical Interpretation The role of the Holy Spirit in the hermeneutical process rests on an understanding of both objective and subjective authority. Millard Erickson explains that for Christians the objective basis of authority is Scripture, whereas the subjective basis of authority is the Holy Spirit’s illuminating power and persuasive initiatives.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Without question, both are needed. However, the question remains as to the nature of the relationship between the two. On the one hand, some, such as staunch fundamentalists, may emphasize the objective authority of Scripture to the practical exclusion of the Spirit, while others, such as certain charismatic groups, may emphasize the Spirit and relegate Scripture to a mere after-thought. A proper understanding of authority must establish a complementary relationship between both the objective and subjective aspects of authority. Bifurcating the objective and subjective nature of authority causes significant concerns. For example, when identifying the Spirit’s role in interpretation, Daniel Fuller separates human reason from human will by suggesting that the Spirit takes no part in the cognitive interpretive process, but instead, only influences the heart of the interpreter.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Certainly, human reason is necessary for proper interpretation, but to exclude the Spirit from the interpretive process misses the point. Darrell Bock provides a more appropriate perspective by asserting that the Spirit’s role has more to do with prompting an openness and willingness to receive the message of Scripture than in providing the content of Scripture.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) [![Gods Empowering Presence The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul 182x300 - The Spirit in Biblical Interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Gods-Empowering-Presence_-The-Holy-Spirit-in-the-Letters-of-Paul-182x300.jpg "The Spirit in Biblical Interpretation - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3Pp9d47)God’s Empowering Presence\_ The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul In other words, the Spirit does have a role in exegetical analysis by providing interpretive insight into the objective authority of Scripture by illuminating the study of grammar, syntax, history, geography and other disciplines, which in no way negates the necessity of these disciplines. However, it is not unreasonable to conclude that illumination of the Spirit may have more to do with the appropriation of Scripture into a believer’s life than the cognitive interpretive process. Regardless, without a Spirit-guided deployment of exegetical tools for the proper interpretation of Scripture, the content appropriated would likely be faulty. Accordingly, the objective authority of Scripture and the subjective authority of the Spirit must remain two sides of the same coin. Regarding 1 Corinthians 2:13, the context of the pericope does not undermine the importance of using exegetical tools to obtain a proper understanding of Scripture. In fact, just a few verses earlier in verse 9, Paul appears to provide a loose quotation from Isaiah 64:4, and a few verses later in verse 16, Paul quotes a question from Isaiah 40:13. It would seem unreasonable to suggest that Paul ignored the grammar, historical background, and other exegetical initiatives likely taught to him by Gamaliel when referencing these Scriptures. Furthermore, the immediate literary context of verse 13 read in light of verses 14-16 suggests that [Paul’s point](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-meaning-of-in-christ/) was not that human reason must be avoided, but that human understanding cannot comprehend divine realities without the aid of the Spirit. Finally, although the final phrase of verse 13, πνεύματος, πνευματικοῖς πνευματικὰ, is admittedly difficult to interpret, Gordon Fee suggests the grammar supports a translation that highlights the necessity of the Spirit’s involvement in communicating spiritual concepts.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In sum, without diminishing the necessity of proper Spirit-guided exegetical analysis via human reason, Paul’s language in verse 13 is asserting that the communication of spiritual truths moves beyond the capacity of human reason and requires the power of the Holy Spirit. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Millard J. Erickson, *Christian Theology*, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013), 221. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Daniel Fuller, “The Holy Spirit’s Role in Biblical Interpretation,” *International Journal of Frontier Missions* 14, no. 2 (April-June 1997): 92. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Darrell L. Bock, “Opening Questions: Definition and Philosophy of Exegesis,” in *Opening Questions*, ed. Darrell L. Bock and Buist M. Fanning (Wheaton: Crossway, 2006), 31; emphasis added. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Gordon D. Fee, *God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1994), 105. Fee explains that the participial construction demands a close link to the previous content and the anarthrous πνευματικοῖς suggests that the adjective likely does not pertain to a class of individuals, see 104-5n37. ## Bibliography - Bock, Darrell L. “Opening Questions: Definition and Philosophy of Exegesis.” In *Opening Questions*, edited by Darrell L. Bock and Buist M. Fanning. Wheaton: Crossway, 2006. - Erickson, Millard J. *Christian Theology*. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013. - Fee, Gordon D. *God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1994. - Fuller, Daniel. “The Holy Spirit’s Role in Biblical Interpretation.” *International Journal of Frontier Missions* 14, no. 2 (April-June 1997): 91–95. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Holy Spirit in Revelation](https://www.livestransforming.com/holy-spirit-in-revelation/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Holy Spirit in Revelation ## **The Spirit of Prophecy: Outline[\[1\]](#_ftn1)** 1. Introduction: An exploration of the ways the book of Revelation describes the Holy Spirit. 2. The Spirit of God: The question pertains to the identification of the seven spirits referred to in Revelation 1:4. 3. Seven Angels: One possibility is that the seven spirits refer to seven angels because angels and spirits are used interchangeably in the Dead Sea Scrolls. 4. Sevenfold Spirit: Another possibility is that the seven spirits refer to the Spirit due to its trinitarian source of grace and peace, which aligns with other biblical allusions. 5. Conclusion: Brian Tabb argues that the seven spirits in Revelation and the broader biblical context point to John’s unique idiom that refers to the Holy Spirit. [![All Things New Revelation as Canonical Capstone 182x300 - Holy Spirit in Revelation](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/All-Things-New-Revelation-as-Canonical-Capstone-182x300.jpg "Holy Spirit in Revelation - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3CspQZE)All Things New: Revelation as Canonical Capstone (Volume 48) (New Studies in Biblical Theology) III. The Spirit of Vision: The question pertains to the meaning of “in the Spirit” as John is carried away in the Spirit in four different passages (1:10; 4:2; 17:3; 21:10, English Standard Version). 1. In the Spirit: Scholars suggest various options for the meaning of in the Spirit, which include a trance, participation in the Spirit, or simply the communication process. 2. Revelation 1:10; 4:1-2: Richard Bauckham contends that 1:10 indicates a type of trance, while 4:1-2 refers to John being raptured to heaven. 3. Conclusion: Tabb argues that the phrase “in the Spirit” points to John being a true prophet who receives revelation from the Holy Spirit as other biblical prophets. 4. The Spirit of Resurrection Life: The question pertains to how to understand the reversal in Revelation 11:11, which describes the resurrection of two witnesses via God’s breath of life. 5. Revelation 11:3-13: Two witnesses testify for 1,260 days. A beast rises and kills the witnesses. After three and a half days, the two witnesses raise from the dead. 6. Ezekiel 36-37: The story of the two witnesses appears to be a direct allusion to the dry bones episode in Ezekiel where the Spirit’s breath brings new life. 7. Conclusion: Tabb argues that the resurrection of the two witnesses recalls Ezekiel’s vision of Israel’s resurrection from exile and Jesus’s resurrection. 8. The Spirit of Prophetic Testimony: The question pertains to how to understand the enigmatic phrase in Revelation 19:10: “For the testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy.” 9. The testimony of Jesus: Some scholars assert that the genitive phrase reflects the subjective genitive, while others assert the objective genitive. 10. The spirit of prophecy: Some suggest the spirit of prophecy means the essence of true prophecy, while others assert that the phrase is simply referring to prophets. 11. Conclusion: Tabb argues that the phrase means that John receives prophecy from the Holy Spirit to be embraced as the “true words of God” (Rev 19:9). 12. The Spirit of the Churches: The question pertains to the Spirit’s message to the churches, the interpretation of the malfunctioning sensory organs in chapters 2-3, and the recipient of the term “come” in 22:17. 13. Revelation 2-3: The malfunctioning sensory organ metaphor points to Israel’s spiritual unresponsiveness making an intertextual connection to Ezekiel 3. 14. Revelation 22:17: The Spirit (along with the Bride) tells recipients to come. The Spirit may be addressing Christ, believers, or unbelievers. 15. Conclusion: Tabb argues that the risen Christ appeals to the Spirit and eschatological people of God to urge readers to listen to the Spirit and come to Christ. VII. Conclusion: The church must determine who speaks for God by the Spirit as compared to the message of unclean spirits. Contra false prophets, John receives his message in the Spirit like the prophet Ezekiel, which inspires true prophecy and true worship of God. ## **Chapter Summary Presentation: The Spirit of Prophecy** Brian Tabb’s chapter entitled “The Spirit of prophecy” engages the topic of the Spirit in Revelation. The first reference to πνεῦμα occurs in Revelation 1:4. The question is whether the seven spirits refer to angels or to the Holy Spirit. In support of angels, Tobit 12:15 references seven angels standing before God and the Dead Sea Scrolls use the terms angels and spirits interchangeably.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Tabb argues for the trinitarian nature of grace and peace in Revelation 1:4 and asserts that the imagery found in Isaiah 11:2 and Zechariah 4:2-7 suggest that the phrase is a unique idiom referring to the Holy Spirit. John is carried away “in the Spirit” several times in Revelation (Rev 1:10; 4:2; 17:3; 21:10, ESV). Scholars argue that the phrase means falling into a trance, participating in the Spirit, or communicating in the Spirit.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) In light of the [Old Testament prophetic tradition](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/), Tabb contends that the phrase means that “John is a true prophet who receives vision from the divine Spirit.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The Spirit also appears in a resurrection narrative. Revelation 11:11 refers to two dead witnesses. After three and a half days, they are resurrected as God’s πνεῦμα enters them. Tabb argues that resurrection echoes God’s creative breath in Genesis 2:7 and also reflects the restoration of God’s post-exilic people as in Ezekiel 37:1-14.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) In sum, life has the final word. The reference to the spirit in Revelation 19:10, “for the testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy,” also provides an interpretive conundrum. The first genitive phrase could be a subjective (by Jesus) or objective (about Jesus) genitive. The second genitive phrase could describe true prophecy or prophets in general.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Tabb assumes the subjective genitive for the first phrase and the genuine prophecy from the Holy Spirit for the second.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Next, at the conclusion of each message to the seven churches in chapters 2-3 is the phrase, “The one who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches” (Rev 2:1, 7, 17, 29; 3:6, 13, 22). Further, a reference to the Spirit occurs in 22:17, “The Spirit and bride say, ‘Come.’” Tabb suggests that John is urging readers to listen to the Holy Spirit, come to Christ, and claim their eschatological inheritance.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) The first strength of Tabb’s chapter is that he begins with a biblical-theological approach. The text-focused approach is a breath of fresh air within a myriad of futuristic and historical-critical approaches. Also, Tabb uses the book’s canonical context to provide a strong exegetical foundation. The author adeptly highlights the intertextual connections to the Old Testament, emphasizes allusions to the New Testament, and engages relevant non-canonical works to illuminate meaning. Tabb also appropriately weaves various scholarly perspectives throughout the chapter to support and contrast his perspective. For example, the author notes that Craig Koester suggests that the seven spirits in 1:4 refer to angels, not the Holy Spirit, as Tabb contends.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Further, Tabb’s organizational structure engages specific passages that refer to πνεῦμα, not only within their broader canonical context, but also within their immediate literary context. For example, in support of true prophecy in 19:10, Tabb references the important phrase in verse 9 that points to the “true words of God.” A couple of weaknesses also exist. In light of Tabb’s approach, it is somewhat surprising the author did not attempt to provide a more structured thematic analysis to connect the Spirit passages. For example, Michael Kuykendall recognizes the following themes arising from the emphasis on the Holy Spirit: the Trinity, discipleship, witnessing, prophecy, worship, end-time judgement, and the life-giving nature of the Spirit.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Tabb touches on the themes, but lacks developing a cohesiveness between the individual passages. Second, although Tabb notes that the number seven signifies fullness, he seems to miss the important concept of sovereignty with regard to the number seven, which, according to G. K. Beale, provides additional theological insight into the nature of the Spirit.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Regardless of the minor weaknesses, Tabb provides a strong biblical-theological approach to the Spirit in Revelation, which not only highlights the inspiration of prophecy, but also “promotes true worship of God alone.”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) See Brian J. Tabb, *All Things New: Revelation as Canonical Capstone* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2019), 67–85. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 69. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 71–74. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 72. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 76. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 77. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 84. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 68. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Michael Kuykendall, “An Expanded Role for the Spirit in the Book of Revelation,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 64, no. 3 (2021): 541–44. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) *G. K. Beale, The Book of Revelation, New International Greek Testament Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 58–59. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Tabb, *All Things New*, 85. ## Bibliography - Beale, G. K. *The Book of Revelation*. *New International Greek Testament Commentary*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. - Kuykendall, Michael. “An Expanded Role for the Spirit in the Book of Revelation.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 64, no. 3 (2021): 527–44. - Tabb, Brian J. *All Things New: Revelation as Canonical Capstone*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2019. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [The Assurance of a Christian](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-assurance-of-a-christian/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Assurance of a Christian ## **Assurance Blogpost** Last year I had a dear Christian friend call me on her cell phone in tears. She was a young woman who had attended church all her life, graduated from a Christian university, and spent the last decade as a worship minister with her husband at a very large church. She loved God and loved the church, but her life had suddenly come crashing down. She had just been served divorce papers from her husband, who announced that he was a homosexual. The young lady dealt with all the sadness and grief that would normally come from such a tragic situation. However, a few weeks ago, I received another call. She had one simple question, “How will I know.” I asked for clarification. My friend felt deceived. She felt like her marriage had been a sham. She felt duped. The question she was asking was how she would ever be able to *know* if any future relationship was real. She wanted assurance that she would never be duped again. She wanted assurance that next time, the relationship would be real. I wanted to help. I wanted to provide assurance to my sister in Christ that would put her at ease. When reading John’s first letter, one gets the sense that his heart also aches for his readers. He loves these fellow Christians, but some of them appear to have been duped. John knows that these brothers and sisters in Christ need assurance. A group of supposed Christians had infiltrated the congregation of believers. Some have called the group schismatics, while others have identified the group as secessionists because they ultimately left the community, just as my friend’s husband left the marriage. John appears to refer to the schismatics as types of anti-Christs or false prophets (1 John 2:18; 4:1). John associates these schismatics or anti-Christs with the one “who denies that [Jesus is the Christ](https://www.livestransforming.com/jesus-early-life/)” (1 John 2:22, English Standard Version). John also appears to suggest that the schismatics did not believe that Jesus had come in the flesh (1 John 4:2). As Brandon Crowe explains, the schismatics may have “posited a distinction between the historical person named Jesus and the spirit of the Messiah (that is, the Christ) that they saw as a separate entity empowering this man.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) In other words, these false teachers appear to have denied that Jesus was fully human (1 John 5:6-7). Furthermore, the schismatics were not living lives patterned after the life of Jesus, but instead, they were living sinful lives (1 John 1:6; 2:6). Ultimately, the false teachers left the community (1 John 2:19). The ramifications of the false teachings were significant. If either the humanity or the divinity of Christ is denied, then, as John explains, Jesus is no longer a propitiation for the believer’s sin, which means that sins could not be forgiven (1 John 2:2). As fully human, Jesus represented mankind on the Cross. As fully divine, Jesus saved mankind on the cross. The way in which salvation occurs is through a fancy term called propitiation, which means something like satisfying God’s wrath. At first, the idea of God’s wrath may sound ominous, but, upon further reflection, God’s wrath powerfully reveals God’s love. Imagine yourself as an eight-year-old child. You are inquisitive and curious. You are playing with sticks and leaves next to a tree stump. You are having a good time. Then you look up, and you see your grandma running straight toward you. She is flailing her arms and yelling. Her eyes are full of anger. You can feel her wrath. You do not really know what is happening, but then, all at once, she picks you up and swats the swarm of bumble bees away from you. Just like grandma, God hates the things that can hurt his children. God absolutely hates sin. Bees need to be tamed. Sin needs to be absolved. Without question, the false teachers attempted to lead some of John’s friends astray. Some of them probably had been somewhat bamboozled by the schismatics. They were shaken. They had lost confidence. Like my friend, the worship minister, they wanted assurance. Accordingly, John writes a letter to his friends for the purpose of providing assurance, and thus he explicitly states, “I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God, that you may *know* that you have eternal life” (1 John 5:13, ESV, italics mine). Unfortunately, since the time that John first wrote his letter, the concluding passage of assurance, which consists of 1 John 5:13-21, has, at times, caused more doubt than assurance for modern believers. However, when the passage is understood in light of the historical context of the false teachers, John accomplishes his purpose of assurance. Before getting ahead of ourselves, let us take a look at a few of the specific verses that have caused doubt. To assist in providing assurance, John initially addresses the topic of prayer. Earlier in his letter, John has already asserted that “whatever we ask we receive from him” (1 John 3:22). John now explains that, when we pray, God will hear our prayers, and the implication is that God will respond to our prayers and increase our confidence. Unfortunately, we have all prayed prayers that have not been answered or certainly not answered in the way we would want them answered. A couple of days ago my son’s young Bernese Mountain dog got into some anti-seizure medication. My son took his dog to the veterinarian and called me, “Dad, the doctor says Leelo is in heart failure, and they need me to decide whether to put her down. I don’t know what to do.” I prayed. I prayed knowing that the prayer may not be answered to my liking. However, I had confidence that my prayer would absolutely be answered if I was asking “according to His will” (1 John 5:14-15). Almost unbelievably, Leelo made it. It was God’s will. However, if what God wills is going to be accomplished whether I pray or not, then how does prayer offer any assurance? Howard Marshall assists by explaining that God’s will is not static, but instead, it is a confluence of individual freedom, a personal relationship, and a submission of a believer’s will to God’s whereby, in a very real sense, “the accomplishment of God’s will in the world does depend on our prayers.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) When believers partner with God in prayer, there is no doubt that their confidence increases. Next, John attempts to provide additional assurance to his readers by stating, “If anyone sees his brother committing a sin not leading to death, he shall ask, and God will give him life” (1 John 5:16). At first glance, the promise of obtaining life is assuring. However, if there is a sin that does not lead to death, then there must be a sin that leads to death, and if I commit that sin, then I will not have life, which is not reassuring at all. What is the sin that leads to death? Some believe that the sin that leads to death is a mortal sin or a specific type of sin that cannot be forgiven. Others suggest that the sin that leads to death is deliberate sin, while sin that does not lead to death is unintentional or unwitting sin.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) [![The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude 182x300 - The Assurance of a Christian](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Letters-of-2-Peter-and-Jude-182x300.jpg "The Assurance of a Christian - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gYRdcz)The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude Unfortunately, all of us have committed deliberate sin, and it is highly unlikely (impossible) that we will be able to abstain completely from deliberate sin in the future. Peter committed a deliberate sin when he denied Christ three times. Did Peter’s sin disqualify him? Certainly not. In sum, if forgiveness did not cover deliberate sins, we would all be in trouble and ultimately condemned by God. Colin Kruse provides another option. Kruse suggests that the sin that does not lead to death is the believer’s forgiven sin that is covered by the cross, while the sin that leads to death is the unbeliever’s sin that has no forgiveness.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Since the schismatics were regarded as unbelievers who denied that Jesus came in the flesh and died to save humanity, it seems likely that John is referring to the sins committed by the unbelieving false teachers when discussing the sin that leads to death.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Accordingly, John’s language is quite assuring. When believers commit sin, it does not lead to death because the sin is forgiven by Christ’s work on the cross. John attempts to provide a final message of assurance in 1 John 5:18. Once again, John’s words could provide more doubt than assurance. I have even had pastors discuss the possibility of leaving the ministry due to this verse where John states, “We know that everyone who has been born of God does not keep on sinning” (1 John 5:18a). It appears John is saying that if you keep sinning, then you will go to hell. I do not know anyone who believes that they will be completely free of sin during the next year, month, week, or even day. I know that I will keep sinning. In fact, if I believe that I have no sin or that I will never sin in the future, then I would end up in the heretical camp of the schismatics.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Kruse highlights the popular scholarly opinion that the term “to sin” in verse 18 is in the present tense and thus emphasizes not just sinning but also the process of continuing to sin.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Although Kruse is correct, the present tense provides little solace for those of us that recognize that sin will arise in our lives and continue into the future. However, like many verses in Scripture, it is easy to read a phrase without considering the entire sentence, paragraph, or chapter. In this case, John begins the sentence by stating, “We know that everyone who has been born of God does not keep on sinning,” but then John completes his thought, “but he who was born of God protects him, and the evil one does not touch him” (1 John 5:18). At this point, the emphasis shifts from behavior (the imperative) to the power source behind overcoming sin (the indicative). John contends that it is Jesus who was born of God and is the one who protects believers from the evil one and empowers His children to overcome sin (1 John 5:18-19).[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In other words, believers continue to advance in holiness, not because of human effort, but because Jesus protects believers from the lies of the enemy. As believers advance in holiness, they become more confident in their assurance of salvation and the power of God’s work and life in them. Without question, John once again provides a strong message of assurance to his readers. Finally, John concludes with a message of assurance that lands his readers comfortably in the arms of their Savior. John explains that Jesus has come to provide understanding and eternal life (1 John 5:20). In other words, regarding salvation, Brandon Crowe asserts, “The life to which we aspire comes not *from* *within*, but *from* *without*.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Crowe is correct, but not completely correct. John provides a powerful conclusion to his letter by explaining that eternal assurance ultimately comes from the fact that “we are *in* *him* who is true, *in* *his* *Son* Jesus Christ” (1 John 5:20, italics mine). In sum, a believer’s assurance does not initially come from within; it comes from without, but, once we believe, He is within us, and we are within Him. As believers participate in the reality of being in Christ, they can have complete assurance of God’s grace, love, and eternal life. Without question, believers can be completely comforted in John’s words of assurance “that you may know that you have eternal life” (1 John 5:13). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Brandon D. Crowe, *The Message of the General Epistles in the History of Redemption: Wisdom from James, Peter, John, and Jude* (Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R, 2015), 123. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) For an exploration of the options, see I. Howard Marshall, *The Epistles of John*, *The* *New* *International* *Commentary* *on* *the-* *New* *Testament* (Grand Rapids: WM. B. Eerdmans, 1978), 245. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) See Ibid., 246–48. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Colin G. Kruse, *The Letters of John*, The Pillar New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), 194. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Marshall suggests that Kruse’s perspective is doubtful because believers can still commit apostacy. However, committing apostacy by blatantly denying Christ or His efficacious work on the cross would simply move the believer into the status of an unbeliever and thereby not negate Kruse’s argument. See Marshall, *The Epistles of John*, 249–50. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Brandon Crowe claims that one of the chief errors of the schismatics is their assertion that they did not sin. See Crowe, *The Message of the General Epistles in the History of Redemption*, 139-40. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Kruse, *The Letters of John*, 194–95. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Kruse, *The Letters of John*, 195. A debate exists around the identification of the one born of God, but Kruse makes a compelling case that the one born of God is Jesus. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Crowe, *The Message of the General Epistles in the History of Redemption*, 128. # Bibliography - Crowe, Brandon D. *The Message of the General Epistles in the History of Redemption: Wisdom from James, Peter, John, and Jude*. Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R, 2015. - Kruse, Colin G. *The Letters of John*. The Pillar New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000. - Marshall, I. Howard. *The Epistles of John*. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: WM. B. Eerdmans, 1978. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Paul in Acts vs. the Epistles](https://www.livestransforming.com/paul-in-acts-vs-the-epistles/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Paul in Acts vs. the Epistles ## **The Portrayal of Paul in Acts and the Pauline Epistles** [![The Apostle Paul His Life Thought and Letters 182x300 - Paul in Acts vs. the Epistles](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Apostle-Paul_-His-Life-Thought-and-Letters-182x300.jpg "Paul in Acts vs. the Epistles - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DSqJuR)The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters Scholars have long noted the differences between Paul as recorded in Acts, and Paul found in his epistles. Stanley Porter identifies five specific differences, which include the lack of references to Paul’s letters in Acts, the absence of a missionary strategy in Paul’s letters, Paul’s convincing rhetoric in Acts contrasted with his inability to convince in his letters, the emphasis of citizenship in Acts as compared to Paul’s letters, and the importance of Paul’s apostolic position in his letters as compared to Acts.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) First, regarding the lack of references to epistolary correspondence in the book of Acts, arguments from silence often create weak evidence. As Porter points out, several topics, which are known elsewhere as central to Pauline thought, also do not exist in the book of Acts.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) However, it is also possible that Acts does, at times, point to Paul’s letters. For example, Steve Walton identifies several parallels between the Miletus speech in Acts 20:18-21 and 1 Thessalonians. Walton contends that the content of 1 Thessalonians parallels four key themes in the Miletus speech that use A similar vocabulary: (1) leadership, (2) suffering, (3) wealth, and (4) Jesus’s death.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Based on similar thematic initiatives and vocabulary, Walton suggests that it is possible that Luke utilized [Paul’s first letter to the Thessalonians](https://www.livestransforming.com/pauls-writings-to-thessalonica/) when writing the Miletus speech.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Thus, the possibility that the book of Acts references Paul’s letters does exist. A second difference between Paul, as represented in Acts and the Pauline letters, is that Paul does not mention his missionary strategy or, in particular, his visitation of Jewish synagogues in his letters. Again, by definition, each of the differences, in some way, uses an argument from silence. However, plenty of evidence exists to support the idea that, although Paul may have emphasized his ministry to the Gentiles, Paul also ministered to the Jews. For example, Paul emphatically notes that the message of the gospel was first to the Jew and then to the Greek (Rom 1:16). Furthermore, Paul clearly contends that God has not rejected the Jews for even Paul was a Jew who descended from the tribe of Benjamin (Rom 11:1). Paul also makes it clear that God is the God of the Jews (Rom 3:29) so it would not be inconsistent with Paul’s letters that he would have visited and preached in Jewish synagogues. A third difference exists with regard to Paul’s rhetorical ability. Porter recognizes that Paul in Acts is portrayed as a strong rhetorician while in Paul’s letters the Apostle is less convincing.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Several reasons may exist to explain the difference. However, first and foremost, a leader’s rhetorical abilities do not necessarily correlate to changing listeners’ minds. By definition, leaders are change agents. The speeches and written communication from gifted leaders attempt to change the minds of their listeners and readers. However, the basic human tendency is for individuals to remain *status quo*. Accordingly, one would expect a great rhetorician to experience significant pushback from his listeners and readers. In fact, some of the greatest leaders and rhetoricians in American history, such as Abraham Lincoln, actually completely failed to change the mind of certain individuals, which ultimately resulted in his murder. In sum, if everyone agrees with the change agent, the leader is not a change agent, and nothing changes. Accordingly, one would expect a friend and observer such as Luke to recognize Paul’s abilities and simultaneously expect resistance from individuals who were entrenched in the *status quo* as documented in Paul’s letters. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Stanley E. Porter, *The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2016), 40–41. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 40. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Steve Walton, *Leadership and Lifestyle: The Portrait of Paul in the Miletus Speech and 1 Thessalonians* (New York: Cambridge University, 2000), 157, 174. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 203. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Porter, *The Apostle Paul*, 41. # Bibliography - Porter, Stanley E. *The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2016. - Walton, Steve. *Leadership and Lifestyle: The Portrait of Paul in the Miletus Speech and 1 Thessalonians*. New York: Cambridge University, 2000. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [The Meaning of 1 Timothy 2:15](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-meaning-of-1-timothy-2-15/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Meaning of 1 Timothy 2:15 A somewhat ironic consensus revolves around the lack of consensus regarding the interpretation of 1 Timothy 2:15: “Yet she will be saved through childbearing – if they continue in faith and love and holiness, with self-control” (ESV). The controversy surrounds the meaning of the phrase, σωθήσεται δὲ διὰ τῆς τεκνογονίας, and more specifically, the understanding of the future passive indicative third person singular verb “to save” (σωθήσεται) and the genitive singular feminine noun “childbearing” (τεκνογονίας). Christopher Hutson succinctly provides the three main interpretations of the phrase: figuratively, theologically, and physically.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) [![The Pastoral Epistles 182x300 - The Meaning of 1 Timothy 2:15](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Pastoral-Epistles-182x300.jpg "The Meaning of 1 Timothy 2:15 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DI1OKx)The Pastoral Epistles The [figurative interpretation](https://www.livestransforming.com/figurative-language-of-the-old-testament/) assumes a typological allusion to Mary and Jesus’s birth. Next, the theological interpretation in some way relates childbearing to spiritual salvation. Finally, the physical interpretation pertains to personal well-being or safety during childbirth. George Knight recognizes that understanding σωθήσεται in the spiritual sense defies Paul’s understanding of salvation elsewhere in his letters as it “would make salvation for women conditional on a work, and specifically a work not all are able to perform.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, the theological interpretation is dismissed. Instead, Knight embraces the figurative perspective for two primary reasons. First, Knight contends that the immediate literary context and the flow of Paul’s thought support the figurative interpretation. The previous verse, 1 Timothy 2:14, not only alludes to Genesis 3 and the woman’s fall into sin, but also echoes the woman (Eve/Mary) who will be saved through giving birth to the Messiah.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Second, Knight suggests that the vocabulary supports a figurative reading. For example, the future passive, according to Knight, indicates that “the deliverance is wrought for her by another…by means of the seed of the woman, which is Christ (Gen 3:15).”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Furthermore, Knight asserts that διὰ plus the genitive expresses means or instrument: The woman will be saved through the means of the Messiah assuming the experience of faith, love, holiness, and self-control.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Although the figurative interpretation has much to offer, Moyer Hubbard provides a strong case for the physical interpretation: “God will be faithful to those who are faithful, and he will keep you safe even through this harrowing ordeal of childbirth.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) First, the semantic range of the lemma σῴζω includes the possibility of physical preservation, rescue, and safety.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Accordingly, spiritual salvation is not a required meaning in 1 Timothy 2:15. Second, Hubbard emphasizes the social context of [ancient Christianity](https://www.livestransforming.com/integrative-approaches-to-psychology-and-christianity/) by highlighting that, in the Greco-Roman world, up to 10 percent of the women died during childbirth.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) The obvious objection to the physical interpretation is that women still, at times, die during childbirth. Hubbard contends that Paul is not spewing a false prophecy, but instead, Paul is delivering a proverbial maxim: “A truism that remains true in spite of many exceptions.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Thus, Hubbard concludes that Paul is providing a pastorally sensitive word of encouragement that highlights God’s faithfulness.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) My understanding of the enigmatic passage aligns with either the figurative or physical interpretation. Regardless of which view is chosen, the point of the instruction is that Paul provides a pastorally sensitive message of hope to his readers. Although the immediate literary context more likely supports the figurative interpretation, the broader social context more likely supports the physical interpretation. From my perspective, both views can align with the broader context of Pauline thought and neither option undermines orthodoxy; however, due to the very practical nature of the broader literary context of 1 Timothy 2:8-15 and the remainder of the letter in general, I slightly favor the physical interpretation as a proverbial maxim. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Christopher Roy Hutson, “‘Saved by Childbearing’: The Jewish Context of 1 Timothy 2:15,” *Novum Testamentum* 56, no. 4 (2014): 392–93. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) George W. Knight, *The Pastoral Epistles*, ed. I. Howard Marshall and W. Ward Gasque, *The New International Greek Testament Commentary* (Grand Rapids: William. B. Eerdmans, 1999), 145. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 146. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 147. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Moyer V Hubbard, “Kept Safe Through Childbearing: Maternal Mortality, Justification by Faith, and the Social Setting of 1 Timothy 2:15,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 55, no. 4 (2012): 762. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) William Arndt et al., *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 982. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Hubbard, “Kept Safe through Childbearing,” 752–53. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 758. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 762. # Bibliography - Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, Walter Bauer, and F. Wilbur Gingrich. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. - Hubbard, Moyer V. “Kept Safe Through Childbearing: Maternal Mortality, Justification by Faith, and the Social Setting of 1 Timothy 2:15.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 55, no. 4 (2012): 743–62. - Hutson, Christopher Roy. “‘Saved by Childbearing’: The Jewish Context of 1 Timothy 2:15.” *Novum Testamentum* 56, no. 4 (2014): 392–410. - Knight, George W. *The Pastoral Epistles*. Edited by I. Howard Marshall and W. Ward Gasque. *The New International Greek Testament Commentary*. Grand Rapids: William. B. Eerdmans, 1999. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Overcoming in the Book of Revelation](https://www.livestransforming.com/overcoming-in-the-book-of-revelation/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Overcoming in the Book of Revelation ## **Overcoming According to Revelation** The concept of overcoming is a theme that pervades the book of Revelation. The Greek term that is often translated into “overcoming” is normally a form of the lemma νικάω, which can mean to conquer, overcome, prevail, be a victor, vanquish, outstrip, and excel.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The term is used seventeen times in Revelation; however, the term seems to pertain to Christian believers ten times (Rev 2:7, 11, 17, 25; 3:5, 12, 21\[twice\]; 12:11; 15:2, English Standard Version). At other times, the term seems to refer to either Jesus or the Beast. The passages demonstrate the way the believing community triumphs as they faithfully persevere. More specifically, believers have a life in paradise (Rev 2:7), have triumph over death (Rev 2:11), have their needs provided (Rev 2:17), have authority over nations (Rev 2:26), and have their name in the book of life (Rev 3:5). The believing conquerors will also be made pillars in God’s temple (Rev 3:12), be granted seats at God’s throne (Rev 3:21), be conquerors of evil (Rev 12:11), and be standing beside God with harps (Rev 15:2). [![All Things New Revelation as Canonical Capstone 182x300 - Overcoming in the Book of Revelation](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/All-Things-New-Revelation-as-Canonical-Capstone-182x300.jpg "Overcoming in the Book of Revelation - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4hla8OZ)All Things New: Revelation as Canonical Capstone (Volume 48) (New Studies in Biblical Theology)tr5 Although triumph was assured to the faithful believers, the challenging situations facing John’s original audience were, at times, dire. Brian Tabb suggests that the overcoming motif highlights the tension between the earthly and the heavenly, between the now and the not yet.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Specifically, the original audience faced “poverty and slander (Rev 2:9), imprisonment (Rev 2:10), weakness and rejection (Rev 3:8-9) and even death for the word of God (Rev 6:9).”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Ultimately, as C. Marvin Pate points out, the overcomers inherit the blessings of the new covenant.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The faithful conquerors not only overcome the circumstances and situations of the world, but they also win the spiritual battle against sin and evil. Thus, believers share in Christ’s reign over Satan (Rev 2:26-28), and they experience an eschatological reality that exists in the Lamb of God (Rev 3:21). As Tabb succinctly summarizes, the faithful believers are “conquered conquerors.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) For John’s original audience, the victory has been won, but not yet fully realized. Modern preachers can apply the hope provided by the Apostle John to the context of the local church in several ways. In particular, two important points need communicated. First, the worldview of contemporary believers must shift. In a culture where wealth and health have often become the [gospel preached](https://www.livestransforming.com/a-basic-understanding-the-gospels/) from the pulpit, it is necessary to share the benefits of suffering. James 1:2-4 explains that challenges are gifts from God that produce endurance and wholeness. Romans 5:3-5 exhorts readers to celebrate tribulations because trials result in perseverance, character development, and hope. Further, all too often Christians who are experiencing trials are ostracized by the institutional church at the precipice of a spiritual breakthrough. In sum, a sound doctrine of suffering needs to be communicated to the local church. Second, the concept of inaugurated eschatology needs to be taught in the local church. Believers often have a deep belief in the triumph that will occur upon death and upon Christ’s return. Certainly, the victory will be fully realized in the future; however, it is also necessary to teach believers that the victory has, in a sense, already occurred. Believers are overcomers now, and believers have not yet fully overcome. Certainly, an over-realized eschatology has its dangers, but an under-realized eschatology leaves believers sitting at home waiting to die in prolonged anticipation of the “good stuff.” However, a life in Christ overcomes sin now. A life in Christ also overcomes persecution now, although victory will only be completely consummated in the future. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) William Arndt et al., *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 673. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Brian J. Tabb, *All Things New: Revelation as Canonical Capstone* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2019), 109. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) C. Marvin Pate, *Interpreting Revelation & Other Apocalyptic Literature: An Exegetical Handbook* (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2016), 188. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Tabb, *All Things New*, 109. # Bibliography - Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, Walter Bauer, and F. Wilbur Gingrich. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. - Pate, C. Marvin. *Interpreting Revelation & Other Apocalyptic Literature: An Exegetical Handbook*. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2016. - Tabb, Brian J. *All Things New: Revelation as Canonical Capstone*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2019. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [The Use of Biblical Scribes](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-use-of-biblical-scribes/) **Published:** January 13, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Use of Biblical Scribes According to Porter, “The scribal hypothesis is a very attractive one to explain a number of the issues regarding Pauline authorship, but it cannot be used uncritically because of the lack of proof and the lack of means for verifying (pp. 153-154).” Discuss some of the possible ways in which Paul’s use of scribes may inform our understanding of the subject of authorship and account for some of the differences of language and style that may be observed between the various epistles within the Pauline corpus. ## **Authorship and the Use of Scribes** [![The Apostle Paul His Life Thought and Letters 182x300 - The Use of Biblical Scribes](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Apostle-Paul_-His-Life-Thought-and-Letters-182x300.jpg "The Use of Biblical Scribes - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3W61NXc)The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters Ancient writers often used a scribe or secretary called an amanuensis. Regarding the subject of authorship, one might question the originality and authenticity of Pauline authorship to the extent that an amanuensis played a significant role in the creation of his letters. Alternatively, the use of an amanuensis might assist in solidifying Paul as the author of certain disputed letters to the extent the utilization of a scribe might help explain the differences between the tone and style of Paul’s various works. Without question, the biblical evidence points to Paul using a scribe. For example, in the conclusion to Paul’s undisputed letter to the Romans, an amanuensis’s involvement is obvious: “I Tertius, who wrote this letter, greet you in the Lord” (Rom 16:22, ESV). Accordingly, Stanley Porter identifies three potential roles of an amanuensis, which include taking word-for-word dictation, editing the original author’s work, or writing the letter after receiving basic or general instructions regarding the content.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) [The use of a scribe](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-use-of-biblial-scribes/) may result in differences between the scribe’s work and the work of the author had he or she written the document. E. R. Richards divides the differences into two types. The first type includes differences that occur with all forms of secretarial mediation, such as variations regarding length, language, style, organization, and general appearance.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The second type includes differences related to the specific role of the secretary, such as whether the letter was author-controlled or secretary-controlled.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The former often would match the style of the author but differ in various subtle ways; the latter could vary considerably in form and style but maintain the basic thematic initiatives and arguments.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) A specific example of differences often cited is that of the Pastoral Epistles. Porter explains that the differences in style, content, and theology between the Pastoral Epistles and Paul’s other correspondence fuel the debate regarding Pauline authorship.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) However, the scribal hypothesis may assist in explaining the differences. It is possible that the style differences could be explained by the use of a different scribe. Furthermore, even the perceived differences between content and theology may be explained by a newly hired amanuensis utilizing unique terms to complementarily develop certain theological constructs. Unfortunately, as Porter explains, the scribal hypothesis cannot definitively explain the differences due to its lack of proof and verification.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) However, importantly, regarding Paul’s authorial involvement, Richards explains: “Irrespective of any secretarial influence, the author assumed complete responsibility for the content, including subtle nuances.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Stanley E. Porter, *The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2016), 153. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) E. Randolph Richards, *Secretary in the Letters of Paul* (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991), 111–18. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 119–27. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 127. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Porter, *The Apostle Paul*, 413. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 153–54. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Richards, *Secretary in the Letters of Paul*, 127. # Bibliography - Porter, Stanley E. *The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2016. - Richards, E. Randolph. *Secretary in the Letters of Paul*. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Narrative Criticism](https://www.livestransforming.com/narrative-criticism/) **Published:** January 13, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Narrative Criticism A literary-theological reading of Scripture, which is often referred to as narrative criticism, focuses primarily on the text. Although possibly surprising to the modern layperson, for several centuries, [biblical scholars](https://www.livestransforming.com/modern-pauline-bible-scholarship/) have not focused on the text as much as the formation of the text by utilizing such tools as redaction, form, source, and historical criticism. Alternatively, as explained by Darrell Bock, narrative criticism focuses on the final form of the text, emphasizes the unity of the text, and views the text as an end in itself rather than a substructure of the content.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Osvaldo Padilla explains that narrative criticism can refer to both a literary method and a theological discipline.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) From a methodological perspective, narrative criticism uses the same tools that literary critics might use to analyze any piece of great literature such as the analysis of plot, setting, and character formation. From a theological perspective, narrative criticism recognizes that the power of a story to communicate truth propositions is as real as the rational propositions issued by theologians. [![Reading the Gospels Wisely 182x300 - Narrative Criticism](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Reading-the-Gospels-Wisely-182x300.jpg "Narrative Criticism - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gYOTlR)Reading the Gospels Wisely: A Narrative and Theological Introduction Several approaches that engage a literary-theological reading of Scripture have been espoused. For instance, Jonathan Pennington provides a basic six step approach: (1) isolating the literary unit, (2) reading and rereading the story, (3) identifying the setting and characters, (4) observing the story, (5) isolating the scenes, and (6) analyzing the narrative.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The final step is particularly important, as analyzing the narrative identifies the tension, climax, and resolution, which often contains the main point of the story.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Pennington uses Luke 7:1-10 for his example of narrative criticism, but this brief analysis isolates Luke 7:36-50, which is the story of the forgiveness of a sinful woman. After isolating the unit and reading the story several times, the next step is to identify the setting and characters. The definition of setting would seem to most readers to be straightforward: the background of the narrative. However, James Resseguie explains that the setting not only includes the historical background, but also the physical, socio-cultural, religious, economic, and temporal circumstances surrounding the plot.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The physical setting of Luke 7:36-50 is an ancient Pharisee’s house, which is mentioned four times for emphasis. Importantly, Pennington’s steps now begin to amalgamate as it is difficult to isolate each of the six steps without commenting on its impact on the others. For example, the religious setting immediately heightens the tension between the main characters, Jesus, the Pharisee, and the woman, as the reader reflects upon the prior conflicts between Jesus and the Pharisees. The prior conflicts also highlight the importance of considering the broader context, which Pennington later adds to the steps of his narrative analysis.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Furthermore, Padilla observes that the socio-cultural setting of the dining scene likely evokes the tradition of the *symposium*, the location of ancient philosophical discussions, which were often locations of eroticism.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Specifically, prostitutes would often entertain the men at philosophical gatherings and, in the case of the pericope, the woman loosening her hair and kissing Jesus’s feet may suggest the woman may be aware of the tradition. Once again, the setting heightens the story’s tension as the reader wonders what might happen after a sexually promiscuous woman enters the room with Jesus and one of Jesus’s opponents questions his identity as a prophet. What will Jesus do next? At this point, when the tension begins to peak, the author also begins to shed light on the message through what scholars often refer to as speech acts. Padilla notes that it is common in Luke-Acts for the Transformative Action to come in the form of a speech act: “Something is said by one of the characters that moves the direction of the story with finality towards one horizon or another.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In Luke 7:36-50, the plot moves from Jesus entering a house to a woman bringing an alabaster flask of ointment to wash Jesus’s feet and then proceeds to a Pharisee verbally attacking Jesus. The plot line builds the necessary tension required to highlight Jesus’s Transformative Action: the telling of a parable. Charles Talbert suggests that verses 39-47 are a form of Socratic interrogation, whereby the interlocutors banter back and forth with questions and answers.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) In this case, Jesus responds to the question of the Pharisee with a story that ironically puts the lie to the Pharisee’s accusation. In other words, the Pharisee accuses Jesus of not being a prophet, but then Jesus discerns the Pharisee’s thoughts and responds accordingly; thus, He proves His prophetic identity. By utilizing inquiry and storytelling within the narrative, Jesus points the reader to the idea that the woman loved much because she had been forgiven much, but the Pharisee loved little because he did not recognize his need for forgiveness. At this point, it is not difficult to recognize how a literary-theological reading of the Gospel can aid in teaching and preaching. In fact, so many teaching points are available to the expositor that narrowing the focus may be difficult due to the compressed nature of Luke’s writing. Pennington identifies three categories of questions to ask when teaching the Gospel narratives: (1) what is the fallen condition, (2) how does God in Christ provide a redemptive solution, and (3) what virtue does the text exhort?[\[10\]](#_ftn10) In its basic form, the narrative of Luke 7:36-50 identifies the fallen condition of the woman’s sinfulness and the fallen condition of the Pharisee’s self-deception. The redemptive “in Christ” solution not only provides forgiveness to the woman, but it also provides the potential for the Pharisee to be freed from self-deception. More specifically, an understanding of one’s “in Christ” reality provides righteousness as a gift from God, thus completely eliminating the need for Pharisaic self-righteousness. Finally, one of the many virtues exhorted in the text is humility. Without question, the reader is struck by the humility of the woman who appears to humbly recognize her sinful past. However, one is also struck by the lack of humility of the Pharisee, which grates on the reader. Of course, many other lessons could be gleaned from the passage, not the least of which is the power of story and the communication style of Jesus. Luke teaches the reader by telling a story about Jesus. Jesus teaches His listeners by telling a story about a moneylender and two debtors. Luke sets the story within a Socratic environment, while Jesus uses a Socratic form of inquiry to teach. In sum, the narrative itself clearly aids in identifying the message to teach and preach. However, the communication styles used within the narrative, such as inquiry, question and answer, storytelling, irony, and paradox also provide important methodological examples for teaching and preaching the message of Christ. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Darrell L. Bock, *Studying the Historical Jesus: A Guide to Sources and Methods* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012), 205. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Osvaldo Padilla, “Narrative Criticism in the Gospels and Acts,” *Southeastern Theological Review* 12, no. 2 (2021): 35. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Jonathan T. Pennington, *Reading the Gospels Wisely: A Narrative and Theological Introduction* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012), 175–76. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 176. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) James L Resseguie, “A Glossary of New Testament Narrative Criticism with Illustrations,” *Religions* 10, no. 3 (March 2019): 29. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Pennington, *Reading the Gospels Wisely*, 208. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Padilla, “Narrative Criticism in the Gospels and Acts,” 51–53. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 54. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Charles H. Talbert, *Reading Luke: A Literary and Theological Commentary on the Third Gospel* (Macon, Ga: Smyth & Helwys, 2013), 89. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Pennington, *Reading the Gospels Wisely*, 221. # Bibliography - Bock, Darrell L. *Studying the Historical Jesus: A Guide to Sources and Methods*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012. - Padilla, Osvaldo. “Narrative Criticism in the Gospels and Acts.” *Southeastern Theological Review* 12, no. 2 (2021): 35–55. - Pennington, Jonathan T. *Reading the Gospels Wisely: A Narrative and Theological Introduction*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012. - Resseguie, James L. “A Glossary of New Testament Narrative Criticism with Illustrations.” *Religions* 10, no. 3 (March 2019): 1–39. - Talbert, Charles H. *Reading Luke: A Literary and Theological Commentary on the Third Gospel*. Macon, Ga: Smyth & Helwys, 2013. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Structure and Theology of Deuteronomy](https://www.livestransforming.com/structure-and-theology-of-deuteronomy/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Structure and Theology of Deuteronomy The content and structure of the book of Deuteronomy may be foreign to many congregants. The sermonic structure of Moses’s three primary speeches alongside the idea that law and grace may exist in an interdependent reality, rather than in opposition, may challenge modern assumptions. Teaching Deuteronomy as a pastoral exhortation arising from the gospel requires addressing three important topics that follow the developmental nature of the content. First, the theological constructs relating to covenant identity and its relationship to the gospel lays the foundation for understanding the book of Deuteronomy. Second, the pragmatic constructs pertaining to relational obedience and its relationship to the gospel builds upon an understanding of covenant identity. Finally, the canonical intentions that look back to the central event of the exodus and look forward to the new covenant properly locates the Deuteronomic content arising from the gospel. [![The Gospel according to Moses 182x300 - Structure and Theology of Deuteronomy](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Gospel-according-to-Moses-182x300.jpg "Structure and Theology of Deuteronomy - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DU0RPh)The Gospel according to Moses The theology of the book of Deuteronomy hinges upon a correct understanding of covenant identity and its [relationship to the gospel](https://www.livestransforming.com/a-basic-understanding-the-gospels/). Much of the content of the book of Deuteronomy flows from the mouth of Moses in three important speeches. Daniel Block highlights the purpose of the speeches by stating that “Moses ‘puts in force’ YHWH’s covenant with the generation about to enter the land promised to the ancestors long ago and to the exodus generation.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The covenant Moses puts in force stems from the promise that Yahweh made to Abraham, which included making him a great nation, a nation through whom all the nations will be blessed (Gen 12:1-3). The covenant was then ratified in Genesis 15 and extended to the nation of Israel in Exodus 6:6-7, where Yahweh, in a beautiful extension of grace, tells the Israelites that He is claiming them as His people and delivering them from slavery. In Moses’s first speech, he takes the roles of historian, administrator, spokesman, servant, and pastor-teacher who reminds the Israelites of Yahweh’s grace.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Specifically, Moses highlights God’s grace by reminding them how they received the Ten Commandments, and how they were miraculously delivered from Egypt (Deut 4:1-31). Moses then proclaimed that “He \[Yahweh\] will not leave you or destroy you or forget the covenant with your fathers that he swore to them” (Deut 4:31).[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The ancient Israelites would have had a basic idea of the covenant relationship referred to by Moses because of their knowledge of other suzerain-vassal treaties throughout the ancient Near East. Although similar, John Walton explains that the type of covenant extended to Israel was distinct from their neighbors due to the unique ancient construct of co-identification whereby, “Israel is made holy because Yahweh is holy.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Grace emanates from Moses in Deuteronomy 7:6 as he confirms the people’s co-identification through the recognition of the Israelites as a holy people chosen as Yahweh’s treasured possession. Far from the legalistic overtones assumed by Luther during the Reformation, the Israelites did not and could not have earned the holy status conferred or the relationship extended to them by Yahweh through any sort of obedient behavior. The Israelite’s covenant identity was a completely unmerited extension of God’s grace, a message of good news indeed, to a chosen people. In Moses’s second speech, numerous statutes, ordinances, and regulations take center stage beginning with the recitation of the Decalogue. The direction of the book of Deuteronomy takes a pragmatic turn. However, to suggest that Moses’s second speech is about following rules misses the point. Rule following is built on a foundation of legal codes, but relational obedience is built upon the foundation of covenant identity. Holiness is not a behavioral attribute when placed within the context of covenant identity. Instead, holiness is an attribute of conferred identity, and, as a result, holy people behave holy (cf. Luke 6:43-45). It is within a grace-filled relationship between Israel and Yahweh that obedience occurs. Block asserts that a community governed by covenant differs than one governed by laws: “Covenant relationship inspires fidelity; laws coerce conformity” (cf. Deut 10:16).[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Block then suggests that the basis for the inspiration is gratitude, which is a popular theological notion that requires clarification.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) If a covenant relationship *inspires* fidelity, then the relationship may easily morph into one built upon the pagan notion of *quid pro quo*.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) In other words, since Yahweh rescued the people from Egypt, then, in return, the people should be thankful and return the favor by conjuring up the strength to follow the rules. Alternatively, co-identification with Yahweh does not so much inspire fidelity as it *empowers* it. Practically speaking, not committing adultery has little to do with gratitude, and if it does, then it risks conformity. For example, a believer might think that since God provided redemption and a spouse, then out of gratitude he or she will work hard to manage sin and stick with the marriage to conform to the rules, a recipe for relational disaster. Alternatively, if the believer identifies with Yahweh rather than his wife, then the stereotypical relational markers that feed identity, such as meeting needs and extending respect, are not required to complete the believer’s identity. Accordingly, averting adultery is empowered by not needing to find one’s identity from being an object of another man or woman’s desire, either a spouse or an adulterer, because the righteous identity of Yahweh has already been conferred to His holy people, which is very good news indeed (cf. Gen 15:6). When the Israelites understood the good news of God’s grace, obedience was empowered by their relationship with the God of the universe. When legal codes are set within the context of covenant identity and relational obedience, directives can be recognized as a gift of love. Accordingly, when the consequences of breaking oneself against the laws are seen within the context of covenant identity and relational obedience, the subsequent exile can be recognized as a reclamation of love. In the light of Yahweh’s love, the canonical location of Deuteronomy looks back at Israel’s history, the receiving of the Ten Commandments and the deliverance from the Egyptians, to highlight the grace of God, which is good news. Although these events are unforgettable, Deuteronomy’s canonical location also intends to look forward to another prophet (Deut 18:15-16), which had not yet occurred upon the compositional completion of Deuteronomy (Deut 34:10), but was, according to John Sailhamer, an example of Deuteronomy’s “messianically tinted canonical shape.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Accordingly, both covenant identity and relational obedience continue to live within a newly inaugurated cosmic reality of grace in Christ, which will be fully realized when Christ returns, good news indeed. The rich theology and thoughtful pragmatism of the book of Deuteronomy provides ample opportunity to teach the book as a pastoral exhortation from Moses that arises from the gospel. By focusing on the theological construct of covenant identity and its relationship to the good news of grace, a foundation can be laid for students to overcome lingering Reformation biases that may dichotomize the Testaments. By focusing on the pragmatic construct of relational obedience, students have the opportunity to engage in the important distinction between following the rules of conformity and living in relationally empowered obedience. Accordingly, the practical applications for committed students appear limitless, during a time when conformity seems to be trumped only by hypocrisy as the greater risk of evangelicalism’s potential demise. Finally, just as students can look back with Israel at their grace-filled events when they received the Ten Commandments and experienced the Exodus, students can also look back at God’s abounding grace in their own lives as well. Finally, just as students reading Deuteronomy can look forward with the Israelites to the hope-filled messianic reality in Christ, the student also can look forward to their own future eschatological resurrection in Christ. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Daniel I. Block, *The Gospel According to Moses: Theological and Ethical Reflections on the Book of Deuteronomy* (Eugene: Cascade, 2012), 78. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 82–87. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) John H. Walton and J. Harvey Walton, *The Lost World of the Torah: Law as Covenant and Wisdom in Ancient Context* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2019), 92. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Block, *The Gospel,* 89. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 90. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) See the implications of the pagan worldview of continuity in John N. Oswalt, *The Bible Among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature?* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2009), 49–56. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) John H. Sailhamer, *The Pentateuch as Narrative: A Biblical-Theological Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 1995), 17. # Bibliography - Block, Daniel I. *The Gospel According to Moses: Theological and Ethical Reflections on the Book of Deuteronomy*. Eugene: Cascade, 2012. - Oswalt, John N. *The Bible Among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature?* Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2009. - Sailhamer, John H. *The Pentateuch as Narrative: A Biblical-Theological Commentary*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 1995. - Walton, John H., and J. Harvey Walton. *The Lost World of the Torah: Law as Covenant and Wisdom in Ancient Context*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2019. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Exodus in Ancient Near East](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-in-ancient-near-east/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Exodus in Ancient Near East ## **Introduction** The biblical law codes, and specifically the Covenant Code within the book of Exodus, present a conundrum to many modern Christians who attempt to understand the relevance of what appear to be obscure and often disturbing rules of morality. However, the questions surrounding the biblical law surpasses mere relevance, and asks how the obvious parallels between the ancient Near Eastern laws of the pagans relate to the meaning and understanding of the legal information written in the Covenant Code. Without a proper understanding of the relationship between the two types of literature, the interpreter risks assuming the Bible is plagiaristic. *However, a cognitive contextual methodology deployed within the discipline of cognitive environment criticism reveals that the Covenant Code is built upon the unique worldview of transcendence within an ancient Near Eastern society.* First, a brief cultural overview of the book of Exodus is followed by an introductory excursion into the iconographic messaging of the outstretched arm motif in the book of Exodus. Next, similarities and differences between the Covenant Code and the ancient law codes ensues prior to applying the cognitive contextual methodology to the passage in Exodus. A final section briefly discusses a plan for integration into a Bible study setting. ## **Cultural Overview** The setting of the book of Exodus is Lower Egypt and Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula during the Late Bronze Age. Accordingly, the brief cultural overview is limited in both the location and period of the setting of the book. According to Joel LeMon, the New Kingdom began with a reunited Egypt under the reign of Pharaoh Ahmose upon conquering the Hyksos around 1550 BC, which initiated a massive program of imperial expansion creating many vassal states.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The Egyptians worshipped the sun god Re who became intimately associated with the kingship of the pharaoh and, around 1370 BC, the Egyptian society was disrupted by the Hittites who attempted to overthrow Egypt.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) In light of the pharaoh’s presumed divine powers, Thomas Brisco explains that ruler had autonomous authority over Egyptian life as the mediator of the god.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Regardless of an early or late date of the Exodus event, the Israelites, under control of the pharaoh in Egyptian land, would have likely lived in a rural setting alongside peasant farmers close to one of the villages along the Nile river.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Small residential houses and larger palaces were built with mud bricks, which would likely explain the servitude of the Israelites during their captivity prior to their journey toward the Red Sea.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) During the Ramesside Period from around 1295-1069 BC, Ramesses I reestablished hereditary kingship and Seti I initiated a massive restoration program and, after the Battle of Qadesh in 1274 BC against the Hittites, Egypt experienced a renewed prosperity.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Depending on the dating of the Exodus event, it is possible that the slavery associated with the Israelites would have supported the building projects associated with the restoration, but the late date is less than certain. Furthermore, syncretism was prevalent prior to the Third Intermediate Period along with the gradual decline of Egyptian power.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Finally, regardless of the dating of the Exodus, Egyptians divided the year into three seasons that related to the weather patterns and flooding of the Nile that limited agricultural work, which provided opportunity for the employment of slave labor for the king’s building projects.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) ## **Iconographic Overview** ![Figure 1 Painted wall of 300x248 - Exodus in Ancient Near East](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-1-Painted-wall-of-300x248.jpg "Exodus in Ancient Near East - Lives Transforming")Figure 1. Painted wall of tomb at Hierakonpolis. A brief iconographic overview of the book of Exodus first requires the definition of the term. Daniel Bodi explains that iconography refers to visual representations, which may include reliefs, statues, and amulets to name a few.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) A comprehensive review of the ancient Near Eastern iconography is beyond this study for the ancient visual artifacts related to the book of Exodus are vast. From Aaron’s rod to the style and material of the Ark of the Covenant, Leland Ryken, James Wilhoit, and Tremper Longman acknowledge the significant breadth of iconographic imagery related to Exodus.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Accordingly, the following analysis will be limited to a representative sample of relevant iconography utilizing the imagery of an important phrase that is often used to describe Yahweh within the book of Exodus, “the ![Figure 2. Temple relief at 300x193 - Exodus in Ancient Near East](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-2.-Temple-relief-at--300x193.jpg "Exodus in Ancient Near East - Lives Transforming")Figure 2. Temple relief at Tell el-Retaba. outstretched arm” or “strong arm.” Brent Strawn asserts that the imagery tradition of the phrase takes two trajectories: the conquering arm of pharaoh and the life-giving deity.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) First, regarding the conquering arm of pharaoh, it is found very early in Egyptian iconography. According to Strawn, the imagery goes back to a tomb painting in Hierakonpolis around 3400 BC (fig. 1) and, in the New Kingdom period, the imagery is abundant and includes a depiction of the outstretched arm of Ramesses the Great around 1250 BC from a temple relief at Tell el-Retaba (fig. 2). [\[12\]](#_ftn12) The question is whether ![Figure 3. Limestone relief at Amarna 1 168x300 - Exodus in Ancient Near East](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-3.-Limestone-relief-at-Amarna-1-168x300.jpg "Exodus in Ancient Near East - Lives Transforming")Figure 3. Limestone relief at Amarna the imagery actually evokes the idea of Yahweh’s outstretched arm. Strawn notes that the outstretched arm of pharaoh connotes military action and power.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) In Exodus 6:6, Yahweh tells Moses to explain to the Israelites that Yahweh “will redeem you with an outstretched arm.” Accordingly, it is not unreasonable to conclude that the imagery can be applied to Yahweh who wreaked havoc on the Egyptians during the Exodus event. However, certain differences between the usages of the phrase as it applies to pharaoh calls for additional investigation. The pharaoh Amenhotep IV (1352-1336 BC) not only changed his name to Akhenaten, but also changed the capital to modern day el-Arman and the religion to the worship of the sun god Aten.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Along with these changes also came a new artistic style that influenced the iconographic landscape. According to Strawn, the outstretched arm motif, ubiquitous within imagery during the time, included the sun god’s rays, which represented creation and redemption as a life-giving deity exemplified by a limestone relief (fig. 3) and a limestone stele (fig. 4) from Armana.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) The redemption motif is evident in Exodus 13:8-9 when Moses tells the Israelites that it is because of the “strong hand of the Lord” that they have ![Figure 4. Limestone - Exodus in Ancient Near East](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Figure-4.-Limestone-.jpg "Exodus in Ancient Near East - Lives Transforming")Figure 4. Limestone stele at Amarna. been rescued and brought out of Egypt (cf. Exod 13:16).[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Importantly, the images from Akhenaten’s era contain images of deities, not just kings, who bring life and blessing to the people. Although the iconographic data supporting the book of Exodus is much broader than the “outstreched arm,” the theme’s visual imagery within the ancient Near East, which includes paintings, reliefs, and stelae, provides a represenative overview of the importance of iconography when studying the pericopes of Exodus, the book of Exodus, and Scripture in general. ## **The Similarities** The first step in using a comparative methodology when performing cognitive environment criticism is to identify the parallels between the literature. Specifically, the parallels between the ancient Near Eastern literature and the Bible. The selected section of [the book of Exodus](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-ancient-near-east-context/) under study is the Covenant Code, which is documented in chapters 20:23-23:19. The parallels between the ancient Near Eastern literature and the Covenant Code are extensive. However, according to Pamela Barmash the relevant parallels primarily exist in Mesopotamian and Hittite Laws, which include the Sumerian Laws of Ur-Namma and Lipit-Ishtar, the Akkadian Laws of Eshnunna and Hammurabi, and possibly the later Middle Assyrian Laws.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) The ancient Near Eastern collections took the form of royal inscriptions, which not only exalted the king, but also justified his authority to his human subjects as well as the gods.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Although further analysis of the relationship occurs in the exploration of the comparative methodology, it is sufficient for now to note that the specific relationship between the ancient law codes and the biblical law codes is disputed. On the one hand, critical scholars assert that the relationship is found in an oral tradition, and others, such as David Wright, suggest the Covenant Code is directly dependent upon the Laws of Hammurabi.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) On the other hand, some scholars assume the biblical author was trained in a scribal tradition, and others, such as John Walton, believe the relationship occurs due to the nature of the ancient cultural river.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) The similarities between the ancient Near Eastern legal codes and the Covenant Code may be categorized into three types. According to Bruce Wells, the first type is the existence of similar legal issues, which include problems, concerns, or issues that arise in ancient law codes and the Covenant Code within the context of legal matters.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) For example, Exodus 21:16 addresses the topic of kidnapping by stating, “Whoever steals a man and sells him, and anyone found in possession of him, shall be put to death.” The legal issue of kidnapping is also addressed in the Laws of Hammurabi §14, which states that anyone who kidnaps a man will be put to death regardless if the kidnapped man is sold or not. Next, Wells explains that a second type of similarity pertains to legal reasoning, which reflects an analogous way of thinking.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) For instance, Exodus 21:35 explains that when two men each have an ox, and the oxen fight and one of them dies, then the two men shall share in the value of both the live and the dead ox. Similarly, the Laws of Eshnunna §53 explain that if two oxen gore each other, then the parties will divide the value of both. The logic resides in the concept or legal reasoning of shared risk. Finally, Wells identifies a third type of similarity, which consists of comparable legal remedies.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Exodus 21:18-19 addresses a situation regarding two men fighting where one man punches the other man, but if the man that is hit does not die, then the legal remedy is that renumeration must be given for the man’s loss of time (Exod 21:19). Similarly, in the Laws of Hammurabi §206, the man who inflicts the wound must pay the fees of the physician. The similarities referred to above focus primarily on content. However, similar structural characteristics between the ancient legal codes and the Covenant Code also exist. Joel Hamm, Bryan Babcock, and Justin Strong identify two specific structural features of the codes: the casuistic nature utilizing conditional statements and the third person writing.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) The examples above include both characteristics. Although, without a doubt, close parallels occur between both the content and the structure of the ancient legal codes and the Covenant Code, the similarities must not be exaggerated. The distinctions between the codes must also be considered. ## **The Distinctives** Significant distinctions between the ancient Near Eastern law codes and the Covenant Code, as well as the corpus of law codes in general, exist both conceptually and structurally. Conceptually, Shalom Paul first notes that moral exhortations, religious injunctions, and legal prescriptions are found independently in the ancient Near Eastern legal codes, but only in the biblical account are they combined.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) The holistic nature of Scripture provides support for the concept of the *imago Dei* interwoven within the biblical law. Second, the biblical account of the law codes plumbs the depths of humanity rather than merely focusing behavioral or cultic rituals. Specifically, according to Roy Gane, unlike the ancient Near Eastern tradition, the biblical law deals with the attitudes of individuals and the value of human life.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) For example, Exodus 20:17 is a prohibition against coveting houses, other people, animals, or anything at all. Coveting is detectable only by assessing inner motivations, which are available only to an omniscient God. Furthermore, Exodus 21:12 states, “Whoever strikes a man so that he dies shall be put to death.” Although the punishment may seem extreme, it clearly displays the value that Yahweh places on human life, which differs from certain ancient Near Eastern laws that allow for economic remuneration for homicide.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Structural distinctions also exist, especially pertaining to societal directives. Gane points out that, unlike the biblical law, some ancient Near Eastern law codes punish individuals by killing a family member in what was called “vicarious talion” or “talionic ruler punishment” (see Laws of Hammurabi §229 and §230).[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Exodus 21:29 highlights the distinction by stating that if an ox has a history of goring, and the animal kills an individual, then not only does the ox get stoned, but the owner, not a family member, is put to death. Gane also explains that the social class distinctions are not delineated when applying legal remedies to non-slaves in the Covenant Code.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) In other words, some ancient Near Eastern legal texts modify the punishments based on the rank of the individual assaulted (see Laws of Hammurabi §196-98). Finally, the biblical law codes have an important structural similarity to the United States Penal Code. Gane explains that the biblical legal code was a major advance in jurisprudence relative to the ancient Near Eastern legal system by “consistently treating an individual as innocent unless found to be guilty through an authorized procedure.”[\[30\]](#_ftn30) [![The Lost World of the Torah Law as Covenant and Wisdom in Ancient Context Volume 6 182x300 - Exodus in Ancient Near East](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Lost-World-of-the-Torah_-Law-as-Covenant-and-Wisdom-in-Ancient-Context-Volume-6-182x300.jpg "Exodus in Ancient Near East - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3Pq2DKO)The Lost World of the Torah: Law as Covenant and Wisdom in Ancient Context (Volume 6) (The Lost World Series) Alternatively, according to the Laws of Hammurabi §132, if a finger is pointed against a man’s wife accusing her of adultery, even though it has not been verified, she may be thrown in the Euphrates River as a sign of divine judgement. Three additional distinctions between the ancient Near Eastern legal codes and the Covenant Code need discussed. First, Walton identifies one of the most obvious yet significant differences, which is the source of the material.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) The ancient Near Eastern code originates from society’s kings, but the biblical material originates from the revelation of Israel’s divine king, Yahweh. Although the source distinction ought not be minimized, the two primary differences that most notably pertain to cognitive environment criticism are the concepts of covenant and holiness, both of which will be explored in greater detail within the methodology section. First, Yahweh enters a covenant with Abram in Genesis 12:1-3, which was ratified in Genesis 15 and extended to the nation of Israel in Exodus 6:6-7 when Yahweh takes the Israelites as His people. Although the suzerain-vassal relationship existed as substantiated by ancient treaties, Walton explains that the type of covenant extended to Israel is not attested in the ancient Near East.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) The covenantal distinction is illuminated by the novel ancient construct of co-identification, whereby Yahweh identifies with Israel, and thus, “Israel is made holy because Yahweh is holy.”[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Importantly, holiness is not a behavioral attribute but, instead, an ontological reality conferred via co-identification. The ancient Near Eastern law codes exclude any reference to the concept of conferred holiness. In sum, the Covenant Code, according to Walton, did not convey legislation, but instead, ordered the nature of the covenantal relationship that defined the holy people of Yahweh.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) ## **The Methodology** As mentioned above, within cognitive environment criticism, Walton identifies several potential models that engage the parallels between the ancient Near Eastern literature and the Bible: borrowing, polemics, counter-texts, echoes, and diffusion.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) However, the current research deploys a cognitive contextual methodology that explains the parallels through the Israelite’s worldview of transcendence. The application of the contextual methodology to a specific section of Scripture, such as the Covenant Code, begins with the identification of genre. The traditional view of the biblical legal codes, according to Wells, asserts that the law was authoritatively prescriptive and codified legislation that continues to reside within a debate regarding the extent of the codification and authority.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) Others assumed the legal codes were academic or non-legal treaties produced by scribal schools.[\[37\]](#_ftn37) However, Gane explains that the biblical laws, such as the Covenant Code, were built upon already existing divine values or priorities of God such as the sanctity of life and relational living (cf. Gen 1:27-31).[\[38\]](#_ftn38) Accordingly, Walton concludes that the Covenant Code was not codified legislation or a set of prescriptive documents, but instead, wisdom lists, similar to the genre of proverbs, that specifically provided judicial wisdom.[\[39\]](#_ftn39) However, in the ancient Near Eastern perspective of the law, justice was perceived through the lens of continuity, where the god(s) took care of the people so the people would take care of the god(s) in a co-dependent relational dynamic.[\[40\]](#_ftn40) In short, the concept of justice within an ancient Near Eastern worldview of continuity became a quid pro quo or a mutual accommodation of self-need. Alternatively, the context of the Covenant Code or wisdom lists exists within a worldview of transcendence where the Israelites kept the law in relationship with a transcendent “Other” that needed nothing in return. The genre of the Covenant Code as wisdom lists provides the launching pad to apply the comparative methodology to the two critical distinctions between the ancient Near Eastern law codes and the biblical law codes identified above: the covenant and holiness. First, regarding the covenant, William Barrick notes that biblical covenants are found within the context of ancient treaties, such as the Hittite treaties, that delineate and preserve the relationship between the suzerain and the vassal, a relationship dynamic prevalent in the ancient Near East between a king and his conquered subjects.[\[41\]](#_ftn41) Within the biblical covenant, Yahweh represents the suzerain king and the Israelites represent the vassals. Importantly, Walton explains that Israel, the vassal, is to demonstrate Yahweh’s power; thus, Israel’s condition reflects Yahweh’s holy reputation or holiness, who graciously offers His love to Israel by “extending His identity to them.”[\[42\]](#_ftn42) God proclaims in Exodus 6:7 that He is Israel’s God and the Israelites are His people, which seals the identity of the Israelites. Accordingly, Walton explains that the Covenant Code is not about following rules, and the failure to follow rules is not about penalizing sin, but instead, failure is about violating the covenant, which is supposed to preserve “the sanctity of sacred space as Yahweh’s people reflect the holy status given to them as partners and vassals in a covenant with Him.”[\[43\]](#_ftn43) At this point, the application of the comparative methodology crystalizes. Although the structure of the treaties and the related legal content of the ancient Near East appear to parallel the Covenant Code, by applying a cognitive contextual methodology, the meaning of the two corpuses are unmistakably different. First, the covenant that underpins the biblical law code emphasizes a high view of humanity where, unlike the ancient Near Eastern context, the Israelites participate within a relationship with the one and only transcendent God.[\[44\]](#_ftn44) Second, within the covenantal relationship, the Israelites can freely decide to obey the Covenant Code. Alternatively, the ancient Near Eastern worldview assumes, according to Oswalt, that choice is an illusion and hard determinism the standard within a worldview of panentheistic continuity.[\[45\]](#_ftn45) Third, within the covenantal relationship, the transcendent Yahweh, unlike the fickle ancient Near Eastern gods, is absolutely consistent and reliable. Fourth, in the transcendent worldview of the Israelites, the first principle is Spirit, not, as in the ancient Near Eastern view, matter.[\[46\]](#_ftn46) The relevance of the first principle becomes especially noteworthy within the context of conferred co-identification that results in a holy people. If holiness is not a behavioral or physical attribute, then holiness must be a conferred reality by the invisible Spirit of an almighty transcendent God whose spiritual presence resides among His people. Alternatively, the ancient Near Eastern view of continuity contends that reality is an enmeshment of the human and the divine. Fifth, Israel, as Yahweh’s holy people, is called to behave in a holy manner, which reflects Yahweh’s holiness, within a covenantal relationship. Accordingly, Oswalt explains that the biblical worldview calls for a standard of ethical obedience or holiness as a result of the conferred holiness, whereas the ancient Near Eastern view has no single standard of ethics.[\[47\]](#_ftn47) ## **The Study** The relevance of ancient Near Eastern background material fused with the distinctive ancient Israelite worldview has shown to be quite valuable in uncovering the core meaning of the Covenant Code. Accordingly, the following analysis briefly discusses a plan to incorporate ancient background material into a Bible study setting that is understandable to learners. In light of the identified genre of the Covenant Code, juridical wisdom literature, the approach to integrating background material into teaching incorporates a methodology that Gane calls “progressive moral wisdom.”[\[48\]](#_ftn48) The methodology first analyzes the function of the law itself, which reveals its representative value, and then the process expands to analyze the law within the Old Testament, the context of ancient life, the process of redemption, and finally, in regards to modern life.[\[49\]](#_ftn49) The verse used to deploy the plan of study is Exodus 23:4, which states, “If you meet your enemy’s ox or his donkey going astray, you shall bring it back to him.” First, regarding the function of the specific law identified, the underlying element addresses an inimical relationship between two parties, which ultimately leads to a profound test of character. At the start, Exodus 23:4 reveals a distinction from ancient Near Eastern legal codes as noted above, the biblical law deals with the attitudes of individuals. Specifically, if an enemy’s donkey goes astray and the escaped animal is seen, the individual may simply ignore the problem and nobody would know the difference, except an omniscient God. However, God holds individuals’ attitudes accountable. Accordingly, the law attempts to restrain the animosity between two enemies. Second, within the immediate context, Exodus 23:4 exists within a series of laws about justice and, within the broader context of the Pentateuch, the verse reflects similar content written in Deuteronomy 22:1-3. However, the most important aspect of context is the values presented. Certainly, in light of the personal property at stake, the Decalogue comes to mind, “You shall not steal” (Exod 20:15). However, underpinning the entire verse is the law of love with respect to valuing the life of animals, valuing human life even when contentious, and valuing relational living. The high value placed on relationships and human life is a biblical distinctive. Alternatively, the ancient Near Eastern legal codes are built upon a worldview of panentheistic determinism where human choice is an illusion and personal responsibility is rejected. Third, analyzing Exodus 23:4 within the context of the ancient Near Eastern law codes provides additional nuance to the study and understanding of the verse. For example, §71 of the Hittite Laws addresses a similar situation of an escaped stray ox.[\[50\]](#_ftn50) The individual who found the ox is allowed to use the animal while under his care as long as he notifies the elders, otherwise he is treated as a thief. Although similar content does exist, the nuanced meaning of Exodus 23:4 emerges by highlighting its distinctiveness. Gane points out that the ancient Near Eastern legal codes do not hold individuals accountable for the possibility of ignoring the situation, an act invisible to all but an omniscient God, and by contrast, the biblical account moves beyond neglect to the radical extension of love toward an enemy.[\[51\]](#_ftn51) A love based on the holiness of Yahweh is reflected in His co-identified holy people, the Israelites, a concept completely foreign to the ancient Near Eastern perspective. Fourth, the Covenant Code moves beyond the ancient Near Eastern attempt to control chaos and into the sphere of redemptive restoration. The inherent purpose of the command in Exodus 23:4 is to restore a broken relationship between two human beings. Significantly, no reward or penalty is identified within the command. Instead, according to Gane, the motivation was to follow the command not only because it was the right thing to do, but also because it was the wise thing to do.[\[52\]](#_ftn52) First, obeying the command is right because, as His vassals, following the command reflects the holiness of God who loves and values human life and relationships. Alternatively, the ancient Near Eastern motivation to follow the laws is to meet the needs of the gods so, in turn, their needs would be met, a perspective built upon the cognitive foundation of quid pro quo. Additionally, obeying the command is wise because even if extending love to an enemy immediately appears to backfire, the ultimate result may be to “heap burning coals on his head” (Prov 25:22). In other words, extending love to an enemy often provides an opportunity for the adversary to reconsider his responses in light of the powerful force of unconditional love. Said another way, according to Gane, “the biblical way to destroy your enemy is to turn him into a friend!”[\[53\]](#_ftn53) Fifth, at this point, the modern application is obvious. Many modern situations arise where a person attempts to extend harm. The harm may arise in the form of a co-worker, peer, friend, relative, or even spouse; thus, an enemy materializes. The natural tendency is to attempt to follow the rule. In this case, love an enemy. However, holiness is not about following rules. Holiness is a gift from God who has co-identified with His people. Accordingly, God’s people *are* holy. When believer’s live in that holy reality, they can loosen their grip on needing to find their value in what others think, how they are treated, or how they perform because their holy status has already been conferred by God. Accordingly, with nothing to prove, they no longer need to fight to be valued, fight to be right, or fight for their rights. A holy people can, in the most hostile environments, reflect the most holy behavior of all: love. ## **Conclusion** Far removed from spending the afternoon on the lookout for escaped donkeys, the modern biblical interpreter finds rich meaning within the Covenant Code. When properly viewed in light of the relevant cognitive context, obscure rule following falls by the wayside of the ancient dirt roads. Furthermore, the cultural context and iconographic imagery provide a necessary framework to view the ancient world of Exodus. Moreover, unlike the ancient Near Eastern legal codes, the underlying wisdom of the Covenant Code rejects quid pro quo, assumes a high view of humanity, denies determinism, engages a consistent and reliable God, receives a conferred holiness from the first principle, and behaves ethically as a reflection of Yahweh’s holiness. Although similarities exist between the ancient Near Eastern law codes and the biblical account, when a cognitive contextual methodology is deployed within the discipline of cognitive environment criticism, it becomes apparent that the Covenant Code is built upon the unique biblical worldview of transcendence. Personally, using the model of progressive moral wisdom within the distinctive cognitive environment of the Israelites provides both insight into modern application and a method for an intensely vibrant study of the biblical legal material. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Joel M. LeMon, “Egypt and the Egyptians,” in *The World around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East*, ed. Bill T. Arnold and Brent A. Strawn (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2019), 172–178. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas*, 57. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 59. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) LeMon, “Egypt and the Egyptians,” 178–181. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas*, 59. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Daniel Bodi, “Mesopotamian and Anatolian Iconography,” in *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 165. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Leland Ryken, James C. Wilhoit, and Tremper Longman III, eds., *Dictionary of Biblical Imagery* (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1998), 1, 20. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Brent A. Strawn, “‘With a Strong Hand and an Outstretched Arm’: On the Meaning(s) of the Exodus Tradition(s),” in *Iconographic Exegesis of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament: An Introduction to Its Theory, Method, and Practice*, ed. Isaak J. De Hulster, Brent A. Strawn, and Ryan P. Bonfiglio (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015), 106. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 107. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) LeMon, “Egypt and the Egyptians,” 176–177. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Strawn, “‘With a Strong Hand and an Outstretched Arm’: On the Meaning(s) of the Exodus Tradition(s),” 109. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid., 109–112. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Pamela Barmash, “Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Law,” *Religion Compass* 12, no. 5–6 (May 2018): 3. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Ibid. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) David P. Wright, *Inventing God’s Law: How the Covenant Code of the Bible Used and Revised the Laws of Hammurabi* (Oxford: Oxford University, 2009), 3–4. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) John H Walton, “Understanding Torah: Ancient Legal Text, Covenant Stipulation, and Christian Scripture,” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 29, no. 1 (2019): 2–4. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Bruce Wells, “What Is Biblical Law?: A Look at Pentateuchal Rules and Near Eastern Practice,” *The Catholic Biblical Quarterly* 70, no. 2 (April 2008): 233. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Ibid., 236. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Ibid., 238–241. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Hamme, Babcock, and Strong, “Code of Hammurabi.” [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Shalom Paul, *Studies in the Book of the Covenant in the Light of Cuneiform and Biblical Law* (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2005), 43. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 130. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) See the Hittite Telipinu Edict §49, the Laws of Eshnunna §47A, and the Laws of Hammurabi §198. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 130–131. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Ibid., 131. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Ibid., 132. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) John H. Walton and J. Harvey Walton, *The Lost World of the Torah: Law as Covenant and Wisdom in Ancient Context* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2019), 90–91. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Ibid., 91–92. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Ibid., 92. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Ibid. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) Walton, “Interactions in the Ancient Cognitive Environment,” 333–335. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Wells, “What Is Biblical Law?,” 226–228. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Ibid., 228–230. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 23, 79–80. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) Walton, “Understanding Torah,” 5–7. See the fusion of Torah and wisdom through the exploration of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Ben Sira, and Tobit in John J. Collins, “Torah as Narrative and Wisdom,” in *The Invention of Judaism*, 1st ed., Torah and Jewish Identity from Deuteronomy to Paul (Oakland: University of California Press, 2017), 80–96. See also the Torah viewed as wisdom in Deuteronomy in John J. Collins, “Wisdom and Torah,” in *Pedagogy in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity*, ed. Karina Martin Hogan, Matthew Goff, and Emma Wasserman (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2017), 59–80. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) John N. Oswalt, *The Bible Among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature?* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2009), 59–60. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) Barrick, “The Mosaic Covenant,” 215. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Walton, “Understanding Torah,” 10–11. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Ibid., 11–12. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Oswalt, *The Bible among the Myths*, 69–70. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Ibid., 60. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) Ibid., 66–67. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) Ibid., 60–61. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 197. [\[49\]](#_ftnref49) Ibid., 201. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50) See also a similar ancient Near Eastern parallel in §50 of the Laws of Eshnunna. [\[51\]](#_ftnref51) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 229. [\[52\]](#_ftnref52) Ibid., 230. [\[53\]](#_ftnref53) Ibid., 231. # Bibliography - Barmash, Pamela. “Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Law.” *Religion Compass* 12, no. 5–6 (May 2018): 1–9. - Barrick, William D. “The Mosaic Covenant.” *The Master’s Seminary Journal* 10, no. 2 (1999): 213–232. - Bodi, Daniel. “Mesopotamian and Anatolian Iconography.” In *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, edited by Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018. - Brisco, Thomas V. *Holman Bible Atlas: A Complete Guide to the Expansive Geography of Biblical History*. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1998. - Collins, John J. “Torah as Narrative and Wisdom.” In *The Invention of Judaism*, 80–96. 1st ed. Torah and Jewish Identity from Deuteronomy to Paul. Oakland: University of California Press, 2017. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Wisdom and Torah.” In *Pedagogy in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity*, edited by Karina Martin Hogan, Matthew Goff, and Emma Wasserman, 59–80. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2017. - Gane, Roy E. *Old Testament Law for Christians*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017. - Hamme, Joel, Bryan C. Babcock, and Justin David Strong. “Code of Hammurabi.” In *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*, edited by John D. Barry. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016. - LeMon, Joel M. “Egypt and the Egyptians.” In *The World around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East*, edited by Bill T. Arnold and Brent A. Strawn. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2019. - Oswalt, John N. *The Bible Among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature?* Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2009. - Paul, Shalom. *Studies in the Book of the Covenant in the Light of Cuneiform and Biblical Law*. Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2005. - Ryken, Leland, James C. Wilhoit, and Tremper Longman III, eds. *Dictionary of Biblical Imagery*. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1998. - Strawn, Brent A. “‘With a Strong Hand and an Outstretched Arm’: On the Meaning(s) of the Exodus Tradition(s).” In *Iconographic Exegesis of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament: An Introduction to Its Theory, Method, and Practice*, edited by Isaak J. De Hulster, Brent A. Strawn, and Ryan P. Bonfiglio. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015. - Walton, John H. “Interactions in the Ancient Cognitive Environment.” In *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, edited by Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018. - Walton, John H. “Understanding Torah: Ancient Legal Text, Covenant Stipulation, and Christian Scripture.” *Bulletin for Biblical Research* 29, no. 1 (2019): 1–18. - Walton, John H., and J. Harvey Walton. *The Lost World of the Torah: Law as Covenant and Wisdom in Ancient Context*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2019. - Wells, Bruce. “What Is Biblical Law?: A Look at Pentateuchal Rules and Near Eastern Practice.” *The Catholic Biblical Quarterly* 70, no. 2 (April 2008): 223–243. - Wright, David P. *Inventing God’s Law: How the Covenant Code of the Bible Used and Revised the Laws of Hammurabi*. Oxford: Oxford University, 2009. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Old Testament Prophecy, Divination, and Magic](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-prophecy-divination-and-magic/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Old Testament Prophecy, Divination, and Magic Biblical prophecy is not completely unique. It resides in a long history of ancient Near Eastern prophecy. John Walton identifies three different ancient Near Eastern texts that provide parallels to biblical prophecy: the Mari Letters, oracles from the Neo-Assyrian period, and Egyptian literature.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) First, the most significant are the Mari Letters. Victor Matthews and Don Benjamin explain that Mari was an ancient city in northern Syria destroyed in 1757 BC by Hammurabi.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) John Hilber notes that the Mari Letters suggest that early Mesopotamian prophets spoke words received from deities, which occurred in dreams or visions.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Furthermore, the Mesopotamian prophets were both male and female and the institution of prophecy, at times, was deployed vocationally in private and public settings.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The similarities to the Israelite prophets included eccentric behavior, access to a divine council, symbolic actions, responsiveness to music, admonishment of kings or people in power, and the use of scribes.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) An example of prophetic speech from the Mari Letters states, “No enemy will assail the throne of Mari, Zimri-Lim has sole title to the upper country. The ruler of Elam will be defeated!”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Alternatively, the differences between the Mesopotamian prophets and the [biblical prophets](https://www.livestransforming.com/relevance-of-prophetic-preaching/) are also significant, but before engaging the details of the distinctions, a comparison of prophecy and technical divination is necessary. Walton broadly defines divination as any process that attempts to obtain a message from beyond.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) However, Hilber is more specific by asserting that divination consists of certain practices used to receive messages “by ritual manipulation and/or observation of objects exterior to the human agent.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Although Hilber provides a nuanced definition of magic, if magic is an attempt to manipulate an impersonal force or control the supernatural world, it is difficult to observe a significant difference from the definition of divination. Without question, the manipulation of Yahweh through any means would not only be off limits, but impossible. The inability of humans to manipulate God is clearly seen in the book of Jonah with the prophet’s numerous unsuccessful attempts at controlling the actions of God. Besides divination, two additional important distinctions exist between the biblical and the Mesopotamian prophets. Not only do the biblical prophets hold to monotheism, but also, according to Matthews and Benjamin, the biblical prophets, unlike the Mesopotamian prophets, speak to the public.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The second category of ancient Near Eastern texts come from the Neo-Assyrian period. Mattijs J. de Jong points out that most of the Assyrian prophecies date from the beginning of the seventh century BC to the reign of Ashurbanipal (669-631BC).[\[10\]](#_ftn10) The Assyrian prophecies have several characteristics that parallel the Mesopotamian prophetic tradition while also providing a few distinctions. First, the oracle is normally given in the first person from a deity, which most often is Ishtar of Arbela, and it is communicated in the second person to a human king.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Second, the oracles almost always are concerned with an imminent future event that may be negative, such as enemy destruction, or positive, such as protection from a deity.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Third, it is common for the prophet to encourage the recipient to “fear not.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) [![Interpreting the Prophetic Books An Exegetical Handbook 182x300 - Old Testament Prophecy, Divination, and Magic](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Interpreting-the-Prophetic-Books_-An-Exegetical-Handbook-182x300.jpg "Old Testament Prophecy, Divination, and Magic - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3ZYcH2m)Interpreting the Prophetic Books: An Exegetical Handbook (Handbooks for Old Testament Exegesis) The connections are palpable. The biblical prophets obtained their messages directly from Yahweh, they were more concerned with the immediate future, although the distant future was not out of the question, and it was not uncommon for them to engage the message “fear not.” Furthermore, in both the Assyrian and biblical prophets, Gary Smith explains that God/gods spoke “words of comfort, support, sovereignty, protection, and reconciliation,” and both stressed the importance of trusting God/the gods and “called for people to praise God/the gods.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) However, important distinctions also existed. Smith continues, the Assyrian prophets took direction from multiple gods rather than one, produced far more positive oracles than did the biblical prophets, and the prophecies were brief compared to the biblical accounts.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Finally, Egyptian literature also had parallels to biblical prophecy. However, the parallels were more indirect. Walton notes that the Admonitions of Ipuwer and the Vision of Neferti likely both date around the second millennium, and like the biblical accounts, they provide warning of imminent judgment.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) For example, in a parallel to Zechariah 9:10, the Vision of Neferti states, “He will put the nomads to the sword. He will burn Libya to the ground.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) However, regardless of the similar nature of the content, Walton asserts that the institution of prophecy is absent in Egypt likely due to the divine nature associated with the pharaoh.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000), 581–582. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Victor H. Matthews and Don C. Benjamin, *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East* (New York: Paulist Press, 2016), 379. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) John W. Hilber, “Prophecy, Divination, and Magic in the Ancient Near East,” in *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 371. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 372. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Matthews and Benjamin, *Old Testament Parallels*, 381. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary*, 581. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Hilber, “Prophecy, Divination, and Magic in the Ancient Near East,” 368. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Matthews and Benjamin, *Old Testament Parallels*, 380. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Matthijs J. de Jong, *Isaiah Among the Ancient Near Eastern Prophets: A Comparative Study of the Earliest Stages of the Isaiah Tradition and the Neo-Assyrian Prophecies* (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 131. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 141. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Gary Smith, *Interpreting the Prophetic Books: An Exegetical Handbook*, ed. David M. Howard, Handbooks for Old Testament Exegesis (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2014), 97. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary*, 582. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Matthews and Benjamin, *Old Testament Parallels*, 378. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary*, 582. # Bibliography - Hilber, John W. “Prophecy, Divination, and Magic in the Ancient Near East.” In *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, edited by Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018. - Jong, Matthijs J. de. *Isaiah Among the Ancient Near Eastern Prophets: A Comparative Study of the Earliest Stages of the Isaiah Tradition and the Neo-Assyrian Prophecies*. Leiden: Brill, 2007. - Matthews, Victor H., and Don C. Benjamin. *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East*. New York: Paulist Press, 2016. - Smith, Gary. *Interpreting the Prophetic Books: An Exegetical Handbook*. Edited by David M. Howard. Handbooks for Old Testament Exegesis. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2014. - Walton, John H., Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas. *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Exodus: Geography and Archaeology](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-geography-and-archaeology/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Exodus: Geography and Archaeology ## **Introduction** The archaeological data relevant to the book of Exodus spans from small pieces of papyri to the Sphinx Dream Stele in front of the magisterial Great Sphinx of Giza. The historical geography relevant to Exodus provides insight into some of the most hotly debated issues of modern scholarship. The question is what specific pieces of archaeological artifacts and geographical scenery provide glimpses into the ancient world of the book of Exodus. Without identifying the pertinent archaeology and geography, the layman and scholar stand to miss the patterns of evidence that that illuminate history. *An overview of the book of Exodus’s most prominent archaeological and geographical data not only enhances understanding of the text, but the data also provides evidence to support the historicity of the book*. First, a brief archaeological overview identifies eight significant finds in the ancient Near East that illuminate an understanding of the book of Exodus while simultaneously providing evidence for its historicity. Next, a brief geographical survey commences that follows the movement of the ancient Israelites from Rameses to Mount Sinai during the most notable event in the history of the Jewish people – the Exodus. The geographical data also elucidates meaning and reinforces the historicity of the event. ## **Archaeological Overview** Although one would think that extensive remains would exist to support the events of the Exodus, two important factors explain the dearth of archaeological data. Randall Price and H. Wayne House point out that the Egyptian propaganda machine would never have documented a national defeat, and the extreme conditions of the desert environment would have likely disintegrated any remaining evidence.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Accordingly, archaeological support for the date of the Exodus event is lacking. However, without digging too deeply into the debate, a piece that applies to the date of the event is the Merneptah Stele. The stele, which is dated no later than 1250 BC, is the only inscription during the New Kingdom period that refers to Israel.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, the late date proponents assume the Exodus event occurred around the same time. However, the early date proponents assume the Merneptah Stele referred to Israel as a nation after the conquest; thus, the Exodus event had to occur during an earlier period such as the fifteenth century BC. Two important archaeological finds are the Brooklyn Papyrus 35.1446 and the Rekhmire Tomb Painting. First, according to Titus Kennedy, the papyrus is dated to the seventeenth century, likely discovered in Thebes, and lists nine servants with Hebrew names.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Exodus 1:11 refers to Egyptian taskmasters afflicting Israelite slaves prior to the Exodus. The list provides evidence that the Israelites were in Egypt at an early date, which aligns with verse 11. Also, John Harmon explains that the Rekhmire tomb painting characterizes immigrants or, more specifically, prisoners of war producing bricks.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Similar to the Brooklyn Papyrus, the tomb provides evidence of the existence of Israelite people in Egypt prior to the Exodus. Temple walls and pillars also provided archaeological evidence of the Israelites. Kennedy notes that the words the “lands of the nomads of YHWH” were found on two of the New Kingdom Egyptian Temples and one of the temple pillars in Sudan.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The hieroglyphic inscriptions on the walls of the temples and the pillar were the earliest known texts that referred to YHWH. The reference aligns with Exodus 7:5, which states that the “Egyptians shall know that I am the Lord (YHWH).”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) They were both found in northern Sudan in the ancient town of Soleb and were dated around 1400-1300 BC.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Not only does the text reference YHWH, but it also references the nomadic nature of the Israelites prior to their inhabitation in the area of Egypt. Archaeological evidence may provide insight into the difficult topic of YHWH hardening Pharaoh’s heart. According to Price and House, a painting on the coffin of the Pharaoh of the Twenty-First Dynasty named Tanakhtenettahat exemplifies the funerary art that characterizes the theology of the afterlife where the dead had to face a trial.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) A similar archaeological find exists in mural form in the scroll of the Egyptian Book of the Dead, both of which depict a “weighing of the heart” scene.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) In the ancient world, the heart was the seat of cognitions and emotions. When an individual died, the assessment occurred by weighing the heart against the standard of truth by using a scale. If the heart was too heavy with sin, then the scales would tip to the destruction, but, if the heart was light, then the individual would experience eternal life. In Exodus 4:21, the Lord says to Moses, “I will harden \[make heavy\] his \[Pharaoh’s\] heart.” Pharaoh represented salvation in Egypt, so, according to G. K. Beale, God’s hardening of Pharaoh’s heart is a polemic against his salvific powers “and the belief that Pharaoh’s heart was the all-controlling factor both in history and society.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Accordingly, Pharaoh’s power to stop the plagues was negated and destruction ensued. The famous story of Moses and Aaron dueling with the Egyptian magicians that resulted in Aaron’s staff swallowing the magician’s staffs may have an archaeological backdrop. Price and House explain that the text inscribed on the walls of the pyramid of King Unas at Saqqara in Egypt was written with Egyptian characters in a Semitic dialect and referenced the idea of a “mother snake.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The theory is that sometime between the twenty-fourth and thirtieth century BC, Canaanite priests provided magical spells to the Egyptians to protect mummies from poisonous snakes that scared the Egyptians.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) The Egyptians believed their culture was superior to not only the Canaanites, but to all their neighbors. Accordingly, the dueling staffs prove that YHWH is superior to all. Although little direct archeological evidence exists for the Exodus event, indirect evidence may exist via the Papyrus Leiden 344. The Egyptian plagues occur in Exodus 7:14-12:36 and mark a time of rebellion and lament by the Egyptian people. Kennedy explains that the poem, the Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage: The Ipuwer Papyrus, is a lament that describes a time when Egypt was experiencing death and destruction and would have occurred sometime prior to the thirteenth century.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Price and House provide excerpts of the papyrus, which states, “The river is blood. If you drink of it, you lose your humanity, and thirst for water…behold, plague sweeps the land, blood is everywhere.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) It is difficult to miss the connection between the papyrus and the water to blood plague in the book of Exodus and the large-scale death that may have accompanied many of the plagues. The death of the firstborn may also be referred to in front of the archaeological majesty of the Great Sphinx of Giza. Kennedy explains that the Sphinx Dream Stele was an official text of Pharaoh Thutmose IV, who reigned during the fifteenth century BC, that documented a dream.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) However, the relevance of the stele is not so much in the dream as in the pharaoh’s ascension to the throne. Kennedy continues by explaining that scholars believe that the text demonstrates that Thutmose IV was not the natural heir, but his older, firstborn brother, Amenhotep, mysteriously died, which allowed him to become pharaoh.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Exodus 12:29 tells the story of the tenth plague the struck down the firstborn sons, which would have included Pharaoh’s firstborn son. The Sphinx Dream Stele may provide evidence that supports the historicity of the tenth plague. Archaeology also provides structures comparable not only to the tabernacle, but also to the Ark of the Covenant that was often placed within the tabernacle. Alan Millard points out that portable shrines with gold-plated wooden frames had been created by Egyptian craftsman since about 2500 BC.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) More specifically, Price and House explain that within the innermost portion of the tomb of King Tutankhamen in the Valley of the Kings at Luxor was a smaller gold-plated shrine protected by a cherub-like figure.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) The tomb appears to parallel the chronology and the structure of the tabernacle in the biblical account, which also houses the Ark of the Covenant in its inner-most portion. Finally, according to Elie Borowski, cherubim figures commonly appeared in ancient Near Eastern cultures for protection as documented in the palace in northern Syria of the governor of Hadatu at the archaeological site of Arslan Tash.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Numerous other examples exist, but it is clear that the structural concept of the biblical tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant were not unique to [the ancient Near East](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-ancient-near-east-context/). Although modern scholars would desire much more evidence, the archaeological clues provided by the enormous progress in the last couple of centuries continues to contribute to an understanding of Scripture and the historicity of the biblical data. ## **Geographical Overview** Although the book of Exodus records Moses growing up in Egypt, fleeing to Midian after killing an Egyptian, and then returning to Egypt under God’s providential care, the focus of the geographical analysis by most scholars is on the route of the Exodus event. According to Exodus 12:37-38, the Exodus begins in Rameses with about 600,000 men along with their families and livestock who plan to journey to Succoth. According to Thomas Brisco, the city of Rameses was the capital and government center of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt, which included palaces and residences for officials serving the pharaoh.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Carl Rasmussen explains that Succoth is likely located within the region of Wadi Tumilat at Tell el-Maskhuta, which is northwest of the Red Sea.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) [![Ancient Israel in Sinai The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Wilderness Tradition 182x300 - Exodus: Geography and Archaeology](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Ancient-Israel-in-Sinai_-The-Evidence-for-the-Authenticity-of-the-Wilderness-Tradition-182x300.jpg "Exodus: Geography and Archaeology - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/40lf3JV)Ancient Israel in Sinai\_ The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Wilderness Tradition Furthermore, James Hoffmeier highlights the fact that, according to various Egyptian inscriptions, Succoth was a military zone; thus the Israelites likely traversed the east side of the Wadi Tumilat to avoid military confrontation, which would support a central or southern direction toward Sinai.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) After Succoth, the Israelites camped at Etham at the edge of the wilderness and as the people drew closer to the sea prior to crossing, the Lord said to Moses, “Tell the people of Israel to turn back and encamp in front of Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, in front of Baal-zephon; you shall encamp facing it, by the sea” (Exod 13:20; 14:2). Unfortunately, Rasmussen notes that the locations are problematic, but Pi-hahiroth could be a low area west of the Bitter Lake, and Etham and Migdol could be one of several Egyptian forts north of the Bitter Lake alongside the modern Suez Canal.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) Hoffmeier explains that attempts to locate these geographical toponyms have spawned three theories regarding the direction of Israelites after crossing the Red Sea or Sea of Reeds: the northern, central, and southern theories.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Finally, the traditional location for the crossing of the sea is at the north end of the Gulf of Suez possibly around one of the lakes.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) According to Exodus 15:22-23, after the miraculous crossing of the sea, the Israelites spent three days in the wilderness of Shur. The direction of the remaining journey until their arrival in Kadesh-barnea is debated by scholars. First, the route could have taken a northern trajectory. Brisco explains that the northern section of the Sinai Peninsula consisted of sandy coastal plains alongside deserts in the west that bordered several lakes and a large lagoon to the extreme north.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Exodus 17:8-16 refers to an Israelite encounter with the Amalekites at Rephidim. The Amalekites who, according to Brisco, are seminomadic people who inhabited northern Sinai provide evidence for the northern theory.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) However, Hoffmeier asserts that no archaeological evidence exists for Baal-zephon in northern Sinai during the second millennium, and since the northern coastal highway included a significant military presence, the northern theory needs abandoned.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Second, the central theory suggests the Israelites migrated through the middle of the Sinai Peninsula either before moving toward Kadesh-barnea or prior to heading to Mount Sinai located in Arabia, a location near Midian where Moses had fled. The geography of the central plateau, according to Brisco, was primarily covered in limestone and sandstone with a line of low mountains on the north and a barren wilderness through its center.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) Exodus 19:18 describes the mountain as trembling, which may connote an earthquake. Historical evidence of volcanic activity along the western Arabian coast provides some limited evidence for the central theory. Third, the southern theory, which is the most prevalent, assumes the Israelites moved down the southwest side of the Sinai Peninsula and that Mount Sinai was located at the traditional location at Jebel Musa. Brisco describes the geography of the southern granite mountain range of the Sinai Peninsula as elevating above eight thousand feet and consisting of deep valleys full of streams, the largest being the Wadi Feiran.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Three reasons support the southern route of the Israelites. Exodus 13:17 explains that God prohibited the Israelites from traveling by way of the land of the Philistines, which suggests the Israelites avoided the northern coast. Second, Deuteronomy 1:2 states that the journey from the mountain to Kadesh-barnea takes eleven days, which fits well with the location of Mount Sinai in the south. Third, according to Brisco, several sites mentioned in Scripture from Mount Sinai to Kadesh-barnea suggest a southern location.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) Unfortunately, many place names and regions remain unidentified due to the discontinuity of the population and the lack of artifacts due to the climate, terrain, and nomadic nature of the Israelites. However, geographical analysis continues to provide insight and direction that illuminates the story of the Bible and supports the historicity of the book of Exodus. ## **Conclusion** Although retracing the footsteps of the ancient Israelites in photographs may be the closest most students and scholars come to the on-site archaeological and geographical immersion experienced by the skilled professional, the ramifications of the data are no less critical. The diverse archaeological artifacts that include papyri, temple walls, coffins, pyramid inscriptions, stelae, and tomb contents combine to provide a tapestry of evidence for the book of Exodus. Furthermore, the variegated geographical features from camping outside fortified cities along lakes and rivers to the inhabitation of the Sinai Peninsula, which included sandy coastal plains, barren wildernesses within the central plateau, and pink granite mountain ranges in the south, provide color to the already vivid story. Without question, the brief overview of the book of Exodus’s most prominent archaeological and geographical data has not only enhanced an understanding of the book, but it has also provided evidence to support the historicity of its events. From a personal perspective, teaching the historical aspects of the biblical text can be risky in front of listeners attempting to stay awake long enough for the practical application. However, when the archaeological and geographical data not only illuminate the mind’s understanding, but also solidifies the individual’s belief in the events, history comes to life and so does the listener. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) J. Randall Price and H. Wayne House, *Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology: A Book by Book Guide to Archaeological Discoveries Related to the Bible* (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Academic, 2017), 82. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Victor H. Matthews and Don C. Benjamin, *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East* (New York: Paulist Press, 2016), 100. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Titus M. Kennedy, *Unearthing the Bible: 101 Archaeological Discoveries That Bring the Bible to Life* (Eugene: Harvest House Publishers, 2020), 47–48. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) John A. Harmon, “Archaeology of Egypt,” in *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*, ed. John D. Barry et al. (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016). [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Kennedy, *Unearthing the Bible*, 60. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Kennedy, *Unearthing the Bible*, 60. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Price and House, *Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology*, 85. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) G K. (Gregory K) Beale, “An Exegetical and Theological Consideration of the Hardening of Pharaoh’s Heart in Exodus 4-14 and Romans 9,” *Trinity Journal* 5, no. 2 (1984): 149. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Price and House, *Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology*, 87. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Kennedy, *Unearthing the Bible*, 53–54. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Price and House, *Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology*, 89. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Kennedy, *Unearthing the Bible*, 58–59. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Alan R. Millard, “Tutankhamun, The Tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant,” *Bible and Spade* 7, no. 2 (1994): 50. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Price and House, *Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology*, 92–93. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Elie Borowski, “Cherubim: God’s Throne?” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 21, no. 4 (July 1995): 36–41. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Thomas V. Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas: A Complete Guide to the Expansive Geography of Biblical History* (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1998), 68. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Carl G. Rasmussen, *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2010), 103. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) James K. Hoffmeier, *Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition* (New York: Oxford, 1996), 179-182. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Rasmussen, *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible*, 103–104. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Hoffmeier, *Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition*, 183. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Rasmussen, *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible*, 104. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas*, 65. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Ibid., 68. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Hoffmeier, *Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition*, 184. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas*, 65. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Brisco, *Holman Bible Atlas*, 66, 68. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Ibid., 67. # Bibliography - Beale, G K. (Gregory K). “An Exegetical and Theological Consideration of the Hardening of Pharaoh’s Heart in Exodus 4-14 and Romans 9.” *Trinity Journal* 5, no. 2 (1984): 129–154. - Borowski, Elie. “Cherubim: God’s Throne?” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 21, no. 4 (July 1995): 36–41. - Brisco, Thomas V. *Holman Bible Atlas: A Complete Guide to the Expansive Geography of Biblical History*. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1998. - Harmon, John A. “Archaeology of Egypt.” In *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*, edited by John D. Barry, David Bomer, Derek R. Brown, Rachel Klippenstein, Mangum Douglas, Carrie Sinclair Wolcott, Lazarus Wentz, Elliot Ritzema, and Wendy Widder. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016. - Hoffmeier, James K. *Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition*. New York: Oxford, 1996. - Kennedy, Titus M. *Unearthing the Bible: 101 Archaeological Discoveries That Bring the Bible to Life*. Eugene: Harvest House Publishers, 2020. - Matthews, Victor H., and Don C. Benjamin. *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East*. New York: Paulist Press, 2016. - Millard, Alan R. “Tutankhamun, The Tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant.” *Bible and Spade* 7, no. 2 (1994): 49–51. - Price, J. Randall, and H. Wayne House. *Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology: A Book by Book Guide to Archaeological Discoveries Related to the Bible*. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Academic, 2017. - Rasmussen, Carl G. *Zondervan Atlas of the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2010. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Biblical Covenants, Laws, & Treaties](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-covenants-laws-treaties/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Biblical Covenants, Laws, & Treaties A correct interpretation of the Mosaic Covenant depends on a proper understanding of the structure or arrangement of the covenant. As a prologue to the discussion, William Barrick importantly explains that all biblical covenants were “promulgated by the divine Suzerain on behalf of His vassal-people.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) In the culture of the ancient Near East, a victorious king would often formally declare a covenant with his new vassal. In the case of the Mosaic Covenant, the authority of the covenantal content rests with Yahweh. Furthermore, Barrick correctly explains that the Mosaic covenant’s structure, which aligned with the format of various suzerain-vassal treaties, was purposefully initiated by God so that the revelation was presented in a form that was familiar and understandable to the Israelites.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The Hittite suzerain-vassal treaties are representative of those that parallel the format of the biblical covenants. Although the biblical accounts may not completely follow the secular counterparts, Victor Matthew and Don Benjamin provide a summary of the common components of the treaty form: (1) the credentials, (2) a history, (3) the terms, (4) the witnesses, (5) the blessings and curses, and (6) the recording provisions.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Barrick applies the basic format to the Mosaic covenant as follows: (1) history (Exod 19:1-4), (2) preamble (Exod 19:5-6), (3) terms (Exod 20:3-23:19), blessings and curses (Exod 23:20-23), and (5) recording provisions (Exod 24:4-7).[\[4\]](#_ftn4) A couple of observations are worth noting. First, Cleon Rogers highlights the importance of the historical preparation section of the Egyptian version of the treaty between Hattusilis and Ramses II, which parallels Exodus 19.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) In the treaty between Egypt and Hatti, there is a date, a geographical setting, and the mediator of the covenant, and in the Mosaic Covenant there is a date, the third month (Exod 19:1), the geographical setting, the wilderness (Exod 19:2), and the mediator, Moses (Exod 19:3).[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Second, the most important part of the Mosaic Covenant is likely the conditional sentence, “If you will indeed obey my voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my treasured possession among all people, for all the earth is mine” (Exod 19:5).[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The suzerain-vassal relationship is certainly evident within Yahweh’s promise. As noted, the blessings and curses are a segment of the ancient Near Eastern treaty form. However, a formal list of blessings and curses do not exist in the book of Exodus, although punishments documented in the book may be encompassed in the broad scope of the concept (e.g. Exod 35:12). According to Rogers, the blessings and curses listed in Leviticus 26 and Deuteronomy 28 ought to be considered incorporated into the Mosaic Covenant in the book of Exodus.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Although the blessings and curses follow the ratification of the Mosaic Covenant, the incorporation is not unreasonable for it was common for covenants to be updated in [the ancient Near East](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-ancient-near-east-context/).[\[9\]](#_ftn9) [![Exodus Volume 1 182x300 - Biblical Covenants, Laws, & Treaties](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Exodus-Volume-1-182x300.jpg "Biblical Covenants, Laws, & Treaties - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3PlnS0h)Exodus Volume 1: EP Study Commentary Finally, it is difficult to ignore the emphasis that the blessings and curses place on the topic of land, which seems to not only look backwards, but also forward to a time of exile and also to a time of restoration in Christ (Deut 30:1-6). The section of the Mosaic Covenant that specifies the terms of the agreement is documented primarily in Exodus 21-23, which is called the Book of the Covenant or the Covenant Code. Three important ancient Near Eastern law-codes chronologically precede the Covenant Code and play a significant role in understanding it. According to John Currid, the Code of Hammurabi is the most popular law-code and is named after the King of the Babylonian Dynasty from around 1700 BC.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) The Lipit-Ishtar Code and Laws of Eshnunna are similar law-codes but date to the nineteenth-century BC.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The importance of the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition to an understanding of the structure of the Mosaic Covenant pertains to the similarities between the Covenant Code and the Mesopotamian legal tradition. Joel Hamm, Bryan Babcock, and Justin Strong provide three structural characteristics of the Mesopotamian legal code that are reflected in the Covenant Code: (1) both codes are third person writings, (2) both codes are casuistic, and (3) both codes cover many of the same topics.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) For example, the casuistic nature of the codes is evident in both Exodus 21:16 and the Legal Code of Hammurabi (LH) §14, if a man kidnaps, then he will die. The importance of the ancient Near Eastern legal codes to an understanding of the structure of the Covenant Code can also be explored from a broader perspective. Bruce Wells provides three additional connections: both codes address (1) similar legal issues, (2) similar legal reasoning, and (3) similar legal remedies.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) For example, both codes address the legal issues pertaining to parental abuse (Exod 21:15; LH §195), quarreling men (Exod 21:18-19; LH §206), and striking a pregnant woman (Exod 21:22-23; LH §209-212). Finally, dissimilarities between the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition and the biblical legal tradition are also important for understanding Scripture. Hamm, Babcock, and Strong point out that the purpose, benefit, and scope of the biblical account contrasts with the ancient culture’s perspective: The purpose of the biblical law was to produce a holy nation, the benefit was to image Yahweh, and the scope applied to all social classes, all of which were foreign to the Near Eastern traditions.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) In sum, knowledge of the ancient Near Eastern legal traditions provides an opportunity for the student or scholar to deepen an understanding of the biblical legal material by comparing and contrasting it with the shared culture of the ancient Near Eastern legal practices. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) William D Barrick, “The Mosaic Covenant,” *The Master’s Seminary Journal* 10, no. 2 (1999): 215. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 220. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Victor H. Matthews and Don C. Benjamin, *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East* (New York: Paulist Press, 2016), 94. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Barrick, “The Mosaic Covenant,” 221. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Cleon L Jr Rogers, “The Covenant with Moses and Its Historical Setting,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 14, no. 3 (1971): 147. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 148. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Rogers, “The Covenant with Moses and Its Historical Setting,” 154. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) John D. Currid, *A Study Commentary on Exodus: Exodus 19–40*, vol. 2, EP Study Commentary (Carlisle, PA: Evangelical Press, 2001), 64. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Joel Hamme, Bryan C. Babcock, and Justin David Strong, “Code of Hammurabi,” in *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*, ed. John D. Barry (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016). [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Bruce Wells, “What Is Biblical Law?: A Look at Pentateuchal Rules and Near Eastern Practice,” *The Catholic Biblical Quarterly* 70, no. 2 (April 2008): 232. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Hamme, Babcock, and Strong, “Code of Hammurabi.” # Bibliography - Barrick, William D. “The Mosaic Covenant.” *The Master’s Seminary Journal* 10, no. 2 (1999): 213–232. - Currid, John D. *A Study Commentary on Exodus: Exodus 19–40*. Vol. 2. EP Study Commentary. Carlisle, PA: Evangelical Press, 2001. - Hamme, Joel, Bryan C. Babcock, and Justin David Strong. “Code of Hammurabi.” In *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*, edited by John D. Barry. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016. - Matthews, Victor H., and Don C. Benjamin. *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East*. New York: Paulist Press, 2016. - Rogers, Cleon L Jr. “The Covenant with Moses and Its Historical Setting.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 14, no. 3 (1971): 141–155. - Wells, Bruce. “What Is Biblical Law?: A Look at Pentateuchal Rules and Near Eastern Practice.” *The Catholic Biblical Quarterly* 70, no. 2 (April 2008): 223–243. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Exodus: Comparative Literary Analysis](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-comparative-literary-analysis/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Exodus: Comparative Literary Analysis ## **Introduction** The number of literary parallels between the ancient Near Eastern literature and the book of Exodus likely eclipses the parallels within many of the other Old Testament books combined. The comparative literature that encompasses the book of Exodus features some of the most celebrated stories and events in the Old Testament including the tale of baby Moses, the account of Moses’s exile, the famous parting of the sea, and the giving of the law. The question is what specific literature in the ancient Near East parallels these important events. Without identifying the pertinent literature, the interpreter risks missing culturally relevant contextual clues that could illuminate the meaning of Scripture. *A brief comparative literary analysis of the book of Exodus reveals that many of the dominant stories and themes are reflected within the ancient Near Eastern literary environment.* Importantly, the purpose of this overview is not to provide analysis of the similarities and differences or to opine upon how the Israelites engaged the content but rather to identify comparative literature. First, a brief overview of the methodology and scope used to select the comparative literature occurs, which explains how the parallels were chosen. Next, a comparative analysis ensues juxtaposing some of the most prominent stories and events in the book of Exodus with the germane ancient Near Eastern literature. ## **Methodology and Scope** [![Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement 182x300 - Exodus: Comparative Literary Analysis](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Ancient-Near-Eastern-Texts-Relating-to-the-Old-Testament-with-Supplement-182x300.jpg "Exodus: Comparative Literary Analysis - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BVCdNL)Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement In order to provide a brief comparative literary analysis between the book of Exodus and the ancient Near Eastern literature, a proper selection methodology is required due to the extensive nature of the parallels. The methodology used aggregated the potential parallels from all assigned textbooks and two other important sources that specifically provided a broad framework of relevant [ancient Near Eastern content](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-ancient-near-east-context/). The first source was James Pritchard’s *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*, which includes potential parallels from all the surrounding nations of the ancient Near East.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The second source was a more recent article entitled “Egyptian Texts relating to the Exodus: Discussion of Exodus Parallels in Egyptology Literature” by Brad Sparks.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Sparks identifies thirty parallels from fifty-six scholars from 1844 to the twenty-first century in the professional literature.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Texts from all the sources were recorded in a spreadsheet with the applicable nation, biblical verses, sources, and motifs when available. The scope has two parameters. First, to limit the scope and avoid parallelomania, the literary overview extends preference to parallels that were included in multiple sources and focus on the dominant topics and events of the book of Exodus. Second, the scope excludes parallels documented in the research provided in the paper “Historical Geography and Archaeology: Exodus” that integrates shorter textual references. Instead, the research focuses on more comprehensive literary pieces. Accordingly, the comparative literary analysis explores eight literary parallels between the book of Exodus and the ancient Near Eastern literature. ## **Comparative Literary Overview** One of the most popular and memorable parallels to the book of Exodus is *The Legend of Sargon*. The story tells of the birth and rise to power of the founder of the Akkadian Empire and early ruler in Mesopotamia around 2300 BC who successfully ruled for more than fifty years.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) According to the legend, Sargon, who became a mighty king, was born in secret and then set in a basket of rushes and sealed with bitumen before being placed into the river by his mother.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) A man named Akki finds Sargon, draws him from the river, and rears the boy into manhood at which time it is told that the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar loved Sargon, and he became a successful ruler.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The parallels to the story of Moses are unmistakable. The birth story of Moses tells of a woman who hid her son in secret and eventually placed him in a basket made with bulrushes and bitumen and placed him in a river (Exod 2:2-3). Instead of being rescued by a man, the baby Moses is rescued by the daughter of the Pharaoh, and Moses eventually becomes the leader of the Israelites (Exod 2:5-10). The most obvious parallels include the secrecy of the birth, the abandonment of the baby, the basket and river, the rescue, the favor of individuals of eminence, and the ultimate position of leadership by the baby. The abandoned child motif also exists within other ancient Near Eastern kingdoms. Donald Redford identifies thirty-two different ancient Near Eastern references to the literary motif of the exposed child.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Specifically, the relevance of the Myth of Horus is that it, according to John Currid, has been in the Egyptian literature for a significant period of time, and although the most extensive recording of the story is during the first century AD, the primary elements of the story appear as early as the Egyptian Pyramid Texts.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Redford summarizes the story as follows: The goddess Isis births a son named Horus who is hidden in a “nest” among the papyrus to protect the boy from the evil god, Seth. Ultimately, Horus grows up a hero and drives the god Seth out of Egypt.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Although the parallels are not as obvious within the story of the gods as in *The Legend of Sargon*, the basic elements still exist. Like Moses, Horus is in danger, hidden in papyrus, and grows to become an important leader. An additional parallel not mentioned in *The Legend of Sargon* is that a villain pursued the child and attempted to murder him like the Pharaoh’s commands in Exodus 1:15-22. A literary work from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom called the Stories of Sinuhe is considered a piece of classic literature. The parallels between Sinuhe and the Old Testament extend beyond the book of Exodus. However, the connection to Exodus pertains to Moses’s early adulthood. Victor Matthew and Don Benjamin retell the story: Sinuhe was a man working as an official for Pharaoh Amenemhet I (1991-1962 BC) and took care of his daughter, Neferu. The Pharaoh dies and Sinuhe feels that his life is in danger, so he flees Egypt and moves to Syria-Palestine. Ultimately, Senwosret, the newly appointed pharaoh, emerges and invites Sinuhe back to his homeland.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Consensus does not exist regarding the connection. However, Sparks notes that some believe that Sinuhe foreshadows the story of Moses’s exile, some believe that Sinuhe was a recurring theme within the ancient Near east, and others believe the resemblances are coincidental.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) However, Currid provides several clear parallels between the stories to support a definite connection, which include both Sinuhe and Moses initially living in a royal court, then facing a threat that prompts both to flee, followed by victory in exile before experiencing a successful return.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) The “Destruction of Mankind” (Destruction), the story of humanity plotting against the sun god Ra who then reacts to deliver divine punishment to mankind, is a portion of a larger work called *The Book of the Heavenly Cow*. Several striking parallels exist between Destruction and the book of Exodus. First, Currid observes that Ra comes to terms with mankind’s potential rebellion by stating, “I am that I am, I will not let them take action.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Similarly, Exodus 3:14 states, “God said to Moses, ‘I am who I am.’ And he said, ‘Say this to the people of Israel: ‘I am has sent me to you.’”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Not only is there a sovereign connotation to both references, but according to Currid, a morphological and phonetic parallel also exists.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Moreover, Sparks explains that many Egyptologists identify the theme of Destruction as a “primeval revolt” or “rebellion of mankind” that is prevalent in more than a dozen Egyptian texts and resembles an Exodus-like motif.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Specifically, the challenge against Ra as represented by the Pharaoh of Egypt is launched by the Hebrews in the northern part of Egypt via “their escape and ensuing armed pursuit.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) The divine name revelation and the primeval rebellion motif both provide opportunities for an enhanced understanding of the Exodus. Another striking parallel comes from the “Poems about Baal and Anath” from Ugaritic literature. In the golden calf episode, Moses is angry and breaks the tablets just before he took the calf and “burned it with fire and ground it to powder and scattered it on the water and made the people of Israel drink it” (Exod 32:19-20). The relevant Ugaritic poem tells of the goddess Anath annihilating the god Mot: **With a fire she burns him,** **With millstones she grinds him,** **In a field she sows him.**[\[18\]](#_ftn18) The parallels between the destruction of the golden calf by Moses and the destruction of Mot by Anath include burning, grinding, and scattering. Thomas Dozeman explains that the parallels move beyond verbal repetition and into the realm of life and death. Specifically, Mot is the god of death in Ugaritic literature, and thus when the goddess Anath destroys Mot by burning, grinding, and scattering, she is annihilating death.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Similarly, Dozeman continues, the golden calf represented the reign of death over life; thus, when Moses destroys the golden calf, he is annihilating a representation of death and preparing the way for the new covenant.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) It would likely be a crime to omit from a comparative literary analysis of the book of Exodus the parallels between the Hittite suzerain-vassal treaties and the content and format of the biblical covenants. Although the ancient Near Eastern accounts do not completely mirror the biblical accounts, Roy Gane provides a summary of the common components of the treaty form: (1) prologue, (2) past relationship, (3) stipulations, (4) the witnesses, (5) the blessings and curses, and (6) the recording provisions.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Furthermore, William Barrick succinctly highlights the parallels between the Mosaic covenant and the ancient Near Eastern treaty form as follows: (1) history (Exod 19:1-4), (2) preamble (Exod 19:5-6), (3) terms (Exod 20:3-23:19), (4) blessings and curses (Exod 23:20-23), and (5) recording provisions (Exod 24:4-7).[\[22\]](#_ftn22) More specifically, the treaty between Hattusilis and Ramses II parallels Exodus 19 and, according to Cleon Rogers, the components of the parallels include the date, a geographical setting, and the mediator of the covenant.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) More importantly than the content and structure of the treaties is that, according to Gane, the treaties highlight the relational dynamics of Scripture represented by the ancient Near Eastern rulers (suzerains), represented by Yahweh, and subordinates (vassals), represented by the Israelites, who pay tribute to the suzerains.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Although ancient Near Eastern vassals were required to pay tribute in a form of money, the Israelite vassals paid tribute to Yahweh as suzerain in the form of sacrificial offerings.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Without question, the pinnacle of the book of Exodus is the mighty parting of water to free the Israelite slaves from the pursuit of the Egyptians. The Westcar Papyrus contains at least five tales from the Hyksos period from around 1630-1523 BC that tell stories set within the period of the Old Kingdom.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) Currid suggests that the parting of the Sea of Reeds may have been inspired by an ancient Egyptian tale from the Westcar Papyrus.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) The story is about a magician named Djadjaemankh who helps recover a turquoise pendant that had dropped into the water on a boat ride.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) The magician says his magic words and then he “placed one side of the lake’s water upon the other, and he found the pendant” and brought it back to its owner before he said a few more magic words and “returned the water of the lake to their place.”[\[29\]](#_ftn29) The popular parallel is Yahweh telling Moses to stretch out his staff over the sea to let the Israelites pass through the waters (Exod 14:15-16). The similarities between the two accounts include the involvement of a spiritual leader, the magician and Yahweh, and the supernatural division of a large body of water for the purpose of the salvation of something of value, a turquoise pendant and the Israelite people. Currid highlights the important distinction that the Egyptian account is meant to be read as fiction, and the biblical writers intended to record historical fact.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) The final literary parallel arises from the Code of Hammurabi, which is a law code named after the King of the Babylonian Dynasty. The Hammurabi code from around 1700 BC predates the comparable Covenant Code recorded in Exodus 21-23. Joel Hamm, Bryan Babcock, and Justin Strong furnish three structural characteristics that highlight the similarities between the Covenant Code in Exodus and the legal code from ancient Mesopotamia: (1) third person writings, (2) casuistic laws, and (3) similar topics.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) To be sure, Gane explains that other law codes also parallel the Covenant Code including the Ur-Nammu and Lipit-Ishtar written in Sumerian, the Laws of Eshnunna written in Akkadian, and the Hittite Laws.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) All the law codes were used by kings to exhibit their judicial wisdom and substantiate their legitimacy. For example, in §206, the Hammurabi Code states, “If a seignior has struck another seignior in a brawl and has inflicted an injury…he shall also pay for the physician.”[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Similarly, Exodus 21:18-19 states that when a man strikes another man “he shall pay for the loss of his time, and shall have him thoroughly healed.” The parallels between the Covenant Code and many of the ancient Near Eastern law codes are palpable and often nearly word-for-word. ## **Conclusion** An immersion into the cultural context of the ancient Near East is reminiscent of the masterpieces of Degas who applied impressionistic realism to the complex nature of the human psyche. Similarly, the ancient literature provides an impression of realism with texture, color, and structure that illuminates the historical reality of both the content and message of the Old Testament. From the story of baby Moses to the fearful, young runaway, and from the memorable parting of the sea to the stunning deliverance of the laws, the biblical accounts engage the cultural milieu while maintaining unprecedented veracity. Accordingly, the brief comparative literary analysis of the book of Exodus has revealed that many of the dominant stories and themes of the book are exquisitely reflected within the literary environment of the ancient Near East. Personally, the parallels continue to open new doors of possibility to understand Yahweh’s message to His people and simultaneously provide ample opportunity to integrate relevant content into both the study and teaching of Scripture. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) James Bennett Pritchard, *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*, 3rd ed. with Supplement. (Princeton: Princeton University, 1969). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Brad C. Sparks, “Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus: Discussions of Exodus Parallels in the Egyptology Literature,” in *Israel’s Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience*, ed. Thomas E. Levy, Thomas Schneider, and William H. C. Propp (New York: Springer, 2015). [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 259. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) John D. Currid, *Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2013), 76. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Pritchard, *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*, 119. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Donald B. Redford, “The Literary Motif of the Exposed Child,” *Numen* 14, no. 3 (1967): 225. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 80. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Redford, “The Literary Motif of the Exposed Child,” 220. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Victor H. Matthews and Don C. Benjamin, *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East* (New York: Paulist Press, 2016), 141. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Sparks, “Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus: Discussions of Exodus Parallels in the Egyptology Literature,” 266. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 93–94. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 100. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 100. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Sparks, “Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus: Discussions of Exodus Parallels in the Egyptology Literature,” 267. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Ibid. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Mark S. Smith and Simon B. Parker, *Ugaritic Narrative Poetry*, vol. 9, Writings from the Ancient World (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 156. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Thomas B Dozeman, “Moses: Divine Servant and Israelite Hero,” *Hebrew Annual Review* 8 (1984): 57. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Ibid. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Roy E. Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017), 45–46. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) William D Barrick, “The Mosaic Covenant,” *The Master’s Seminary Journal* 10, no. 2 (1999): 221. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Cleon L Jr Rogers, “The Covenant with Moses and Its Historical Setting,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 14, no. 3 (1971): 147–148. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 46. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Ibid. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Miriam Lichtheim, *Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms*, vol. 1 (Berkeley: University of California, 1973), 215. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 125. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Lichtheim, *Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms*, 1:217. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Lichtheim, *Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms*, 1:217. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 126. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Joel Hamme, Bryan C. Babcock, and Justin David Strong, “Code of Hammurabi,” in *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*, ed. John D. Barry (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016). [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Gane, *Old Testament Law for Christians*, 126. [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Pritchard, *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*, 175. # Bibliography - Barrick, William D. “The Mosaic Covenant.” *The Master’s Seminary Journal* 10, no. 2 (1999): 213–232. - Currid, John D. *Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament*. Wheaton: Crossway, 2013. - Dozeman, Thomas B. “Moses: Divine Servant and Israelite Hero.” *Hebrew Annual Review* 8 (1984): 45–61. - Gane, Roy E. *Old Testament Law for Christians*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017. - Hamme, Joel, Bryan C. Babcock, and Justin David Strong. “Code of Hammurabi.” In *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*, edited by John D. Barry. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016. - Lichtheim, Miriam. *Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms*. Vol. 1. Berkeley: University of California, 1973. - Matthews, Victor H., and Don C. Benjamin. *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East*. New York: Paulist Press, 2016. - Pritchard, James Bennett. *The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*. 3rd ed. with Supplement. Princeton: Princeton University, 1969. - Redford, Donald B. “The Literary Motif of the Exposed Child.” *Numen* 14, no. 3 (1967): 209–228. - Rogers, Cleon L Jr. “The Covenant with Moses and Its Historical Setting.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 14, no. 3 (1971): 141–155. - Smith, Mark S., and Simon B. Parker. *Ugaritic Narrative Poetry*. Vol. 9. Writings from the Ancient World. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997. - Sparks, Brad C. “Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus: Discussions of Exodus Parallels in the Egyptology Literature.” In *Israel’s Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience*, edited by Thomas E. Levy, Thomas Schneider, and William H. C. Propp. New York: Springer, 2015. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Old Testament Cognitive Environment Criticism](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-cognitive-environment-criticism/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Old Testament Cognitive Environment Criticism ## **Introduction** From Friedrich Delitzsch’s Babel-Bibel lectures that accused the biblical writers of crass plagiarism to the name calling of Thomas Thompson, who applies the fundamentalist label to anyone who believes that the historicity of the Old Testament, the debate regarding the relationship between the Bible and [ancient Near Eastern](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-ancient-near-east-context/) literature continues to rage. Accordingly, the question remains as to how to explain the profound similarities between the Old Testament and pagan mythology. Without a clear understanding of the relationship, the foundations of Christianity may sink into the quagmire of the delightful best-selling fiction on par with Homer, Dickens, or Tolkien. **Based on the conviction that meaning only exists within context, the relationship between the Old Testament and the ancient Near Eastern literature rests on the Israelites’ cognitive contextual framework of transcendence**. Accordingly, the analysis begins by exploring the nature, significance, benefits, and challenges of the biblical parallels followed by a brief explanation of comparative methodology used to assess the comparability of the Old Testament to ancient Near Eastern texts. The research concludes by applying the comparative methodology to an analysis of the similarities and dissimilarities between Genesis 1-2 and both the Enuma Elish and the ancient Egyptian creation accounts. ## **Biblical Parallels** The nature of biblical parallels may best be described as diverse. John Walton suggests the nature of the biblical parallels to the ancient Near East fall into three buckets: parallels that focus on individual features, parallels that focus on preserving a literary tradition often from a polemical perspective, and parallels that focus on worldview.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) An example of individual features may include the papyrus basket used to protect both Moses and Horus, or birds sent out in parallel flood narratives. The literary tradition may be upheld through parallel creation accounts or treaty formations. Finally, although numerous distinctions exist, a parallel regarding worldviews may include, for example, aspects of ancient cosmic geography. The nature of the biblical parallels goes beyond Walton’s categories that focus primarily on content. Although completely separating content and form is impossible, Angel Manuel Rodríguez provides a nuanced perspective of the similarities by focusing on the linguistic, stylistic, and institutional parallels.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Certain linguistic parallels are unavoidable in a Northwest Semitic language that would be similar to Ugaritic, Canaanite, Phoenician, and Moabite literary sources. Stylistic parallels also exist such as formulaic devices for certain type of literature such as a lament. Finally, kingship and covenant are two examples of social institutions that are found in both biblical and ancient Near Eastern sources.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The significance of biblical parallels should not be underestimated. Walton explains that cultural study, or the more focused comparative study, reconstructs the culture and beliefs of the ancient Near East to assist in understanding the content of Scripture.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) More specifically, by interpreting Scripture in light of the original ancient culture, it decreases the risk of superimposing a cultural bias.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) In summary, the significance of biblical parallels is to enhance understanding of the biblical text and inform exegesis. The notion of understanding provides an umbrella for engaging the benefits of biblical parallels. Walton identifies three categories of understanding that cultural studies may benefit: literary genre, religious practice, and theology.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) First, regarding literary genre, dependency is not presupposed. Instead, when the literature of the Bible is juxtaposed with the literature of the ancient Near East, the potential payoff is an enhanced understanding of both. As Walton explains, the exercise attempts to recover certain aspects of the cognitive environment to illuminate the perspective of the Israelites.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Second, cultural studies not only inform belief, but also praxis. Investigating the cultic and ritual activities of the ancient Near East enhances one’s understanding of the Israelites’ religious practice. Importantly, both similarities and differences must be studied to provide maximum benefit. Third, an awareness of the theological similarities and differences between the ancient Near East and Scripture provides the potential benefit of correctly perceiving the Israelites’ view of Yahweh. Finally, once the original author’s intent is determined through a proper interpretation of ancient literature, practice, and belief, the expositor can construct a principalizing bridge and appropriately apply the concepts to the modern listener. Although the benefits of studying biblical parallels are significant, the challenges are, on occasion, quite substantial. The most obvious challenge for the evangelical theologian is the scholarly assumption that the biblical data is dependent upon pagan mythology, but the problem of presumptions cuts both ways. As Roberto Ouro explains, on the one hand, scholars have, at times, biblicized the ancient Near Eastern texts without [adequate biblical](https://www.livestransforming.com/comparison-larry-crabb/) support, and, on the other hand, scholars have mythologized the biblical account with even less evidence.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In a classic essay, S. Talmon highlights four challenges to studying biblical parallels: (1) proximity, (2) intertextuality, (3) societal function, and (4) atomism.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The first challenge to comparative study is properly aligning the dates under study rather than anachronistically applying geographical and chronological parallels. The second challenge is to properly apply the ancient Near Eastern cultural data to the biblical data after considering the Bible’s intertextual relationships. The third challenge is to develop an understanding of the Israelites’ societal structure before applying parallels. The fourth challenge is to apply the parallels holistically, rather than atomistically. In other words, the parallels must be interpreted in light of the broader ancient Near East and biblical context. The challenges provided by Salmon provide a solid foundation. However, Walton builds on his foundation by identifying additional obstacles that may be grouped into three broad categories: similarities and differences, borrowing, and genre.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) The first challenge is to consider both the similarities and differences, while recognizing that similarities may simply suggest a common culture, rather than borrowing, and differences may occur at a deeper level. The second challenge is to identify the source of any borrowing and acknowledge the possibility of significant transformation in the final transmission. The third challenge is to properly identify the genre of both the ancient Near Eastern and biblical texts. If the genres are distinct, then the significance of the similarities may be diminished. Finally, Samuel Sandmel recognizes the challenge of parallelomania when studying biblical parallels, where scholars overdo the similarities, and then establish conclusions based on unstable evidence.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) However, the most significant challenge to the discipline of biblical studies may be, as Noel Weeks concludes, human nature, where conclusions are presupposed prior to the investigation.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) ## **Comparative Methodology** The pattern of comparative methodology followed throughout this research may be considered a cognitive contextual approach built upon an eclectic utilization of models. Walton identifies five potential models to engage cognitive environment criticism: borrowing, polemics, counter-texts, echoes, and diffusion.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The first four assume direct access to the spectrum of ancient literature, whereas diffusion assumes the Israelites obtained information informally while existing in the cultural river. The planned methodology is built upon four foundational assumptions. First, the biblical writers had limited formal or informal access to ancient literature. To suggest that the biblical writers had continuous and direct access to all the cognate literature seems overdone, but alternatively, to assume the biblical writers were on a cultural island seems restrictive. Second, the biblical writers used various models to interact with the ancient cognitive environment. At times, the author may directly borrow from a source, at other times the purpose may be more polemical or counter textual. Sometimes the biblical author would use echoes or allusions to communicate the message, just as Old Testament writers used biblical intertextuality. At other times, the author may also use concepts from the cultural river or milieu. In other words, a holistic or thematic approach is evident where, as Jeffrey Niehaus explains, “a shared theological structure of ideas existed in the ancient Near East, a structure that finds its most complete and true form in the Old and New Testaments.”[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Third, the Old Testament has a dual authorship that includes both mankind and God. Accordingly, it is not unreasonable to assert a unity of Scripture where contextual threads pervade the canon. Fourth, the Old Testament rests on a contextually supported cognitive framework, and as Sandmel explains, passages may appear similar in isolation, but “when seen in context reflect difference rather than similarity.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) [![03. Book Cover Photoshop Template 182x300 - Old Testament Cognitive Environment Criticism](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/03.-Book-Cover-Photoshop-Template-182x300.jpg "Old Testament Cognitive Environment Criticism - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DKjkOr)The Bible among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature? In other words, in alignment with John Oswalt, the entire canon is built upon a contextual cognitive framework of transcendence, while the rest of the ancient Near East resides upon a cognitive contextual framework of continuity.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Accordingly, assessing the comparability of Scripture and the literature from ancient Near Eastern texts always engages the broader context of the Israelites’ cognitive distinctiveness. The approach is not novel and would likely be considered evangelical, and it does diverge with many notable liberal scholars. As John Currid points out, many modern scholars engage the parallels between the Bible and ancient Near Eastern literature with cynicism and assume the content of Scripture is on par with literary fiction.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) ## **Methodology Applied** When applying the comparative methodology with the creation accounts of Genesis 1-2, it is difficult to ignore the famous Mesopotamian creation myth, Enuma Elish. The basic story of the myth is familiar. Creation is a clash of cosmic proportions between order and chaos. A divine assembly of gods, which included the gods Apsu and Tiamat, were birthed out of the watery chaos. Apsu and Tiamat procreate and birth many other gods who represented various parts of nature. Ultimately, a battle ensues between the gods, and Marduk killed Tiamat and splits her body into two parts. Marduk creates the heaven out of one part and creates the earth out of the other part. Finally, Marduk creates humanity. At first the similarities seem obscure. However, Currid summarizes several parallels between the Enuma Elish and the creation account in Genesis. First, regarding similarities, the order of creation between the two episodes coincide.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Furthermore, divine spirit and cosmic matter interact, and a dark chaos exists in the Enuma Elish, while an empty darkness exists in Genesis 1:2.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Finally, in both cases, the creative process included light, firmament, dry land, luminaires, man, and finally, a rest period.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Although similarities exist, they may be considered superficial. The reason is that if any story of creation were to arise in an ancient civilization, it would, by definition, have to include the creation of certain entities that were in already existence, such as light and man, or it would hardly fit the genre. Furthermore, Ouro highlights several significant differences. In the Enuma Elish, Marduk is considered the organizer not a creator, cosmogony is expressed as theogony, and creation arises out of chaos.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Alternatively, in the biblical account, Yahweh is considered the organizer *and* the creator by divine *fiat*, no theogony occurs, and the environment is described as an absence of life, not chaos.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) Although various comparative models may appropriately be used to describe the reason and purpose behind the parallels, such as a polemic or a counter-text, the context of the cognitive worldview of the Israelites most appropriately describes the relationship. Oswalt explains that the Genesis account presumes creation *ex nihilo* by the will of a preexistent, eternal God independent from the work performed.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) In other words, the Israelites’ cognitive context built upon God’s transcendence trumps the potential problematic parallels. The Egyptian creation accounts also have significant parallels to the creation account in Genesis. The Egyptian accounts occur in several disparate sources such as the Pyramid Texts, the Memphite Theology from the Shabaka Stone, The Book of the Dead, and various hymns such as the Hymn of Ptah. Currid provides a list of parallels, which include a reference to a potter’s wheel for creative acts, creation by verbal *fiat* of everything, and the creation of light, luminaries, fish, birds, land animals, and mankind.[\[24\]](#_ftn24) Like the Enuma Elish, the distinctions between the Egyptian creation accounts and the biblical creation account are significant. According to Currid, in the Egyptian Memphite Theology, the god Ptah has created the world from primordial water that was personified as the god Nun.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Alternatively, the biblical account contends that God is the creator of all creation *ex nihilo*, which is a stark contrast to the polytheistic Egyptian accounts. Furthermore, Ouro explains that one of the primary differences between the biblical and the Egyptian accounts concerns the purpose of humanity.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) In Egyptian cosmology, people were created to provide for the gods’ needs.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Alternatively, in the biblical account, God created man in His image and entrusted mankind with the ability to make choices and care for His creation. Finally, Currid explains, unlike the biblical account, the gods in Egyptian literature were completely immanent, lacked omnipotence, and reflected humanity.[\[28\]](#_ftn28) Again, many comparative models may be deployed. For example, it is possible that parallels were used as a polemic to defend God’s complete, monotheistic, sovereignty over creation. It is also possible that some of the content used by the biblical writers reflected the ancient cultural milieu allowing for a holistic or thematic methodology explained, at least partially, by diffusion. However, regardless of the motivations or reasons behind the techniques used to communicate the message, meaning can only exist within context. The biblical writers wrote their words from within a cognitive context or worldview of a sovereign, omnipotent, relational, transcendent God that countered the worldview of continuity at every turn. ## **Conclusion** Far from sitting down by a fire with Dickens’ fictional account of David Copperfield for mere pleasure, the Bible’s relationship to the ancient Near East finds its significance in the enhancement of understanding of the biblical text, which illuminates exegesis for the benefit of the student and scholar alike. However, challenges of biblical parallels range from the assertion of dependency to the cultural bias built deep within human nature. As can be seen in the comparative analysis between Genesis 1-2 and a sampling of the ancient Near Eastern creation accounts, the cognitive context is foundational to meaning and bridges the divide between Scripture and pagan mythology. The relationship between the Old Testament and the ancient Near Eastern literature rests on the Israelites’ cognitive contextual framework of transcendence. Personally, the biblical parallels to ancient context have, at times, been disturbing. A question deep within the recesses of the mind would trigger doubt. A doubt that seems to be pervasive in modern American society, “Is it a hoax?” However, in its final analysis, logic prevails. The God of the universe knew exactly what He was doing by entering the cultural milieu of His people and reframing the cognitive context to align with His ultimate reality. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) John H. Walton, *Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006), 25–26. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Angel Manuel Rodriguez, “Ancient Near Eastern Parallels to the Bible and the Question of Revelation and Inspiration,” *Journal of the Adventist Theological Society* 12, no. 1 (2001): 43–48. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) See Jeffrey J. Niehaus, *Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology* (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic & Professional, 2008). Rodríguez’s institutional parallels provide the building blocks for the holistic approach of Niehaus, which proposes shared structures between Scripture and the Ancient Near Eastern texts. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Walton, *Ancient Near Eastern Thought*, 18. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000), 7. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Walton, *Ancient Near Eastern Thought*, 22–25. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 22. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Roberto Ouro, “Similarities and Differences between the Old Testament and the Ancient Near Eastern Texts,” *Andrews University Seminary Studies* 49, no. 1 (2011): 7. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) S. Talmon, “The ‘Comparative Method’ in Biblical Interpretation: Principles and Problems,” in *Volume Du Congres*, ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn (Leiden: Brill, 1978), 324–328, 342, 356. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) John H. Walton, “Cultural Background of the Old Testament,” in *Foundations for Biblical Interpretation*, ed. D. Dockery, K. Mathews, and R. Sloan (Nashville: Broadman/Holman, 1994), 256. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Samuel Sandmel, “Parallelomania,” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 81, no. 1 (March 1962): 1. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Noel Weeks, “Problems with the Comparative Method in Old Testament Studies,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 62, no. 2 (June 1, 2019): 306. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) John H. Walton, “Interactions in the Ancient Cognitive Environment,” in *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 333–335. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Niehaus, *Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology*, 30. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Sandmel, “Parallelomania,” 2. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) John N. Oswalt, *The Bible Among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature?* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2009), 185–194. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) John D. Currid, *Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2013), 22. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 37. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Ibid. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Ibid. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Ouro, “Similarities and Differences,” 13. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Ibid. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Oswalt, *The Bible among the Myths*, 101. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 39. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Ibid., 46. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Ouro, “Similarities and Differences,” 16. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Ibid. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 40. # Bibliography - Currid, John D. *Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament*. Wheaton: Crossway, 2013. - Niehaus, Jeffrey J. *Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology*. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic & Professional, 2008. - Oswalt, John N. *The Bible Among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature?* Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2009. - Ouro, Roberto. “Similarities and Differences between the Old Testament and the Ancient Near Eastern Texts.” *Andrews University Seminary Studies* 49, no. 1 (2011): 5–32. - Rodriguez, Angel Manuel. “Ancient Near Eastern Parallels to the Bible and the Question of Revelation and Inspiration.” *Journal of the Adventist Theological Society* 12, no. 1 (2001): 43–64. - Sandmel, Samuel. “Parallelomania.” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 81, no. 1 (March 1962): 1–13. - Talmon, S. “The ‘Comparative Method’ in Biblical Interpretation: Principles and Problems.” In *Volume Du Congres*, edited by Frederick E. Greenspahn, 320–356. Leiden: Brill, 1978. - Walton, John H. *Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Cultural Background of the Old Testament.” In *Foundations for Biblical Interpretation*, edited by D. Dockery, K. Mathews, and R. Sloan, 256. Nashville: Broadman/Holman, 1994. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. “Interactions in the Ancient Cognitive Environment.” In *Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, edited by Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018. - Walton, John H., Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas. *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000. - Weeks, Noel. “Problems with the Comparative Method in Old Testament Studies.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 62, no. 2 (June 1, 2019): 287. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Canonical Importance of Exodus](https://www.livestransforming.com/canonical-importance-of-exodus/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Canonical Importance of Exodus The canonical importance of Exodus is evident in the entirety of Scripture, from Genesis through the New Testament. First, Exodus pulls together the covenant narrative of Genesis and moves it forward. The Israelites cry out to help from God due to their bondage and “God remembered His covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob” (Exod 2:23-24).[\[1\]](#_ftn1) In fact, Alec Motyer claims that the entire book of Exodus is covenant narrative.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Second, Exodus is linked to the rest of the Pentateuch by the progressive journey to the Promised Land. Third, the Passover story in Exodus 12 reminds Israel of God’s redemptive activity that culminates in Christ (John 1:29-36). Fourth, Gregory Pereira points out that Exodus-remembrances occur throughout the Old Testament.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) More specifically, the historical books provide numerous references to the Exodus. For example, Samuel reminds the people of Israel of the exodus event when they cry out for a human king in 1 Samuel 10:17-19 (cf. Josh 2:10; Judg 11:15-22; 2 Kgs 17:26). The Psalmist reminds the Israelites of the Exodus stating, “He divided the sea and let them pass through it” (Ps 78:13). The prophets also include several allusions to the Exodus. For example, the prophet rhetorically asks in Isaiah 51:10, “Was it not You who dried up the sea?” (cf. Hos 13:4-6; Amos 2:10; Mic 6:4; Hab 3:8-10; Hag 2:4-7). Pereira also notes the canonical connections between Exodus and the book of Matthew by pointing out that Jesus, like Israel, experienced political persecution (Matt 2:13), safely came out of the water (Matt 3:16), and had His own wilderness experience (Matt 4:1).[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In sum, Jesus, God’s firstborn Son (Col 1:15, 18), redeems Israel, Yahweh’s firstborn son (Exod 4:22). Finally, it is difficult to ignore the canonical connection to the Pauline corpus especially in his letter to the Corinthians where Paul refers to Christ as the vehicle of redemption, the Passover lamb (1 Cor 5:7). Several significant ancient Near Eastern background issues pertain to the book of Exodus. The story of the birth of Moses in Exodus 2:1-10 are reminiscent of the “Birth Story of Sargon I” and the “Myth of Horus.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) In Exodus 3:1, Moses is identified as a shepherd, which aligns with the royal shepherd theme within the ancient Near East.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) In Exodus 3:13-14, Yahweh is referred to as “I am who I am.” Similarly, the ancient Egyptian text *The Book of the Cow* contains a chapter called “The Destruction of Mankind” where the sun-god Re declares that he is “I am that I am.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) [![The IVP Bible Background Commentary Old Testament 182x300 - Canonical Importance of Exodus](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-IVP-Bible-Background-Commentary_-Old-Testament-182x300.jpg "Canonical Importance of Exodus - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DFF4uB)The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament (IVP Bible Background Commentary Set) The reference to God’s mighty hand and outstretched arm in Exodus 3:19-20 reflects attributes of ancient Near Eastern gods, specifically in the Egyptian royal hymns and the Armana letters.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Furthermore, in Exodus 4:1-5, the staff likely symbolically alludes to an [ancient Egyptian perspective of authority](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-ancient-near-east-context/), and the serpent likely represents the Egyptian Pharaoh.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The backdrop of the ten plagues in Exodus 7-12 is a conflict between Yahweh and the Egyptian gods.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) In general, the plagues attacked the Egyptian concept of Ma’at and the concept of universal order, and more specifically, the second plague attacked one of Egypt’s primary deities named Hekhet, who was depicted with a frog’s head.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) The pinnacle of the book is chapter 14, the crossing of the sea, but the date and applicable Egyptian Pharaoh has been long debated. Two main approaches to the dating of the exodus exist: (1) the early date of approximately 1446 BC and (2) the late date of approximately 1265 BC, during the reign of Rameses the Great.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) The “Song of Moses” in Exodus 15 also provides an opportunity to engage ancient Near Eastern background information. Exodus 15:8 and 12 appear to engage ancient Egyptian cosmology of the subterranean, chaotic deep known as the netherworld.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Furthermore verse 18 engages the king motif whereby Yahweh reigns over the god of the pantheon, which is potentially referred to in verse 11.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) In Exodus 19, the Israelites camped before Mount Sinai where Moses meets Yahweh. In ancient Near Eastern culture, it was not uncommon for gods to reside on a mountain.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Several collections of legal codes predated the Decalogue in Exodus 20 in the ancient Near East including the famous Code of Hammurabi.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Furthermore, the Covenant Code in Exodus 21-23 parallels the treaty form developed by the Hittites.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Exodus 25-27 reflects the Temple motif where ancient Near Eastern gods would reveal the design of the temples to their worshippers just as Yahweh provides the design to Moses for the tabernacle.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) The apostasy of Israel documented in Exodus 32 parallels an ancient Near Eastern Canaanite context reflective of fertility, which is often emphasized in pagan festivals.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Exodus 33 highlights the ancient Near Eastern motif of the possibility of temple abandonment, although, in this case, Moses does successfully negotiate Yahweh’s presence.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) Exodus 34 documents the ancient Near Eastern nations to be driven out by Yahweh, and Yahweh commands the Israelites to cut down the poles intended to honor the goddess Asherah, the divine consort of various Mesopotamian pantheons.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Although additional ancient Near Eastern background exists in chapters 35-40, the content is somewhat repetitive. ### **Additional Thoughts** **John,** Thank you for your feedback. You are correct. Tracing the route of the Exodus and exploring the location of Mount Sinai are good suggestions. I remember listening to a podcast a while back discussing the arguments regarding the location of the mountain. However, it slipped my mind until you mentioned it. Also, the instructions for the final paper state that we are to provide an “iconographic and cultural overview” of the chosen book of [the Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/) and then explain the comparative methodology. It seems like for the last couple of years I have been writing nothing but exegetical papers. Accordingly, I am trying to move my mind in a different direction thinking through how a cultural overview would be successfully developed. If you have a vision or thoughts on how you plan on approaching this idea, I am all ears. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version*, (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) J. A. Motyer, *The Message of Exodus: The Days of Our Pilgrimage* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2005), 20. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Gregory C Pereira, “The Need for a Canonical Reading of the Exodus Narratives in Finding Its Present-Day Theological Significance,” *Verbum et Ecclesia* 34, no. 1 (2013): 4–5. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 5. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) John D. Currid, *Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2013), 76–83. See also Victor H. Matthews and Don C. Benjamin, *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East* (New York: Paulist Press, 2016), 91–92. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Jeffrey J. Niehaus, *Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology* (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic & Professional, 2008), 34–55. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 100–101. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000), 200–201. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 80. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Michael S. Heiser, *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible* (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2019), 150–152. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) John D. Currid, *Ancient Egypt and the Old Testament* (Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing Group, 1997), 110, 118–120. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) For an argument supporting the late date see James K Hoffmeier, “What Is the Biblical Date for the Exodus?: A Response to Bryant Wood,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 50, no. 2 (June 2007): 225–247. For an argument supporting the early date see Bryant G Wood, “The Biblical Date for the Exodus Is 1446 BC: A Response to James Hoffmeier,” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 50, no. 2 (June 2007): 249–258. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) John I. Durham, *Exodus*, vol. 3, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1987), 206–207. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary*, 91. See also Niehaus, *Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology*, 34–55. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Currid, *Against the Gods*, 138–140. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary*, 94. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Matthews and Benjamin, *Old Testament Parallels*, 93–94. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Niehaus, *Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology*, 89–110. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary*, 115–116. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Niehaus, *Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology*, 116–135. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary*, 117. # Bibliography - Currid, John D. *Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament*. Wheaton: Crossway, 2013. - ———. *Ancient Egypt and the Old Testament*. Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing Group, 1997. - Durham, John I. *Exodus*. Vol. 3. Word Biblical Commentary. Waco: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1987. - Heiser, Michael S. *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2019. - Hoffmeier, James K. “What Is the Biblical Date for the Exodus?: A Response to Bryant Wood.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 50, no. 2 (June 2007): 225–247. - Matthews, Victor H., and Don C. Benjamin. *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East*. New York: Paulist Press, 2016. - Motyer, J. A. *The Message of Exodus: The Days of Our Pilgrimage*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2005. - Niehaus, Jeffrey J. *Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology*. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic & Professional, 2008. - Pereira, Gregory C. “The Need for a Canonical Reading of the Exodus Narratives in Finding Its Present-Day Theological Significance.” *Verbum et Ecclesia* 34, no. 1 (2013): 1–7. - Walton, John H., Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas. *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000. - Wood, Bryant G. “The Biblical Date for the Exodus Is 1446 BC: A Response to James Hoffmeier.” *Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society* 50, no. 2 (June 2007): 249–258. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Typology of Habakkuk 2:4](https://www.livestransforming.com/typology-of-habakkuk-2-4/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Typology of Habakkuk 2:4 The Apostle Paul’s quotation of Habakkuk 2:4 in Galatians 3:11 provides an example of typology. Darrell Bock dichotomizes typology into typological-prophetic and typological-prophetic.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The latter appears to align with the type or pattern found in Paul’s use of Habakkuk as the passage does not require an additional fulfillment, but instead, the pattern emerges with Paul’s usage. Bock provides five steps that assist the exegete in identifying how the New Testament uses the Old Testament and, more specifically, how to categorize the specific type of usage employed by the New Testament writer.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The first step is to determine the exegetical-historical meaning in the context of the Old Testament text. Habakkuk begins his dialog with God with two complaints. First, the prophet complains that God is ignoring the wickedness of Judah (Hab 1:3-4). In response to Judah’s wickedness, God answers by stating that Babylon will destroy Judah (Hab 1:6). Habakkuk then complains of God’s injustice, which allows a more wicked nation, Babylon, to destroy a less wicked nation, Judah (Hab 1:13). The Lord responds by urging patience and encouraging the prophet to believe in His plan of purification as “the righteous shall live by his faith \[faithfulness\]” (Hab 2:14).[\[3\]](#_ftn3) [![Galatians Volume 41 182x300 - Typology of Habakkuk 2:4](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Galatians-Volume-41-182x300.jpg "Typology of Habakkuk 2:4 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BZKaBv)Galatians, Volume 41: (Word Biblical Commentary) The second step is to investigate the meaning of the Old Testament quotation in an ancient Jewish context. Richard Longenecker explains that Jewish rabbis often interpreted Habakkuk 2:4 in light of Genesis 15:6 where Abraham’s obedient acts of faith were meritorious exhibiting righteousness and deserving reward.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Although Paul’s notion clearly diverges from merit, the connection between faith and obedience in Genesis 15:6 may be the linchpin to Paul’s use of Habakkuk. The third step is to investigate the New Testament’s use of the text by examining the textual traditions of the MT and LXX. The unvocalized MT renders Habakkuk 2:4 as וצדיק באמונתו יחיה, the righteous shall live by his faith or faithfulness. The pronominal suffix “his” differs from the LXX, which uses the first-person pronoun. The LXX renders Habakkuk 2:4 as δίκαιος ἐκ πίστεώς μου ζήσεται, the righteous one by my \[God’s\] faithfulness will live, while other LXX manuscripts place the pronoun directly after δίκαιος rendering the verse as δίκαιος μου ἐκ πίστεώς ζήσεται, my righteous one by faith will live.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Moisés Silva asserts that the difference in the pronouns may be explained by the Greek translator confusing the *waw* (his, ו) in the original Hebrew with a *yod* (my, י).[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Interestingly, in Galatians 3:11 Paul states, Ὁ δίκαιος ἐκ πίστεως ζήσεται, the righteous one by faith will live, which entirely omits the first-person pronoun μου. Accordingly, Paul’s quotation seems to align closer to the MT than the LXX manuscripts. The fourth step is to determine the usage of Habakkuk 2:4 in the [New Testament context](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/) of the letter to the Galatians. The literary context of not only Galatians 3, but also the entire book of Galatians seems to support Longenecker’s assertion that Paul uses the quote in an ad hominin fashion against his opponents to highlight that righteousness is by man’s faith alone and not by works of the law.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) However, whether Paul is referring to faith or faithfulness continues to cause consternation for exegetes as, according to Francis Brown, Samuel Driver, and Augustus Briggs, the Hebrew word אמונה normally means “faithfulness.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Accordingly, to focus on faith to the exclusion of both the semantic context of Habakkuk 2:4 and the concept of obedience within the context of the ancient rabbinic tradition risks placing Paul in a position of potentially undermining the original author’s intent. Silva points out that the lexical parallels between Habakkuk 2:4 and Genesis 15:6 are unmistakable, and the prophet was encouraging his Jewish readers to follow Abraham’s faith, which is not just a life of belief, but a life of obedience.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) In other words, neither Habakkuk nor Paul were decoupling trust and obedience, faith and faithfulness (see Gal 5:13-26). Paul was espousing a believing loyalty that, although far from meritorious, encompassed a justifying faith that embodied faithful obedience. In summary, instead of using Habakkuk 2:4 as a prooftext for an ad hominem response to opponents that may undermine the prophet’s original intent, Paul’s exegetical skills not only correctly uncover the meaning of the Old Testament quotation, but also furthers his argument against the troublemakers. The fifth step is to determine Paul’s type of usage of Habakkuk 2:4. The MT rendering and context of the Old Testament passage emphasizes a type of faith that trusts God will accomplish his purpose of purifying His people through judgement, which is also a type of faith that rabbinic sources claim embodies faithful obedience. In a typological-prophetic way, Paul uses Habakkuk 2:4 to emphasize to the Galatians a type of faith that trusts God will accomplish his purpose of purifying His people through justification, which is also a type of faith that Paul claims embodies faithful obedience. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Darrell L. Bock, “Scripture Citing Scripture: Use of the Old Testament in the New,” in *Interpreting the New Testament Text: Introduction to the Art and Science of Exegesis*, ed. Darrell L. Bock and Buist M. Fanning (Wheaton: Crossway, 2006), 271–72. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 274–76. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Richard N. Longenecker, *Galatians*, vol. 41 of *Word Biblical Commentary* (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1990), 119. See also Nahum M. Sarna, *Genesis*, The JPS Torah Commentary (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989), 113. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Longenecker, *Galatians*, 118–19. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Moises Silva, “Galatians,” in *Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament*, ed. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 801. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Longenecker, *Galatians*, 119. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Francis Brown, Samuel Rolles Driver, and Charles Augustus Briggs, *Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon* (Oxford: Clarendon, 1977), 53. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Silva, *Commentary on the New*, 801. # Bibliography - Bock, Darrell L. “Scripture Citing Scripture: Use of the Old Testament in the New.” In *Interpreting the New Testament Text: Introduction to the Art and Science of Exegesis*, edited by Darrell L. Bock and Buist M. Fanning. Wheaton: Crossway, 2006. - Brown, Francis, Samuel Rolles Driver, and Charles Augustus Briggs. *Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon*. Oxford: Clarendon, 1977. - Longenecker, Richard N. *Galatians*. Vol. 41 in *Word Biblical Commentary*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1990. - Sarna, Nahum M. *Genesis*. The JPS Torah Commentary. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989. - Silva, Moisés. “Galatians.” In *Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament*, edited by G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Hebrew Warning Passages: Arminian View](https://www.livestransforming.com/hebrew-warning-passages-arminian-view/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Hebrew Warning Passages: Arminian View ## **A Classical Arminian View: Outline[\[1\]](#_ftn1)** 1. Introduction: Humanity decides whether to let the Spirit works or lives within. 2. First Warning Passage: The Dangers of Drifting Away: Hebrews 2:1-4 3. Lesser to Greater: Old revelation at Sinai points to a greater revelation of the gospel. 4. Drift Away: Believers who ignore or disregard the truth are those who drift. 5. Punishment: Those who ignore the new covenant face the greater eternal punishment. [![Four Views on the Warning Passages in Hebrews 182x300 - Hebrew Warning Passages: Arminian View](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Four-Views-on-the-Warning-Passages-in-Hebrews-182x300.jpg "Hebrew Warning Passages: Arminian View - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4gXqi0A)Four Views on the Warning Passages in Hebrews III. Second Warning Passage: The Greater Danger of Losing God’s Rest: Hebrews 3:7-4:11 1. Past Model: Unbelief leads to evil resulting in falling away and eternal hell. 2. Present Model: Rest through faith, death, and consummation is already inaugurated. 3. Power of the Word: The Word penetrates human nature as a whole. 4. Third Warning Passage: The Danger of Apostasy: Hebrews 5:11-6:12 5. Problem: Author exhorts a sluggish audience to spiritual maturity. 6. Danger: Some may commit apostasy and thus impossible that God would restore. 7. Encouragement: The readers will not commit apostasy, but the danger exists. 8. Fourth Warning Passage: The Consequences of Apostasy: Hebrews 10:19-39 9. Exhortations: Keep both the horizontal and vertical relationships. 10. Corporate Fellowship: The primary deterrent to apostasy. 11. Apostasy Defined: True believers completely denying the faith. 12. Fifth Warning Passage: Facing the Consuming Fire: Hebrews 12:14-29 13. Context: The heroes of the faith provide models of faithful perseverance. 14. Contrast: Encounter the indwelling God of Zion rather than the God of Sinai. 15. Warning: Readers have a choice to be removed or remain eternally in God’s hands. VII. Conclusion: A real danger of apostasy exists for true believers with no possibility of return. ## **A Classical Arminian View: Summary and Critique** Grant Osborne adopts the classical Arminian view of the Hebrew warning passages. He begins by asserting that individuals have the choice to choose Christ but quickly cautions that faith is a “passive surrender” to the active agent of the Holy Spirit, and thus, faith is not considered a “work.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Concerning the first warning passage, Hebrews 2:1-4, Osborne highlights the lesser to greater argument and the idea of drifting away. Osborne suggests that since salvation under the new covenant is greater than the old covenant, then the punishment will also be greater, which is eternal damnation.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Osborne then asserts that drifting away pertains to authentic believers disregarding the truth.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Concerning the second warning passage, Hebrews 3:7-4:11, regarding the rebellion at Kadesh, Osborne engages the author’s exposition of Psalm 95 and notes two results, which include God’s wrath and the Israelites never entering God’s rest: the Promised Land.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Also regarding the topic of rest, Osborn follows Lincoln Hurst, who suggests that rest is accomplished in three ways: through faith, in death, and at final consummation.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Importantly, Osborne recognizes the inaugurated thrust of rest. The third warning passage, Hebrews 5:11-6:12, focuses primarily on the danger of apostasy. The key passage within the pericope is Hebrews 6:4-8 where Osborne suggests that, when authentic Christians fall away, it is impossible that God “would” not (rather than “could” not) restore them back into His grace.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Regarding the fourth warning in Hebrews 10:19-39, Osborne focuses his attention on the corporate community. The purpose of corporate fellowship should be to spur one another on to good works and to use as a “deterrent to apostasy,” which Osborne defines as intentionally and willfully denying the faith.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Regarding the fifth and final warning passage, Hebrews 12:14-29, Osborne highlights the call to holiness and recognizes the warning against returning to the religion of Judaism noting that individuals have a choice to determine whether they are “eternally ‘removed’ or ‘remain.’”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Osborne concludes by reiterating that true believers are in danger of apostasy, the unpardonable sin of denying the faith for which there is no recovery and only eternal judgement.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) The strengths of Osborne’s perspective are numerous. First, Osborne takes exegesis seriously, engages the theological issues in an even-handed way, and acknowledges when issues are not conclusive. Second, Osborne provides a strong argument from the text that the recipients of the sermon are authentic believers. Third, Osborne’s assertion that apostasy pertains to those who deny the faith not only aligns with the book of Hebrews but also with the remainder of the canon. Although the debate continues to rage, most, if not all, evangelical believers would agree that no Baal worshippers will exist in heaven. Fourth, Osborne’s broad semantic view of rest appears to provide the most reasonable perspective in light of the concept of inaugurated eschatology. The weaknesses of Osborn’s analysis revolve around his inability to clarify important arguments contra his perspective. First, although Osborne asserts that apostasy is a denial of the faith, he also appears to assert that apostasy means willfully sinning, which is a “repudiation of everything the Godhead has done in salvation.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) It is difficult to read Hebrews 11 without recognizing that many of the men and women of faith struggled with willful sin throughout their lives. Second, Randall Gleason appropriately recognizes that many individuals in the [Old Testament, such as Moses](https://www.livestransforming.com/law-of-moses/), “failed to enter ‘rest’ without forfeiting ‘eternal life.’”[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Although Osborne recognizes various aspects of rest, he does not explain exactly how and when rest may not have an eternal aspect. Finally, Osborne states that believers “must maintain their relationship with Christ” and to do so they must “hold firm.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Osborne argues that faith is a passive surrender and not a work, but if the believer is responsible for maintaining their relationship with Christ by holding firm, then it appears that the believer could be responsible for his or her own salvific outcome. In sum, Osborne could have enhanced his arguments by clarifying and addressing several critiques that he certainly knew existed from the Reformed perspective. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) See Gareth L. Cockerill et al., *Four Views on the Warning Passages in Hebrews*, ed. Herbert W. Bateman (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2007), 86–128. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 86–87. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 94. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 93. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 96–101. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Lincoln Hurst, *The Epistle to the Hebrews: Its Background of Thought*, *Society* *for* *New* *Testament* *Studies* *Monograph* *Series* 65 (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1990), 71. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Cockerill et al., *Four Views on the Warning Passages in Hebrews*, 114. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 119–12. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 124–126. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 128. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 120–121. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 165. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 100. ## Bibliography - Cockerill, Gareth L., Buist M. Fanning, Randall C. Gleason, and Grant R. Osborne. *Four Views on the Warning Passages in Hebrews*. Edited by Herbert W. Bateman. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2007. - Hurst, Lincoln. *The Epistle to the Hebrews: Its Background of Thought*. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 65. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1990. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Martin Luther and the Book of James](https://www.livestransforming.com/martin-luther-and-the-book-of-james/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Martin Luther and the Book of James ## **A Letter to Martin Luther** **Dear Martin,** It has come to my attention that you have been accused of not valuing the contents of the book of James and, more specifically, asserting that 2:14-26 is an especially loathsome pericope. In fact, some have accused you of suggesting that the book of James does not even belong in the New Testament canon. First of all, I want briefly to summarize your perspective to fairly identify and represent your position. Second, I want to acknowledge that the book of James does provide some significant exegetical challenges, especially in light of the Pauline theology that has been so formative to your spiritual growth. Finally, I would like to provide several perspectives that may allow you to completely embrace the book of James and its position within the New Testament canon. Although you have always had a forthright and, some might say, endearingly bombastic way of putting things to make your point, I do not want to misrepresent your position. You state in your book, *Word and Sacrament*, that Paul and Peter provide all the content necessary for salvation, and, accordingly, the book of James “is really an epistle of straw, *compared to these others*, for it has nothing in the nature of the gospel about it.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) I noticed that the straw language is in comparison to the other epistles and not a complete abrogation of the letter. You actually praise the book of James by stating that it is a “good book because it sets up no doctrines of men but vigorously promulgates the law of God.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Furthermore, it must be acknowledged that you retained the book of James in your German translation of the Bible (nice job on this translation by the way) even though you relegated it to the end of the list of the canonical books. The point is that you would likely not have included the book of James at all if you really thought it was not to be part of the New Testament canon. Finally, the most significant concern that I have is with a statement that you made after praising the book of James. You explained that you do not regard the book “as the writing of an apostle” because “it is flatly against St. Paul and all the rest of Scripture in ascribing justification to works \[2:24\].”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) I believe that once you appropriately consider the historical context and exegetical nuances of the words of Paul and James, and then reflect upon your own words, especially in your beautiful little manuscript *The Freedom of a Christian*, you will recognize that James is not flatly against Paul. Before moving into a more detailed exegetical analysis, it is necessary to evaluate the kind of book that James wrote. Granted, it does appear to be a book similar to Paul’s letters; however, Kurt Richardson argues that, although the book has the form of a letter, the actual genre could be a diatribe or paraenesis.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The latter is especially attractive considering the book’s various aphorisms. As you know Martin, James had a special affinity for the Old Testament and his Jewish heritage. Accordingly, one must keep in mind that James may have been channeling the Old Testament prophets in passages like James 4:4 and wisdom literature, such as the book of Proverbs, in various places. For example, notice how James exhorts his readers to be slow to anger in James 1:19, which is similar to Proverbs 10:19, or how the tongue is compared to fire in James 3:6, which tracks with Proverbs 16:27. In other words, maybe James had a wholly different initiative than Paul. Certainly, Paul spent much time focusing on the themes of salvation and getting right with God. However, the Bible is also concerned with living life on earth, living skillfully, and living with character. Maybe James’s focus was on practical living for the common man like the books of Ecclesiastes and Proverbs. If so, then one could hardly disagree with the exhortations provided by James. Martin, please keep this important idea in mind as you read through the exegetical analysis. A brief exegetical analysis of James 2:14-26 will not only highlight the challenges of the passage, but also assist in reconciling the message of Paul with the message of James. First, the literary context of James 2:1-13, which continues into verses 14-17, points to the treatment of the poor and a warning against favoritism that highlights the necessity of Christian obedience. As Douglas Moo emphasizes, James provides an important corrective that “true religion begins with faith – but a faith that works.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) James begins the pericope by asking a short but poignant question in verse 14, “Can that faith save him?” The answer demands a strong “no.” The type of faith James is referring to is evidently problematic, for it has no power to save. At this point, Moo encourages the interpreter to stay away from two extremes, which is either that James denies that faith is salvific or that James is not referring to eschatological salvation.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Both extremes may explain the difference between Paul and James, but neither fit the context or nuance of the passage. Instead, James appears to be contrasting two types of faith, an illegitimate or counterfeit faith that produces no works and a genuine faith that produces good works.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) James develops his argument in verses 18-19 with one of the most difficult passages in the [New Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/new-testament-vision-of-the-messiah/). The identification of the “someone” in verse 18 is quite challenging. Moo explains that James may be citing the opinion of an ally, an opponent, or two hypothetical interlocutors.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Regardless of whom James is referring to, the point appears to be that faith and works are inseparable; the two cannot be bifurcated. James furthers his argument by suggesting that even the demons believe. The demons have a type of faith, but the type of faith or belief that nefarious demons possess is not salvific. In verses 20-23, James shifts into an argument utilizing the Old Testament patriarch, Abraham, which shines a spotlight on the concept that the faith James refers to is a faith that works. However, it is difficult to ignore the possibility that in verse 21, according to James, Abraham’s deeds were somehow instrumental in the patriarch’s justification when the apostle states, “Was not Abraham our father justified by works” (James 2:21, English Standard Version). The tension points to the ultimate *crux interpretum* that climaxes in verse 24. It is possible that in verse 21 James utilizes the term justify (δικαιόω) differently than Paul. On the one hand, the term could mean to vindicate or render a favorable verdict of justification to those who did right, but, on the other hand, the term could mean to demonstrate or prove to be right.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) If the interpreter adopts the latter meaning, then harmony with Paul is clear. However, Moo observes that the demonstration or proof of rightness is a fairly rare use of the verb.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Accordingly, the resolution is not confirmed. At this point, the interpreter finally comes face to face with the crisis of interpretation, “You see that a person is justified by works and not by faith alone” (James 2:24). Ralph Martin provides four common proposals for reconciling verse 24 with Pauline soteriology and, in particular, verses such as Galatians 2:16, which states that “we know that a person is not justified by works of the law but through faith in Jesus Christ.” The interpreter could view James and Paul as irreconcilable or, alternatively, completely reconcilable by assuming that Paul and James are addressing different foes.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Martin, it appears that you have opted for the former option in *Word and Sacrament*; however, other options exist. It is possible that James and Paul agree but start from different positions. Specifically, Paul begins his theological discourse at the commencement of the believer’s conversion, while James’s discussion commences later in the *ordo salutis*.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Although the resolution seems reasonable, the interpretive tension continues as the emphasis of faith remains quite distinct between James and Paul. Another option is that Paul and James were facing two different historical contexts. In other words, Paul faced a Gentile audience that needed an emphasis upon faith within the context of Judaism, while James faced a Jewish audience, and his “advocacy of works is directed against a misuse of Paul’s teaching” where Paul’s theology is turned into a formula that “leads to ethical indifference.”[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The term “fulfilled” (πληρόω) in verse 23, which can mean “to bring to completion,” may provide support for two different historical contexts.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Moo contends that what James is suggesting is that both Abraham’s faith as well as Rahab’s faith in verse 25 “found its ultimate significance and meaning in … a life of obedience.”[\[15\]](#_ftn15) In sum, Paul’s focus was on the initial justification of a believer to a Gentile audience. [![The Freedom of a Christian Luther Study Edition 182x300 - Martin Luther and the Book of James](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Freedom-of-a-Christian_-Luther-Study-Edition-182x300.jpg "Martin Luther and the Book of James - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/423aYvs)The Freedom of a Christian\_ Luther Study Edition James’s focus was on the ultimate verdict of a Christian where faith found its significance in the works of a believer, which he addressed to an audience that may have attempted to distort a Pauline-like perspective.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) Furthermore, the type of faith that, according to James, does not justify is not a genuine faith, but the type of belief that demons exhibit where good works are absent. Martin, the type of faith that James is referring to is the type of faith that you reference in your book, *The Freedom of a Christian*, when you state that “the Christian who is consecrated by faith does good works.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) You eloquently explain the meaning of Matthew 7:18 where good fruit necessarily comes from good roots, and you appropriately use the analogy of a well-built house where a good worker necessarily builds a good house. Although Paul may emphasize the chronology of salvation in a way that James does not address, it is difficult to see how a proper understanding of James differs significantly from Paul’s soteriology or some of your most famous works especially in light of James’ ultimate intent, which was to provide practical, everyday-living advice to his readers. Thus, I believe that it is proper to completely embrace the book of James and also acknowledge its rightful position within the New Testament canon. **Sincerely, your friend Derek.** \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Martin Luther, *Word and Sacrament I*, ed. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann, vol. 35, Luther’s Works (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999), 362, italics mine. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 35:396. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Luther, *Word and Sacrament I*, 35:395–96. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Kurt Richardson, *James: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*, *New American* *Commentary* (Nashville: Holman Reference, 1997), 28. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Douglas J. Moo, *The Letter of James*, *The Pillar New Testament Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), 120. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 123. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) See Brandon D. Crowe, *The Message of the General Epistles in the History of Redemption: Wisdom from James, Peter, John, and Jude* (Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R, 2015), 170–71. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Moo, *The Letter of James*, 126–30. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) William Arndt et al., *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 249. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Moo, *The Letter of James*, 135. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ralph P. Martin, *James*, ed. David Allen Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, vol. 48, *Word* *Biblical* *Commentary* (Zondervan Academic, 2015), 82. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid. See also William Barclay, *The Letters of James and Peter*, 2nd ed., *The Daily Study Bible* (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960), 72–74. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Martin, *James*, 48:83. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Arndt et al., *A Greek-English Lexicon*, 828. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Moo, *The Letter of James*, 138. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Moo, *The Letter of James*, 141. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Martin Luther, *The Freedom of a Christian*, ed. Mark D. Tranvik (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008), 74. # Bibliography - Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, Walter Bauer, and F. Wilbur Gingrich. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. - Barclay, William. *The Letters of James and Peter*. 2nd ed. *The Daily Study Bible*. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960. - Crowe, Brandon D. *The Message of the General Epistles in the History of Redemption: Wisdom from James, Peter, John, and Jude*. Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R, 2015. - Luther, Martin. *The Freedom of a Christian*. Edited by Mark D. Tranvik. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. *Word and Sacrament I*. Edited by Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann. Vol. 35. Luther’s Works. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999. - Martin, Ralph P. *James*. Edited by David Allen Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker. Vol. 48. *Word* *Biblical Commentary*. Zondervan Academic, 2015. - Moo, Douglas J. *The Letter of James*. *The Pillar New Testament Commentary*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000. - Richardson, Kurt. *James: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*. *New* *American Commentary*. Nashville: Holman Reference, 1997. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Qualifications of Elders](https://www.livestransforming.com/qualifications-of-elders/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Qualifications of Elders ## **The Qualifications of Elders and Overseers** In the article “Are the Qualifications for Elders and Overseers Negotiable?” Benjamin Merkle asserts that Paul’s lists of qualifications in 1 Timothy 3:1-7 and Titus 1:5-9 are non-negotiable and relevant in a contemporary context.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Merkle provides several arguments to support his view. First, regarding whether the [Apostle Paul](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-apostle-pauls-perspective-on-jewish-law/) used a preformed virtue list, Merkle reasonably suggests that, regardless of whether a list was available or not, Paul felt free to adapt the list to his listeners.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) [![Word Biblical Commentary Vol. 46 Pastoral Epistles 182x300 - Qualifications of Elders](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Word-Biblical-Commentary-Vol.-46-Pastoral-Epistles-182x300.jpg "Qualifications of Elders - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DJFLmK)Word Biblical Commentary Vol. 46, Pastoral Epistles Second, regarding how much of Paul’s lists reflect the recipients’ historical situation, Merkle also correctly disagrees with William Mounce, who appears to argue that Paul’s primary initiative was to respond to false teachers.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) In other words, Paul’s lists appear to directly apply to overseeing a church. However, the more challenging issue is whether the lists of qualifications in 1 Timothy and Titus should be universally applied. Merkle argues that Paul’s lists have a universal application. First, Merkle contends that all moral qualifications are non-negotiable due to the nature of the overseer’s position.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Second, Merkle also believes that the duty of teaching, although not an issue of morality, is also non-negotiable because it is necessary to oversee the local church.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Third, Merkle then addresses the three remaining qualifications that potentially lie outside of moral exhortations and teaching: (1) having one wife, (2) managing one’s children, and (3) being a seasoned believer.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Regarding one wife, Merkle assumes the meaning is that if a man marries, then he must be faithful; thus, it is non-negotiable because it is a moral issue.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Merkle applies similar logic to managing children.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Finally, concerning new converts, Merkle suggests the qualification is “somewhat negotiable or, at least, relative to the particular context” because “it is too simplistic to put all of the qualifications in the same category.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) I find Merkle’s arguments less than convincing. However, I do agree with his final assertion that sometimes the situation is complex because, from my perspective, black-and-white rules of morality are risky and sometimes downright immoral. Let me explain. First, although it would be difficult to ever imagine a time when overindulging in alcohol or being a lover of money would be acceptable, other moral qualifications such as hospitality, gentleness, and having a good reputation with outsiders could be considered abhorrent depending on the context. For example, 1 Corinthians 5 illustrates a situation where hospitality would have been unacceptable; Matthew 16:22-23 provides an example where gentleness from Jesus would have been inappropriate, and Jesus certainly did not have a good reputation with certain outsiders. Second, by holding tightly to the letter of the law rather than the spirit of the law, certain risks also arise. For example, it is possible that a man is married to only one woman but has been married seven times to different women. Would this disqualify the man, or would it depend on the situation and the context? Furthermore, what if a man was not given to drunkenness but was addicted to marijuana? In other words, the qualifications depend on the context in both directions: At times, the qualifications need exceptions while, at other times, the qualifications need to be expanded. Third, regarding one of the final three qualifications Merkle addresses, the author concludes that parents must lead children to be respectful because it ultimately points to a morality issue.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) In general, the qualification is certainly important to uphold, but it is likely akin to a proverbial maxim rather than a non-negotiable. What about a situation where a man has five children, and all five are respectful except one? Could it be that the problem is with the child rather than the parent? The story of the prodigal son comes to mind. Additionally, would Yahweh be disqualified under such guidelines as the nation of Israel and Solomon, in particular, are referred to as God’s sons, but clearly these children were, at times, quite disrespectful. Without question, the analogy is less than perfect. However, the point is that sometimes children stray, even for a short period of time, with no fault assigned to the parents. Finally, what is considered “respectable” in one culture is not the same as what is respectable in another culture. Twenty years ago, a tattoo or playing euchre may have disqualified an individual from overseeing a local church, but today neither may be considered disrespectable in certain congregations. In my view, it is too simplistic to state that all the qualifications for elders and overseers in 1 Timothy and Titus are never negotiable. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Benjamin L Merkle, “Are the Qualifications for Elders or Overseers Negotiable?,” *Bibliotheca Sacra* 171, no. 682 (2014): 188. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 176. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) William D. Mounce, *Pastoral Epistles*, vol. 46, *Word Biblical Commentary* (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2000), 153. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Merkle, “Are the Qualifications for Elders or Overseers Negotiable?,” 181. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 182. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 183. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 183–84. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 186. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 184. # Bibliography - Merkle, Benjamin L. “Are the Qualifications for Elders or Overseers Negotiable?” *Bibliotheca Sacra* 171, no. 682 (2014): 172–88. - Mounce, William D. *Pastoral Epistles*. Vol. 46. *Word Biblical Commentary*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2000. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [The Purpose of Romans](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-purpose-of-romans/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Purpose of Romans The traditional view that the purpose of Romans was to provide a theological manifesto or treatise has come under fire. Stanley Porter points beyond the traditional view toward seven other possible purposes for the book of Romans: (1) to convey his deepest conviction, (2) to document his last will and testament, (3) to argue for an apology to Jerusalem, (4) to send a letter of introduction, (5) to provide an apostolic grounding, (6) to address Jewish and Gentile relations, and (7) to produce a piece of anti-imperial rhetoric.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) In the end, Porter concludes that no significant risk exists in recognizing multiple purposes for Paul’s letter.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) However, certain views are more persuasive than others. In general, the theory that I find most persuasive aligns with a nuanced view of the traditional perspective, but the occasional nature of the letter cannot be ignored. However, certain suggestions, such as conveying Paul’s deepest convictions and documenting a last will and testament, seem to defy both the traditional view and the specific occasion since Paul had never visited Rome and likely did not have a strong enough relationship to support such perspectives.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) However, other suggestions seem to adhere nicely to the traditional view while simultaneously taking the specific occasion and audience into consideration. For example, a letter of introduction would seem reasonable to a group of believers that he had never met but to limit Paul’s purpose to a self-introduction seems unnecessarily restrictive. Furthermore, the view that [the book of Romans](https://www.livestransforming.com/an-exegesis-of-romans-77-25/) addresses potential divergences between the Jewish and Gentile communities is definitively supported by the book’s content, especially in light of Romans 14-15.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) [![The First Epistle to the Corinthians Revised Edition 182x300 - The Purpose of Romans](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-First-Epistle-to-the-Corinthians-Revised-Edition-182x300.jpg "The Purpose of Romans - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DShAm4)The Letter to the Romans: New International Commentary on the New Testament (NICNT) However, the overall content of Romans seems to move beyond any specific issue in Rome. Accordingly, although it is reasonable that a multi-faceted view of the purpose of Romans exists, to suggest that all proposed views are equal goes too far. A more coherent and comprehensive view of purpose may occur under the umbrella of mission. As Douglas Moo explains: “We moderns must beware the tendency to overhistoricize: to focus so much on specific local and personal situations that we miss the larger theological and philosophical concerns of the biblical authors.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Moo’s observation potentially explains why N. T. Wright’s emphasis that the book of Romans purports anti-imperial rhetoric may miss the mark.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The risk of overhistoricizing does not negate the possibility that Wright’s view adds to the conversation, but it does not adequately address the larger concerns of Paul. Several of the purposes do feed into Paul’s overall initiative and purpose of mission such as a letter of introduction, Jewish and Gentile unity, an apostolic grounding, a manifesto of deep convictions, and even anti-imperial rhetoric. Although Paul addresses certain immediate concerns of the community, Paul’s purpose moves beyond the local community to an initiative of communicating the gospel message to the ends of the earth. Accordingly, in line with Moo, “the various purposes share a common denominator: Paul’s missionary situation.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Thus, the key reason for Paul writing the letter to the Romans was missional. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Stanley E. Porter, *The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2016), 302–12. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 312. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 305–6. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 310. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Douglas J. Moo, *The Letter to the Romans*, 2nd ed., *New International Commentary on the New Testament* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2018), 20. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) See Porter, *The Apostle Paul*, 311–12. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Moo, *The Letter to the Romans*, 19. # Bibliography - Moo, Douglas J. *The Letter to the Romans*. 2nd ed. *New International Commentary on the New Testament*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2018. - Porter, Stanley E. *The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2016. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Literary Genre of Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/literary-genre-of-acts/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Literary Genre of Acts ## **The Literary Genre of Acts** [![The Acts of the Apostles Interpretation History and Theology 182x300 - Literary Genre of Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Acts-of-the-Apostles_-Interpretation-History-and-Theology-182x300.jpg "Literary Genre of Acts - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4j539v3)The Acts of the Apostles: Interpretation, History and Theology In his chapter regarding the genre of the book of Acts, Osvaldo Padilla introduces the topic of genre, provides a brief history of genre theory, and proposes several options for the genre of Acts. Padilla correctly asserts that bad genre identification results in bad theology.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Regarding genre theory, Padilla’s historical reflections include the rather rigid ancient perspective of genre, especially in Aristotle’s *Poetics*, the modern rejection of classical theory that opposed unchanging genres, and the postmodern perspective that shifts genre into a category imputed by readers.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Edward Regis notes that Stanley Fish represents the postmodern perspective whereby “meaning of an utterance is constituted by the total set of effects which it occasions in one’s consciousness during the process of reading.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) More specifically, Padilla notes that Claire Clivaz applies the postmodern perspective to Luke-Acts, which blurs the lines between history and fiction while simultaneously allowing for maximum genre flexibility determined by the reader.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) As with most theories, reality engages the morsels of truth within all perspectives while avoiding the extremes. Accordingly, Padilla correctly contends that the readers’ involvement utilizes the original author’s genre as a guide established by the audience who is contemporary with the author while recognizing that genre is neither completely stagnant nor completely flexible.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Scholars have proposed various genres for the book of Acts. Padilla identifies four options: (1) an ancient epic, (2) an ancient novel, (3) an example of history, and (4) a historical monograph.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Specifically, Padilla contends that the book of Acts is a “Hellenistic historical monograph in the Jewish tradition.”[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The idea of a historical monograph, such as Cicero’s correspondence with Atticus, as the genre of Acts is a reasonable claim. However, Padilla’s point that Acts is unashamedly theocentric must be considered.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In other words, the genre of Acts must acknowledge the unique nature of a work that incorporates a Jewish Messiah and God’s revelation. Accordingly, a Messiah-centric theological history seems to best name the genre of Acts. Padilla then suggests that the benefits of viewing Acts as a historical monograph both encourage the reader to view the events as real history and expect the author to be an eyewitness involved in the story.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Padilla’s benefits are not unreasonable. However, the more specific genre of a Messiah-centric theological history prompts the reader to not only recognize the historical realities of the work, but also encourages the reader to recognize the spiritual benefits of a new cosmic reality inaugurated by God through Christ. In sum, if the genre of Acts is simply a historical monograph or even a [theological history](https://www.livestransforming.com/acts-as-theological-history/), then the reader would likely miss its eschatological significance. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Osvaldo Padilla, *The Acts of the Apostles: Interpretation, History and Theology* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2016), 42. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 43–51. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Edward Regis, “Literature by the Reader: The ‘Affective’ Theory of Stanley Fish,” *College English* 38, no. 3 (November 1976): 264. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Padilla, *The Acts of the Apostles*, 49–51. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 52. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 53–63. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 62. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 65. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 72. # Bibliography - Padilla, Osvaldo. *The Acts of the Apostles: Interpretation, History and Theology*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2016. - Regis, Edward. “Literature by the Reader: The ‘Affective’ Theory of Stanley Fish.” *College English* 38, no. 3 (November 1976): 263. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [The Literary Integrity of Philippians](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-literary-integrity-of-philippians/) **Published:** January 19, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # The Literary Integrity of Philippians ## **The Literary Integrity and Purpose(s) of Philippians** [![The Apostle Paul His Life Thought and Letters 182x300 - The Literary Integrity of Philippians](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Apostle-Paul_-His-Life-Thought-and-Letters-182x300.jpg "The Literary Integrity of Philippians - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3W6wRWQ)The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters The literary integrity of Philippians is suspect. Many scholars, according to Stanley Porter, claim that Paul’s letter to the Philippians was not originally a single letter, but instead, a composite of several letters or smaller works were redacted or compiled into one letter.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The reasons for the assertion that the book lacks literary integrity are numerous. For example, Porter explains that the abrupt change in tone that occurs in Philippians 3:2 may signify disunity, the term “finally” in Philippians 3:1 and 4:8 may indicate a division in the letter, and the travel plans in Philippians 2:19-24 that normally terminate a letter may suggest a break.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Although Porter recognizes the ambiguity of discourse analysis, he also tentatively acknowledges its potential benefits in analyzing the literary unity of Philippians.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) David Black’s journal article, *The Discourse Structure of Philippians: A Study in Textlinguistics*, specifically addresses the literary integrity of Philippians using discourse analysis. Black argues that “Philippians is an integral composition whose primary rhetorical function is deliberative, that is, the bulk of the letter is directed toward solving the issue of disunity.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Simply stated, deliberative rhetoric is an attempt to persuade listeners to act. In the case of Philippians, Black asserts that the main thematic initiative or overarching framework is summarized in Philippians 4:2-3, which focuses on living in harmony for the cause of the furthering the gospel. Finally, Porter assists in defining discourse analysis by explaining that it focuses on the text’s cohesiveness to analyze the overall literary structure and illuminate certain key ideas.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Black proceeds to engage in discourse analysis in an attempt to prove his thesis with regard to the book of Philippians. Specifically, he focuses on the macrostructures of the letter that bind the work, and then he assesses whether the microstructures fit.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The practical step in performing discourse analysis is to identify the functions of the language in order to locate the macro thread that keeps the work intact. Accordingly, Black provides a rather detailed outline of the functions of the text. For example, Black identifies certain aspects of the letter as functioning as warnings, while others function as exhortations.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Black’s analysis of the functions then suggests that Paul develops his argument in two parts using deliberative rhetoric to convey opposing rhetorical categories: persuasion and dissuasion.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Ultimately, Black concludes that the interlocking macro-theme in the book of Philippians is the concept of unity as exemplified by his analysis of the book’s macrostructure.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Personally, I find Black’s argument unconvincing. To be clear, I do not think Black’s argument is unreasonable. It is possible that the macrostructure of the letter revolves around the theme of unity; however, it seems the eclectic nature of the book could also point the interpreter to other potential macrostructures built upon different thematic initiatives such as joy, humility, and mindset. For example, maybe it is the Christian’s mindset or the believer’s humility that ultimately coheres the message of unity; maybe one of these themes [represents Paul’s ultimate point](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-apostle-pauls-perspective-on-jewish-law/). In other words, I am not suggesting that Philippians lacks literary integrity, but instead, I am suggesting that I am not convinced that unity provides the cohesive glue as other reasonable alternatives exist. In sum, I agree with Porter that discourse analysis is potentially valuable but often ambiguous because, although the tools do provide “criteria for judging integrity…the criteria themselves do not establish integrity; this must be established on other grounds.”[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Accordingly, I am reticent to feel the necessity to identify any one purpose of the book of Philippians just as other books, such as Romans, do not absolutely require one and only one purpose. Less formally, I have never had a recipient of one of my letters or emails require that they understand the macrostructure of the correspondence or my overarching thematic initiative for an understanding of various points to be understood. I recognize that the analogy has significant limitations, and I have been reminded that my emails obviously have not and will not be canonized. However, Paul had multiple purposes for writing to his friends and, although the eclectic nature of the letter in no way requires suspicion regarding literary integrity, I humbly (and may have to joyfully) admit that the major or most prominent purpose currently alludes my mindset. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Stanley E. Porter, *The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2016), 334. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 336–37. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 340. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) David Alan Black, “The Discourse Structure of Philippians: A Study in Textlinguistics,” *Novum Testamentum* 37, no. 1 (1995): 16. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Porter, *The Apostle Paul*, 340. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Black, “The Discourse Structure of Philippians,” 22. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 43–44. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 44–46. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 44. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Porter, *The Apostle Paul*, 340. # Bibliography - Black, David Alan. “The Discourse Structure of Philippians: A Study in Textlinguistics.” *Novum Testamentum* 37, no. 1 (1995): 16–49. - Porter, Stanley E. *The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2016. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Historicity of the Speeches in Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/historicity-of-the-speeches-in-acts/) **Published:** January 18, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Historicity of the Speeches in Acts ## **The Historical Credibility of the Speeches in Acts** [![The Acts of the Apostles Interpretation History and Theology 182x300 - Historicity of the Speeches in Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Acts-of-the-Apostles_-Interpretation-History-and-Theology-182x300.jpg "Historicity of the Speeches in Acts - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/41X2yWk)The Acts of the Apostles: Interpretation, History and Theology In order to assess the historical accuracy of the speeches contained in the book of Acts, it is necessary to compare Luke’s speeches with the standards of ancient speech writing rather than attempting to force Luke’s reporting into the mold of a twenty-first-century perspective. It is difficult to begin any discussion around how ancient historians may have reported speeches without engaging the famous methodological statement provided by Thucydides in *The Peloponnesian War* (1.22.1). The difficulty occurs because, as Osvaldo Padilla explains, some scholars interpret Thucydides’s statement as playing loose with the facts to further an agenda when reporting speeches, while others assert that Thucydides was committed to historical accuracy even if he embedded ornamental language into his communication.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Assessing the methodological statement by Thucydides is further complicated by certain difficulties in the Greek text as noted by Stanley Porter.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Furthermore, Nathan Erickson highlights the need to engage reception history when studying Thucydides’ statement. Specifically, Erickson investigates how Thucydides was received by future historians such as Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the anonymous Oxyrhynchus commentator, and Flavius Josephus, and then he suggests that, although it is difficult to conclude that Luke would not have been influenced by Thucydides, a simplistic appeal to his methodological statement must be avoided.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Other ancient thinkers and historians also figure prominently in the conversation. For example, according to Padilla, Polybius of Megalopolis asserts that the historian ought to preserve a transcript or summary of recorded speeches accurately.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The second-century essayist, Lucian of Samosota, emphasizes that speech writing must suit the person or the subject of the speech, which, in line with Dionysius, highlights the criterion of “fit.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) When applying the idea of fitness to the speeches in Acts, the challenge that arises is whether ancient authors placed truth in a primary or secondary position to fitness. According to Padilla, certain ancient authors seemed to emphasize fitness, while other authors seemed to first and foremost emphasize the truthfulness of the speech.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Regarding the specific speeches in the [book of Acts as recorded by Luke](https://www.livestransforming.com/luke-as-author-of-the-book-of-acts/), my impression is that the speeches are historically accurate summaries of the speakers’ major points. Although fabricated speeches during ancient times were not out of the question, the accurate recording of events and speeches by ancient authors also existed, which leaves open the possibility that Luke fairly represented his recorded speeches. Padilla also highlights two aspects of Luke’s writing style that provide evidence supporting the truthfulness of Luke’s speech writing: the brevity of the speeches and the lack of pairing.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The brevity of Luke’s speeches most likely points to a concern for an accurate representation without undue embellishment. Further, the common Greco-Roman practice of pairing opposing speeches for rhetorical purposes is lacking in the book of Acts, which also points to a concern for accuracy as Luke avoids fabricating an antagonist. In sum, evidence from ancient authors combined with the conservative nature of Luke’s writing suggests that the speeches in the book of Acts fairly and accurately represented summaries of the speakers’ major points. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Osvaldo Padilla, *The Acts of the Apostles: Interpretation, History and Theology* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2016), 125–27. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) See Stanley E Porter, “Thucydides 1.22.1 and Speeches in Acts: Is There a Thucydidean View?,” *Novum Testamentum* 32, no. 2 (1990): 128–41. Porter identifies seven Greek terms and phrases in the Thucydides’ methodological statement that provide difficulties with regard to translation and meaning. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Nathaniel J Erickson, “Thucydides and the Speeches in Acts: The Importance of the Reception History of Thucydides,” *Conversations with the Biblical World* 40 (2020): 29–43. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Padilla, *The Acts of the Apostles*, 129. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 132–33. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 136–37. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 140–46. # Bibliography - Erickson, Nathaniel J. “Thucydides and the Speeches in Acts: The Importance of the Reception History of Thucydides.” *Conversations with the Biblical World* 40 (2020): 20–43. - Padilla, Osvaldo. *The Acts of the Apostles: Interpretation, History and Theology*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2016. - Porter, Stanley E. “Thucydides 1.22.1 and Speeches in Acts: Is There a Thucydidean View?” *Novum Testamentum* 32, no. 2 (1990): 121–42. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Judaism in the Book of Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/judaism-in-the-book-of-acts/) **Published:** January 18, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Judaism in the Book of Acts ## **The Depiction of Judaism in Acts** The relationship between the Old Testament and the New Testament and, more specifically, between Judaism and Christianity has been debated since the time of Christ. Donald Hagner recognizes that the emphasis between continuity versus discontinuity has swung back and forth between extremes within New Testament scholarship with the latter more often taking the lead.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) From my perspective, Luke does not attempt to make a clean break between Judaism and Christianity, but instead, he communicates both a continuous and discontinuous relationship. The question at hand is how to nuance each perspective to represent Luke’s intentions. [![Expositors Bible Commentary. Volume 10 182x300 - Judaism in the Book of Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Expositors-Bible-Commentary.-Volume-10-182x300.jpg "Judaism in the Book of Acts - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3Pkzwse)Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Volume 10. Luke-Acts. Revised Edition In Acts 2:1, Luke begins by placing the physical setting of the narrative during the time of Pentecost, which, for Judaism, was the time the Law was given and, for Christians, was the time the Spirit was given. Thus, Luke immediately reveals the continuous and discontinuous nature of the relationship between the Old and New Testaments. As Richard Longenecker explains, the Holy Spirit’s coming “was in continuity with God’s purposes in giving the Law,” and yet the Spirit’s coming also “signals the essential difference between the Jewish faith and commitment to Jesus.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Whereas Judaism focused on the Torah, Christianity focused on the Spirit. The frequency of quotes, allusions, and echoes of the [Old Testament within Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/) is also supportive of the continuity between Judaism and Christianity. For example, in Acts 3:22-23, Peter quotes Deuteronomy 18 and Leviticus 23, which point to the coming Messiah. Longenecker contends that Peter is making two arguments: “True belief in Moses will lead to belief in Jesus, and belief in Jesus places one in true continuity with Moses.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Similarly, Peter provides proof of continuity in Acts 3:25 when he quotes Genesis 22:18 and proclaims that Christ is fulfilling the covenant promise to Abraham. It is difficult to miss the importance that the book of Acts places on relational continuity between the Old and New Testaments and, thus, between Judaism and Christianity. However, as the narrative continues, Luke heightens the emphasis on the discontinuity between the two. The climax of discontinuity likely occurs in Acts 15 where Paul’s policies for reaching the Gentiles caused significant consternation, especially with regard to the topic of circumcision (Acts 15:1). With some irony, James’s affirmation of Paul’s discontinuous initiative arrives in the form of an Old Testament reference further underlining the importance of continuity. Specifically, Luke quotes Amos 9:11-12 in Acts 15:16-17 and applies both “David’s fallen tent” and the “remnant of mankind” to the argument (ESV). More specifically, Longenecker explains that James appears to be arguing for two concentric groups that comprise God’s people: (1) a restored Israel from a fallen condition and (2) a group of Gentiles or remnant of men gathering around restored Israel.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) James’s approach provides a beautiful image of reconciliation that supports the importance of both continuity and discontinuity necessary to reclaim all the nations in Christ. The term “restored Israel” used by Longenecker is an appropriate title to reflect the tension between continuity and discontinuity. John Polhill argues that Christians are the “restored Israel” by recognizing that Jesus, when asked if He would restore the kingdom of Israel in Acts 1:6, replied by giving His disciples a mission to reach the nations.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) However, Hagner further nuances the language of continuity by suggesting that “Christianity is not *other* than Judaism; it is the *fulfillment* of Judaism.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Thus, Christianity ought to be understood as fulfilled Judaism. Certainly, discontinuity exists between ancient Judaism and Christianity through several modified practices such as the relativization of the temple, leniency of dietary food laws, and the elimination of the circumcision requirement. However, whether one refers to Christianity as the restored Israel or fulfilled Judaism, to deny the continuity between Judaism and Christianity misses the mark. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Donald Hagner, “How ‘New’ Is the New Testament?: Continuity and Discontinuity Between the Old Testament (Formative Judaism) and the New Testament (Early Christianity),” *Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies* 19, no. 2 (2016): 99. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Richard N. Longenecker, *Luke-Acts*, ed. Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland, Revised., vol. 10, *The Expositor’s Bible Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2007), 734. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 10:767. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 10:947. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) John B. Polhill, *Acts: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*, vol. 26, *The New* *American Commentary* (Nashville: Holman Reference, 1992), 67. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Hagner, “How ‘New’ Is the New?,” 104. # Bibliography - Hagner, Donald. “How ‘New’ Is the New Testament?: Continuity and Discontinuity Between the Old Testament (Formative Judaism) and the New Testament (Early Christianity).” *Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies* 19, no. 2 (2016): 99–107. - Longenecker, Richard N. *Luke-Acts*. Edited by Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland. Revised. Vol. 10. *The Expositor’s Bible Commentary*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2007. - Polhill, John B. *Acts: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture*. Vol. 26. *The* *New American Commentary*. Nashville: Holman Reference, 1992. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Were Paul's Letters Politically Subversive?](https://www.livestransforming.com/were-pauls-letters-politically-subversive/) **Published:** January 18, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Were Paul’s Letters Politically Subversive? ## **Paul and the Roman Empire** A running debate between scholars exists regarding the influence of the Roman Empire on Pauline thought and, specifically, regarding the influence of the emperor cult. Not surprisingly, N. T. Wright emphasizes the religious and historical context during the time of Paul and contends that it requires “a particular sort of deafness to suggest that Paul intends no allusion to Caesar.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Wright cites Romans 13, Colossians 1, and 1 Timothy 2 as evidence that Paul communicated a critique of pagan power while [highlighting the duty of Christians living](https://www.livestransforming.com/living-life-in-christ/) under pagan politics.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Particularly noteworthy is Acts 17:7, where Paul is on trial for referencing another king, namely Jesus. Another reference is Philippians 3:20, where Paul states that a believer’s citizenship is in heaven rather than in Rome. Imperial language is also important to Wright. Specifically, Wright explains that Paul’s politically subversive initiative reveals itself in the “sovereignty expressed in the classic Caesar-titles, ‘savior’ and ‘lord’, backed up by Jesus’s status as Messiah.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Without question, Wright sees more than just echoes reflecting imperial Rome in Paul’s letters; instead, he sees clear allusions. To be fair, Wright recognizes that the gospel encompasses much more than an opposition to an empire, but if Rome and the Roman religion were attempting to control the world, then the empire would be on Paul’s radar as a target.[\[4\] ](#_ftn4) [![Pauline Churches and Diaspora Jews 182x300 - Were Paul's Letters Politically Subversive?](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Pauline-Churches-and-Diaspora-Jews-182x300.jpg "Were Paul - Lives Transforming's Letters Politically Subversive?")](https://amzn.to/3C4HHFS)Pauline Churches and Diaspora Jews Wright’s analysis is not unreasonable. The historical context of the empire and the emperor cult would prompt any scholar to integrate the societal context into their understanding of Scripture. However, the question is not whether the historical and religious context might inform Paul’s thought, but instead, whether Paul’s text promotes political subversion. It is the topic of Paul’s text that John Barclay uses to poignantly critique Wright, especially with regard to the emperor cult. For example, regarding the anti-imperial readings of Paul, Barclay states, “Despite the obvious importance of the imperial cult in practically every city he visited, there is no special mention made by Paul of the cult of emperors.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Barclay basically accuses Wright of forcing Paul to place the same importance of ancient Roman religion and culture onto his letters as Wright does within his mind.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Wright ought to be commended for considering how the cultural context of ancient Rome may impact the interpretation of Paul’s letters. However, it is possible that he overstates his case by over-contextualizing Paul’s thoughts. Alternatively, Barclay ought to be commended for focusing primarily on Paul’s text. However, it is also possible that Barclay understates his case by under-contextualizing Paul’s thought. Porter attempts to provide a corrective to both Wright and Barclay by utilizing Romans 13:1-7, 1 Corinthians 7, and 2 Corinthians 8 to assert that, rather than empirical subversion, Paul promoted empirical replacement.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Although the difference may appear to be no more than semantics, the point Porter appears to be making is that Paul was less concerned about overthrowing a pagan empire and more concerned about promoting a divine hierarchy. Accordingly, Porter’s assessment that Paul was “not necessarily a ‘counter-imperial’ theologian, nor did he completely deny the empire” appears to represent Paul’s text and the context of Paul’s ancient society most appropriately.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) N. T. Wright, *Paul and the Faithfulness of God* (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2013), 1293. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) N. T. Wright, *Paul: In Fresh Perspective* (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005), 70. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 71. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Wright, *Paul and the Faithfulness*, 1299. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) John M. G. Barclay, *Pauline Churches and Diaspora Jews* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2016), 356. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 374. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Stanley E. Porter, *The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2016), 23. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid. # Bibliography - Barclay, John M. G. *Pauline Churches and Diaspora Jews*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2016. - Porter, Stanley E. *The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2016. - Wright, N. T. *Paul and the Faithfulness of God*. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2013. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. *Paul: In Fresh Perspective*. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Perfect in 1 Corinthians 13:9-10](https://www.livestransforming.com/perfect-in-1-corinthians-13-9-10/) **Published:** January 18, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Perfect in 1 Corinthians 13:9-10 ## **Paul and Spiritual Gifts** In the middle of the famous love chapter, an interesting interpretive conundrum arises within 1 Corinthians 13:9-10: “For we know in part, and we prophesy in part, but when the perfect comes, the partial will pass away” (ESV). The phrase under consideration is “when the perfect comes,” and, in particular, the meaning of the term “perfect.” The Greek term τέλειον has a relatively large semantic range and can mean meeting the highest standards, being mature, being a cult initiate, and being morally developed.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The immediate context highlights the primacy of love and the temporality of certain spiritual gifts such as prophecy, tongues, and knowledge (1 Cor 13:1-8). Verses 9 and 10 then explain why knowledge and prophecy eventually terminate. The termination occurs because knowledge and prophecy are currently known only partially, and eventually, the partial passes away when the “perfect comes.” (1 Cor 13:9-10). Various perspectives have been espoused to understand the term “perfect.” David Garland explains that some interpret the term as a process of maturity or the gradual development of the Christian life.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, the translation would likely be rendered “For we know in part and we prophesy in part, but when maturity in the [Christian life](https://www.livestransforming.com/living-life-in-christ/) arrives, the partial will pass away” (1 Cor 13:9-10). In other words, somehow spiritual gifts obstruct love and need eradicated once the believer arrives at maturity. In light of the broader context of gift utilization, the idea that τέλειον means maturity is incorrect. As Garland explains, Paul’s emphasis on love is not exhorting his readers to abandon spiritual gifts upon maturity but, instead, to deploy the spiritual gifts with love.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Alternatively, several scholars suggest eschatological overtones exist within the phrase. For example, Anthony Thiselton suggests that the term τέλειον combines the idea of fulfillment or goal with the idea of a completed whole.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) For Thiselton, wholeness is not something that develops or emerges from the old but points to a new creation; thus, Paul is referring to an “anticipatory reaching out to the new future which God has promised to create.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) [![The First Epistle to the Corinthians Revised Edition 182x300 - Perfect in 1 Corinthians 13:9-10](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-First-Epistle-to-the-Corinthians-Revised-Edition-182x300.jpg "Perfect in 1 Corinthians 13:9-10 - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/427ghdn)The First Epistle to the Corinthians, Revised Edition: New International Commentary on the New Testament (NICNT) Similarly, according to Gordon Fee, the contextual language of 1 Cor 13:12 provides the evidence needed to support an eschatological nuance when stating, “For now we see in a mirror dimly, but then face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) The repetition of the “in part” language in both verses 9 and 12 combined with the “now…then” language in verse 12 corroborates that the incompleteness in verse 9 refers to the church’s present existence and the completeness in verse 10 refers to the believer’s final destiny in Christ.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) In other words, the knowledge and prophecy in verse 9 belong to the current age, and the perfect fulfillment, completeness, or wholeness occurs at the coming of Christ. At this future time, the spiritual gifts necessary to edify the church in the present age will no longer be necessary because “completeness will have come.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Accordingly, with regard to the purpose and status of spiritual gifts, the language of 1 Corinthians 13:10 reinforces both the critical importance of spiritual gifts for the edification of the church in the present age and the temporality of spiritual gifts as their necessity ceases upon Christ’s future return. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) William Arndt et al., *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000), 995–96. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) David E. Garland, *1 Corinthians*, *Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 622. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Anthony C. Thiselton, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, *New International Greek Testament Commentary* (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2000), 1065. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Gordon D. Fee, *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*, Revised., *The New International Commentary on the New Testament* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 715. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 716. # Bibliography - Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, Walter Bauer, and F. Wilbur Gingrich. *A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature*. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000. - Fee, Gordon D. *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*. Revised. *The New International Commentary on the New Testament*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014. - Garland, David E. *1 Corinthians*. *Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003. - Thiselton, Anthony C. *The First Epistle to the Corinthians*. *New International Greek Testament Commentary*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2000. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Is Acts Dependable History?](https://www.livestransforming.com/is-acts-dependable-history/) **Published:** January 13, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Is Acts Dependable History? ## **Luke as a Historian** [![The Acts of the Apostles Interpretation History and Theology 182x300 - Is Acts Dependable History?](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Acts-of-the-Apostles_-Interpretation-History-and-Theology-182x300.jpg "Is Acts Dependable History? - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BSzt3N)The Acts of the Apostles: Interpretation, History and Theology The question of whether the book of Acts is dependable history has come under fire in the modern era. Osvaldo Padilla asserts that Luke was a theological historian who utilized narrative to write responsible history.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Padilla partially relies upon the terminology in Luke 1:1-3 to make his case. For example, according to Padilla, the term πραγμάτων in verse 1 not only refers to events, but also events that comprise historical narrative while simultaneously having overtones of an eyewitness account.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Another example is the term αὐτόπται in verse 2, which is normally translated as eyewitnesses. When placed against the backdrop of other historians, Padilla concludes that the term is often used in the context of personal observation and even participation in the recorded events.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The term παρηκολουθηκότι in verse 3 also adds to the discussion and often means something like taking note of certain events. Padilla asserts that Luke uses the terminology to highlight his careful documentation of events based on claims made by those who had a firsthand account of Jesus’s life.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Each one of these terms points to the author’s intentionality to write a truthful account of history. Finally, the term πεπληροφορημένων in verse 1, which often refers to prophetic fulfillment, begins to merge history with theology. Padilla explains that, although a Greek audience would have been surprised by the use of the term, Luke’s Jewish audience recognized its theological significance.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The merging of theology with history continues with Luke’s rhetorical procedures. Padilla highlights the compressed nature of Luke’s writing whereby the author utilizes selectivity and epitomizing for theological effect.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Luke’s compression allows him to highlight his theological initiatives and etch them into the minds of his readers. Furthermore, Luke uses prolepsis, syncrisis, and dramatic irony to assist his readers in understanding the theological dimensions of his work.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The question remains as to whether the narrative framework and rhetorical devices used to communicate the theological objectives undermine the historical reliability of Acts. In short, the answer is no. In fact, if Luke recorded the historical events of Jesus void of his theological objectives, then the work would either be scrapped before it was written or nonsensical. The significance of Acts centers around the Messiah breaking into history and the relevant messianic events. Without the events, no history would exist to be recorded. Without the Messiah, Luke’s recording of the events would be unnecessary. With a Messiah, the work must, by definition, be theological. Furthermore, one would not expect a historical replica of Acts in ancient history assuming that a Messiah, who fulfilled previous messianic prophecies, did not break into the history of other cultures or religions. As expected, [the book of Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/luke-as-author-of-the-book-of-acts/) is both similar to and distinct from works that originated in the Greco-Roman era. Regarding the similarities, Darryl Palmer proposes that Acts is a short historical monograph and compares Luke’s work with content written by Polybius, Sallust, and Cicero.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Although Polybius and Cicero provide insight into historical monographs, Sallust’s works may be most comparable to Acts as they “comprise a single volume, cover a limited historical period, and focus on one theme and, to a significant extent, on one person.”[\[9\]](#_ftn9) However, the theocentric nature of Acts highlights its distinctiveness. Accordingly, Padilla concludes that Luke used a structure similar to Greco-Roman historical monographs to write the book of Acts, and then he deployed the ancient form into a theological message of the Messiah who broke into history.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Osvaldo Padilla, *The Acts of the Apostles: Interpretation, History and Theology* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2016), 75–76. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 79. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 84. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 86. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 82. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 88–97. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 98–107. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Darryl W. Palmer, “Acts and the Ancient Historical Monograph,” in *The Book of Acts in Its Ancient Literary Setting*, ed. Bruce W. Winter and Andrew D. Clark (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1993), 3–19. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 19–20. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Padilla, *The Acts of the Apostles*, 65. # Bibliography - Padilla, Osvaldo. *The Acts of the Apostles: Interpretation, History and Theology*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2016. - Palmer, Darryl W. “Acts and the Ancient Historical Monograph.” In *The Book of Acts in Its Ancient Literary Setting*, edited by Bruce W. Winter and Andrew D. Clark. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1993. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Luke as the Author of Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/luke-as-the-author-of-acts/) **Published:** January 13, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Luke as the Author of Acts How important is it that we accurately identify the author of Acts? Is the subject of authorship merely of historical interest, or would you argue that there are implications for interpretation and/or the role that the text plays in the formation of Christian doctrine? Do you agree with Padilla’s treatment of the subject of authorship (see pp. 31-37)? ## **Lukan Authorship** [![The Acts of the Apostles Interpretation History and Theology 182x300 - Luke as the Author of Acts](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Acts-of-the-Apostles_-Interpretation-History-and-Theology-182x300.jpg "Luke as the Author of Acts - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BSzt3N)The Acts of the Apostles: Interpretation, History and Theology The identity of the author of Acts has recently been deemed irrelevant by various scholarly initiatives. Osvaldo Padilla points to three specific influences contributing to the devaluation of the author: philosophical hermeneutics as represented by continental philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer, narrative criticism, and postliberal theology purported by thinkers such as George Lindbeck and Hans Frei.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The common thread between all three perspectives is an emphasis on the text to convey meaning, which, often times, is at the expense of the real author and real history. Gadamer succinctly communicates the hermeneutical perspective by stating, “The meaning of what is said is, when we understand it, quite independent of whether the traditionary text gives us a picture of the author and of whether or not we want to interpret it as a historical source.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The emphasis upon the text is a breath of fresh air, but, within evangelical circles represented by Padilla, the initiative has gone too far by either overtly or covertly subverting the author and history. In light of the scholarly backdrop, the question remains as to the importance of identifying the author of Acts. Padilla asserts that the identity of the author is important because if Luke was Paul’s traveling companion, then, as an eyewitness, Luke helps strengthen the possibility of Acts’ historical reliability.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Accordingly, in a sense, accurately identifying the author of Acts is important, and the “we” passages of Acts provide fuel for the contention. However, in another sense, accuracy is not that important. For example, if an archaeological discovery would prove that either the [Apostle Paul](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-apostle-pauls-perspective-on-jewish-law/) or another one of Paul’s companions wrote portions of Acts and essentially disproves that Luke was the author, then it is unlikely it would make a significant impact on the implications of interpretation. Furthermore, Padilla admits that an eyewitness account does not prove the historical reliability of Acts; thus, even if Luke is definitively proven to be the author, the requirement of “transcendent revelation” continues.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In other words, for believers, even if Luke was not the author and even if the historical reliability of Acts is not proven, the reality of the events and truth claims in Acts remains intact. In general, I agree with Padilla’s treatment of the subject of authorship with two nuanced observations. First, Padilla suggests that the “historiographic genre of Acts makes…demands about historical truth claims.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) One wonders if Padilla’s assertion would require the same historical truth claims about other biblical genres. Second, I would like to have seen Padilla not only engage the three text-based scholarly perspectives with his view of a historical reality behind the text, but also engage them by merging the historical reality of the text with the importance of transcendent revelation as he espouses in his preface. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Osvaldo Padilla, *The Acts of the Apostles: Interpretation, History and Theology* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2016), 32, fn 30. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Hans-Georg Gadamer, *Truth and Method* (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013), 410. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Padilla, *The Acts of the Apostles*, 36. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 36, 20. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 35. # Bibliography - Gadamer, Hans-Georg. *Truth and Method*. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013. - Padilla, Osvaldo. *The Acts of the Apostles: Interpretation, History and Theology*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2016. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [A Basic Understanding the Gospels](https://www.livestransforming.com/a-basic-understanding-the-gospels/) **Published:** January 13, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # A Basic Understanding the Gospels With regards to my current level of knowledge of the Gospels, I would not say that I am highly confident in my understanding. Dr. Rusty Small mentioned in this week’s video that Paul receives much more attention than the Gospels especially in Protestantism. I would agree with his statement and acknowledge that it applies to me and my studies. Regarding my general understanding of the Gospels, I have fond memories of the book of Luke. I grew up in a very small farming community. When I was in middle school, a gentleman from church took a small group of youth through the book of Luke. He went chapter by chapter and verse by verse. It was my first significant exposure to the Gospels. Accordingly, regarding introductory issues, I always believed that the titles of the Gospels reflected the authorship and never questioned the assumption. It was not until I started graduate school that I even thought about the issue of apostolic authorship and its implications. Furthermore, the idea of oral transmission and form criticism had never entered my mind, let alone authors such as Gunkel, Noth, and von Rad. As a member of a local Protestant church the settings of the Gospels always seemed very simple to me. The setting of the Gospels was where Jesus was born, where He ministered, and ultimately where he died and resurrected from the dead. However, in my later studies, the setting took on a whole new life of its own. Certainly, geography is important, but as a young member of my church I probably could not have told you exactly where Jerusalem was located and certainly would not have been able to explain the relationship of the geographical setting in Scripture to modern day Iraq, Turkey, and the rest of the Mediterranean region. Furthermore, if I would have been asked about setting, I would likely have only thought about geography and not the cultural, cognitive, or broader religious setting that faced Jesus and His disciples during the first century. In fact, I remember years ago listening to a lecture on the distinction between the Hebrew and Greek civilization and thinking it had little to do with Scripture. However, now it is difficult to read the Gospels without recognizing the important influence of the Hellenistic culture that spread through the region as a result of the aggressive initiatives of Alexander the Great. It is also difficult to read the message of the Evangelists without recognizing the backdrop of the pagan religions due to the influence of the Roman empire. And, of course, the intertextual connections between the Gospels and the Hebrew Scriptures are unmistakable. Regarding the outline and structure of the Gospels, during my undergraduate years in accounting I would have likely explained that the Gospels were about the life of Jesus. I would probably not have used the term “biography” to explain the Gospels, but it would not have been unreasonable. Since then, I have discovered that certain scholars believe that the focus of study needs to be on the community surrounding the development of the Gospels rather than on Jesus. Furthermore, the word “synoptic” was not in my vocabulary and the “synoptic problem” was not even recognized as a problem until my first Introduction to New Testament class at Liberty. In other words, growing up in my local church I would have outlined the Gospels as a story of Jesus’s miraculous birth, His ministry, and His dying for my sins, but I do not think I would have spent much time thinking about the unique content of the Fourth Gospel. However, in my Introduction class I was required to write a brief history of the synoptic problem. I can remember thinking how odd I thought it was to discuss a Q source that nobody had ever seen but apparently existed to provide material to the Evangelists. Regardless of the oddity, I discovered various modern proposals to the problem including Lessing’s Ur-Gospel, Herder’s fixed oral gospel, Schleiermacher’s sayings-source, Griesbach’s “Two-Gospel” Hypothesis, and Weisse’s popular “Two-Source” Hypothesis. Since this class was my first graduate course taken in biblical studies, I was a little shell-shocked. It was difficult to believe that so many theories could exist to a problem that I had not even known existed. Currently, I do not have an answer for the synoptic problem, but it would not be surprising to someday be able to verify that Matthew and Luke had a copy of portions of Mark’s book that they used as a reference. Regarding major theological themes, once again I would have thought the question was a little odd until I began a more serious track of study. It seemed obvious that the theme of the Gospels was that Jesus came to earth, was crucified on a cross, and died for my sins. Jesus is the entire theme of the Gospels. However, later in life I started asking many questions about the Gospel stories that everyone else at church seemed to already know the answer, but I did not. The questions seemed so simple, and I was embarrassed to ask. For example, why did Jesus have to die on a cross rather than some other form of methodology? What did Christ’s work really mean? Why did Jesus have to raise from the dead? Now I realize that many (maybe most) people in church do not have definitive answers to these questions. In fact, many scholars do not either. Various theories of atonement have been argued for centuries. Furthermore, the importance of the resurrection certainly must go beyond the mere “proof” that Jesus was the Messiah, especially in light of the participation language in Paul’s epistles (cf. Gal 2:20-21; Eph 1:7, 11; Col 3:1). The point is that the thematic initiatives move beyond simplistic answers and into topics that likely fit a meta-narrative. Themes like Christology, the kingdom of God, eschatology, the incarnation, ethics, discipleship, prayer, salvation, forgiveness, as well as the cross and resurrection all provide thematic initiatives in the Gospels. One particular theme or motif in the book of Matthew is of significant interest to me personally, which is the theme of righteousness. I have been fascinated by the language of righteousness in Pauline scholarship for many years. In fact, it is the reason that I started a master’s degree in theological studies and continued on to a master’s degree in divinity in pastoral counseling before entering the PhD program in biblical exposition. I had been studying the [concepts of righteousness](https://www.livestransforming.com/righteousness-theme-in-the-book-of-matthew/) in the book of Romans, teaching a few classes, and integrating both ideas of justification and participation into a Christian counseling modality. However, interestingly, laypersons were accusing me of teaching heresy when, in fact, some of the individuals simply had not been exposed to the topics in their local churches. [![Understanding the Gospels 182x300 - A Basic Understanding the Gospels](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Understanding-the-Gospels-182x300.jpg "A Basic Understanding the Gospels - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BW4unk)Understanding the Gospels: A Guide for Preaching and Teaching Furthermore, I had no idea the topic was such a heated debate in scholarly circles, and, at the time, I had never heard of anything called the “New Perspective on Paul.” However, I was having a very difficult time understanding exactly what this term meant and what its implications were for the Christian life. Since that time, I have come to recognize that these questions are far from settled. Specifically, regarding the theme in the First Gospel, Kolawole Oladotun Paul suggests that the concept of righteousness “arguably forms the central significant theme of Matthew’s gospel.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Further, Matthew Jensen explains that, since F. C. Bauer, scholars of the New Testament have been intrigued by the “apparent differences between Jesus and Paul.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, I am interested in Matthew’s take on the term and how it can ultimately be juxtaposed against Paul’s understanding. I believe that a study of the theme of righteousness in Matthew provides a potential topic for the class research paper and may enhance my future studies including the direction of my dissertation. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Kolawole Oladotun Paul, “A Critical Examination of the Concept of Righteousness in the Gospel of Mathew,” *Asia-Africa Journal of Mission and Ministry* 20 (August 31, 2019): 96. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Matthew D Jensen, “Justification in Jesus and Paul: Two Voices in Unison,” *The Reformed Theological Review* 77, no. 3 (December 2018): 173. # Bibliography - Jensen, Matthew D. “Justification in Jesus and Paul: Two Voices in Unison.” *The Reformed Theological Review* 77, no. 3 (December 2018): 172–192. - Paul, Kolawole Oladotun. “A Critical Examination of the Concept of Righteousness in the Gospel of Mathew.” *Asia-Africa Journal of Mission and Ministry* 20 (August 31, 2019): 97–106. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Pseudepigraphy](https://www.livestransforming.com/pseudepigraphy/) **Published:** January 13, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Pseudepigraphy The accusation that a significant portion of ancient Christian writings consist of forgeries has led to a longstanding debate among modern scholars. David Brakke insists that a minimum of ten of the New Testament books are forgeries because they are writings with falsely attributed authors.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) However, Bruce Metzger asserts that a literary forgery is not simply a book with false attribution, but instead a “work created or modified with the intention to deceive.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, the important aspect of motive must enter into the discussion and will ultimately point the analysis in the right direction. [![Backgrounds of Early Christianity 182x300 - Pseudepigraphy](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Backgrounds-of-Early-Christianity-182x300.jpg "Pseudepigraphy - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4230H2q)Backgrounds of Early Christianity – Third Edition Lee Martin McDonald clarifies the distinction between a literary forgery and a pseudonymous writing by explaining that the latter is a published work using a false name without necessarily the intent to deceive. McDonald notes that early church fathers treated certain writings considered pseudonymous as Scripture.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Furthermore, Jude 14-15 in the New Testament quotes 1 Enoch, a pseudonymous writing.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) An important question for New Testament scholars and believers is whether certain works, such as the Pastoral Epistles or 2 Peter, would be less authoritative if they were written by an unknown writer who wrote in the name of an apostle. To answer the question, the remainder of the post engages with both Bruce Metzger, who represents a more evangelical perspective, and David Brakke, who represents the more critical perspective of Bart Ehrman. Barth Ehrman’s book *Forgery and Counterforgery: The Use of Literary Deceit in Early Christian Polemics* takes a typical Ehrmanian approach by suggesting that ancient Christians embraced literary deceit with enthusiasm. Ehrman also accuses conservative New Testament scholars of attempting to justify the deceit of these Christian writers while, in turn, deceiving unsuspecting students.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Ehrman expends significant effort in disproving that writing in the name of a teacher or person of authority was commonplace in ancient writing.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Furthermore, Ehrman denies the possibility that a secretary could coauthor a work even though the use of an amanuensis might explain the stylistic differences between works of the same author.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Additionally, as the book’s title suggests, Ehrman asserts that “forgeries were sometimes used to counter the views of other forgeries.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Ehrman appears to assume that the counterforgers were themselves deceived into believing that the work they were opposing was not a forgery. Furthermore, Ehrman concludes that the book of Ephesians was written pseudonymously even though Paul refers to himself as the author four times in the letter (Eph 1:1; 3:1; 4:1; 6:19-22), and then he finds irony in such deceit in light of the exhortations against lying in the book (Eph 4:14, 25).[\[9\]](#_ftn9) The reason behind all the deceit, according to Ehrman, was polemical; the [Christian writers](https://www.livestransforming.com/derek-wilder-author-bio/) had to lie to defend and advance their cause.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Although nuanced, Ehrman admits that not all forgeries are pseudonymous, but is convinced he can determine the motive of deceit within the authors. Unfortunately, it appears that Ehrman is deceived into believing that he can determine whether ancient writers had an intent to deceive their readers thousands of years ago. A small amount of humility regarding the ability to definitively know the intentions of other human beings might go a long way in increasing Ehrman’s credibility. Bruce Metzger takes a different tact without claiming certainty around uncertain issues. McDonald explains that a pen name is not the same as a pseudonym.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) However, the lines appear blurred between the two if an intent to deceive is absent from both. Accordingly, Metzger points out that Mary Ann Evans used the pseudonym George Eliot to write such works as *The Mill and the Floss*, but under the circumstances of the late nineteenth century, it would be difficult to accuse her of deceit.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Metzger then proceeds to identify seven reasons why pseudonymous writings might occur: (1) financial gain, (2) malice, (3) respect, (4) modesty, (5) interests of dramatic composition, (6) accidents of copying, and (7) attribution to influential individuals.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The reactions to pseudonymous writings in ancient times compared to modern times differ. Metzger explains that people of antiquity could often detect forgeries and that some pseudonymous works were condemned on literary grounds while others were condemned on doctrinal grounds.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) However, a consistent pattern regarding the approval or rejection of works did not exist, which was likely due to the various motives behind the works. Alternatively, in modern times, scholars have often landed in the extremes. At one extreme, according to Metzger, are scholars who assert that pseudepigraphy was a completely legitimate enterprise.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) At the other extreme, are scholars that align with authors such as Ehrman. After reviewing several modern perspectives, Metzger appropriately concludes that analyzing ancient forgeries and pseudepigrapha is complex and has no “pat answers.”[\[16\]](#_ftn16) However, my perspective is that it is possible that pseudepigraphical works were included in the New Testament, but they should not be considered less authoritative if the book expresses the thoughts of the person represented and contains no deceitful intentions. Accordingly, there would appear to be no reason for such works to lack divine inspiration. As Metzger asserts, if the literary form of pseudepigraphy has no fraudulent intent, then “it cannot be argued that the character of inspiration excludes the possibility of pseudepigraphy among the canonical writings.”[\[17\]](#_ftn17) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) David Brakke, “Early Christian Lies and the Lying Liars Who Wrote Them: Bart Ehrman’s Forgery and Counterforgery,” *The Journal of Religion* 96, no. 3 (July 2016): 378. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Bruce Manning Metzger, “Literary Forgeries and Canonical Pseudepigrapha,” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 91, no. 1 (March 1972): 4. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Lee Martin McDonald, “Pseudonymous Writings and the New Testament,” in *The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, ed. Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017), 367–378. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Everett Ferguson, *Backgrounds of Early Christianity*, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 453. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) See Brakke, “Early Christian Lies and the Lying Liars Who Wrote Them,” 378–379. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Bart D. Ehrman, *Forgery and Counterforgery: The Use of Literary Deceit in Early Christian Polemics* (New York: Oxford University, n.d.), 105–119. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 218–222. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 27. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 189–190. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 529–548. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) McDonald, “Pseudonymous Writings and the New Testament,” 367. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Metzger, “Literary Forgeries and Canonical Pseudepigrapha,” 5. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 5–11. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ibid., 13–15. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid., 15. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Ibid., 19. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Ibid., 22. # Bibliography - Brakke, David. “Early Christian Lies and the Lying Liars Who Wrote Them: Bart Ehrman’s Forgery and Counterforgery.” *The Journal of Religion* 96, no. 3 (July 2016): 378–390. - Ehrman, Bart D. *Forgery and Counterforgery: The Use of Literary Deceit in Early Christian Polemics*. New York: Oxford University, n.d. - Ferguson, Everett. *Backgrounds of Early Christianity*. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. - McDonald, Lee Martin. “Pseudonymous Writings and the New Testament.” In *The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, edited by Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald, 367–378. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017. - Metzger, Bruce Manning. “Literary Forgeries and Canonical Pseudepigrapha.” *Journal of Biblical Literature* 91, no. 1 (March 1972): 3–24. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Messianic Expectations of Ancient Jews](https://www.livestransforming.com/messianic-expectations-of-ancient-jews/) **Published:** January 13, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Messianic Expectations of Ancient Jews It is not uncommon to hear modern psychologists refer to a diagnosis called the messiah complex disorder. The ancient historian, Josephus, documented several individuals who would possibly fit the modern malady where selflessness is manifested in extreme narcissism and often associated with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. A Samaritan “prophet” (Josephus, *Ant*. 18.85-87), a pretender named Theudas (*Ant*. 20.97-98), Egyptian false prophets (Josephus, *J. W.* 2.261-263; *Ant*. 20.167-170), a certain Jesus, son of Ananus (*J. W.* 6.300-309), and Jonathan who persuaded many to follow (*J. W.* 7.437-442) all claimed to be prophets, and all may be diagnosed with a psychological disorder by modern medicine if alive today. However, as Derek Dodson and Katherine Smith point out, although some scholars collectively refer to these individuals in terms of messiah movements, no evidence exists that they were referred to as “messiah.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) More importantly for the discussion at hand would be the term “messianism,” which specifically refers to the Messianic expectations of ancient Jews. Regarding the nature of the expectations, N. T. Wright and Michael Bird unequivocally state, “there was no uniform and monolithic ‘Messianic expectation’ shared by all first-century Jews.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Granted, significant differences of opinion did exist among Jewish authors and groups who anticipated a Messiah. [![Backgrounds of Early Christianity 182x300 - Messianic Expectations of Ancient Jews](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Backgrounds-of-Early-Christianity-182x300.jpg "Messianic Expectations of Ancient Jews - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4076z7Q)Backgrounds of Early Christianity Alternatively, to suggest that there was absolutely no general consensus on the basic characteristics of the coming Messiah may go too far. For example, Everett Ferguson agrees that first-century Judaism entailed a variety of Messianic expectations, but, in general, the term “Messiah” was not common, a specific agent did not always occur, and when an agent did occur, the view was often blurred; thus Jews thought more in terms of a time of restoration or the “days of the Messiah” rather than a central figure as Christians came to believe.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The remainder of the discussion explores the primary sources that support both the variegated nature of Messianic expectations of early Judaism as well as some common threads. One segment of Judaism’s [Messianic expectations](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/) assumed an anointed military leader who would purge Israel from sinners as noted by certain aspects of Second Temple literature. The author of the Psalms of Solomon asserts that the Lord will raise up a king to “destroy the unrighteous rulers, to purge Jerusalem from gentiles who trample her to destruction” (Ps. Sol. 17:21-22). Not only will the king drive out sinners but “their king shall be the Lord Messiah” (Ps. Sol. 17:32). Further, the War Scroll from Qumran points to an eschatological war between a remnant of Israel and her enemies led by various leaders who are God’s instruments. Specifically, an extermination of the sons of darkness will bring salvation to Israel that defeats wickedness (1QM i 5-6). Jewish sources also envisioned a Messiah much less like a military commander and much more like a supernatural human. The author of the Fourth Book of Ezra has a vision of a man coming up from the sea and flying in the clouds who breathed fire onto his enemies and destroyed them (4 Ez 13:8-11). The book then explains the vision, which suggests the individual will deliver God’s creation: “The Most High will deliver those who are on earth” (4 Ez 13:25-29). In contrast, the community at Qumran envisioned two distinct leaders. First, the author exhorts the readers to walk according to the law “until the prophet comes, and the Messiahs of Aaron and Israel” (1QS ix 9-11). Furthermore, in reference to the blessing of the wine and bread, the author of the *Rule of the Congregation* states that the “Messiah of Israel \[shall str\]etch out his hands” (1QSa ii. 19-21). Regardless, Géza Xeravits contends that Qumran’s Messianic expectations ultimately synthesized around an individual, a priestly character, who reflected the Righteous Teacher.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Similarly, Philo also pointed to a Hebrew king that would “devour many nations of their enemies” (Philo *Vit. Mos*. 1.290-1). Finally, the writings of the Jewish historian, Josephus, and the Roman writer, Tacitus, also refer to predictions within Jewish communities of a coming ruler. Josephus refers to an oracle of the Jewish sacred writings that supported the belief in an individual arising from their country to govern the entire earth (*J. W.* 6.312-313). Likewise, Tacitus suggests that within the ancient records of the Jewish priests was a prediction that pointed to a time when leaders from Judea would arise and “acquire \[the\] universal empire” (Tacitus, *Histories* 5.13). Finally, Dodson and Smith highlight that the Roman poet Virgil during the late Second Temple period describes a child that appears to possibly reflect Isaiah 7 and 11:8-9, which indicates that a child will inaugurate a peaceful time in history. The authors admit that the reference to the child originates from Greco-Roman influence rather than Judaism, but it does accentuate the broader expectations of an eschatological agent. In short, although apocalyptic threads of continuity exist within different forms of Judaism, the evidence supports significant differences of opinions regarding the Messianic expectations of first-century Jews. What might account for the differing Messianic expectations between first-century Jews is likely a more speculative venture. However, throughout history, differences of opinions and perspectives are often informed by the worldview of the people group. It would not be unexpected that a certain segment of Jews would look for an anointed military leader in light of their heritage. The leadership of Moses, the conquests of Joshua, and the victories of David all provide models for a potential eschatological agent who might overcome foreign enemies. Closer in time to the first-century Jew would be the relatively recent memory of the Maccabean revolt that provided a model for tipping a foreign oppressor. Alternatively, the influence of the Teacher of Righteousness within the Qumran community would more likely model a priestly figure to inhabit a Messianic role rather than a military commander. Finally, Jews influenced by the worldview of Hellenism may lean towards a future ruler who might bring peace rather than military force. The benefits of Pax Romana in their recent past and the potential for a Jewish ruler to provide the same stability to the Jewish nation may have been appealing to some first-century Jews. Although the precise reasons for first-century Jews to differ in opinion regarding Messianic expectations are not completely determinative, it appears reasonable to conclude that the worldview of the various Jewish groups, which were informed by their rich heritage, would contribute to the different perspectives. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Derek S. Dodson and Katherine E. Smith, eds., *Exploring Biblical Backgrounds: A Reader in Historical and Literary Contexts* (Waco, Texas: Baylor University Press, 2018), 181. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) N. T. Wright and Michael F. Bird, *The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2019), 226. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Everett Ferguson, *Backgrounds of Early Christianity*, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 553. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Géza G Xeravits, “The Early History of Qumran’s Messianic Expectations,” *Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses* 76, no. 1 (April 2000): 121. # Bibliography - Dodson, Derek S., and Katherine E. Smith, eds. *Exploring Biblical Backgrounds: A Reader in Historical and Literary Contexts*. Waco, Texas: Baylor University Press, 2018. - Ferguson, Everett. *Backgrounds of Early Christianity*. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. - Wright, N. T., and Michael F. Bird. *The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2019. - Xeravits, Géza G. “The Early History of Qumran’s Messianic Expectations.” *Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses* 76, no. 1 (April 2000): 113–121. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Jews and Hellenism in Scripture](https://www.livestransforming.com/jews-and-hellenism-in-scripture/) **Published:** January 13, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Jews and Hellenism in Scripture The ultimate result of the conquests of Alexander the Great went far beyond the expansion of geographical boundaries and invaded the core of culture and society through the process of Hellenization. Leonard Greenspoon succinctly defines Hellenism as “the spread of traditional Greek linguistic, political, social, cultural, historical, and religious beliefs and practices throughout the ancient Near East from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC to the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC.”[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Hellenism threatened both the Palestinian and Diaspora Jews by potentially undermining their religious beliefs and, in certain circumstances, imposing physical violence. Possibly the most profound expression of the threat of Hellenization leveled at Jewish beliefs and survival come in the form of the Seleucid king, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who ruled from 175-164 BC. According to Larry Helyer, the Jewish devotion to their faith and, more specifically, their strict monotheism posed risks to the king’s agenda.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Accordingly, Antiochus decreed that the Jews must become fully Hellenized citizens of his empire and renounce their faith (see 1 Macc 1:41-43, 48-50).[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The Jewish priest, Mattathias, refused to engage in Antiochus’s forced methods of conversion and killed a Jew who agreed to offer a pagan sacrifice on the altar of Modein; Mattathias also killed the king’s officer who was to enforce the sacrifice (1 Macc 2:15-26). Mattathias’s rebellion led to a protracted struggle against religious persecution of the Jews. [![The New Testament in Its World 182x300 - Jews and Hellenism in Scripture](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-New-Testament-in-Its-World-182x300.jpg "Jews and Hellenism in Scripture - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4iZR9uR)The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians Questions regarding the reasons why some Jews resisted Hellenization and others embraced it points to a longstanding scholarly debate. Scholars such as Martin Hengel emphasize the impact of Hellenism in the Second Temple period upon Judaism, while scholars such as L. H. Feldman assert that Hellenism did not significantly impact Judaism.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Accordingly, although there is no consensus as to the extent of Jewish resistance or acceptance of Hellenism, evidence for both exists. N. T. Wright and Michael Bird identify three primary instruments of Hellenization: language, the city-state, and religious syncretism.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Hellenization was embraced by some Jews for various reasons, not the least of which was the fear of persecution as discussed above. However, more practical reasons also existed. David DeSilva explains that the Greek language was a requirement for meaningful interaction with the Greek population, which would certainly include business and legal affairs.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Learning the Greek language and culture could also open educational opportunities. Additionally, the city-state political structure provided incentives for Hellenization. DeSilva notes that embracing certain cultural practices such as dress, décor, entertainment, and dining protocol facilitated participation and integration into the civic and social life of the cities.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) Alternatively, as Everett Ferguson explains, the paganism associated with Hellenism demonized religion, integrated astrology and magic, associated cults with prominent individuals, disassociated morality from religion, and was nonexclusive.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) The religious syncretism espoused by Hellenism caused many Jews to resist not only the [religious aspects of Hellenism](https://www.livestransforming.com/hellenism-and-judaism/) but also the entire cultural system. The author of the *Letter of Aristeas* affirms the notion by stating that Jews “not mingle at all with any of the other nations, but remain pure in body and soul, free from all vain imaginations, worshiping the one Almighty God above the whole creation” (*Let. Aris*. 139-140). Although some Jews resisted Hellenization more than others, it was possible to remain faithful to the Jewish traditions while simultaneously embracing various aspects of Greek culture. DeSilva contends that the engagement or even the mastery of Greek language, literature, philosophy, and rhetoric did not preclude Jews from either observing the commandments of the Torah or keeping a commitment to their Jewish roots.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Examples of acculturation abound in ancient Jewish literature during the Second Temple period without apostasy. The Jewish author of 4 Maccabees leans on Greek philosophy represented by Stoicism by engaging the four cardinal virtues when stating, “The forms of wisdom consist of prudence, justice, courage, and temperance” (4 Macc 1:18). However, instead of highlighting humanistic reason, the author insists that the intellect of man was given the Mosaic Law for the purpose of empowering the “temperate and just and good and brave” (4 Macc 2:23). The Wisdom of Solomon provides another example, which, according to Ferguson, attempts to reconcile the Hebrew Wisdom tradition with Hellenistic philosophy.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Again, the author refers to the four cardinal virtues when stating, “If one prizes righteousness, the fruits of her labors are virtues. For she teaches temperance and prudence, justice and fortitude, and nothing in life is of more value for men than these” (Wis 8:7). Although Second Temple literature is only one category of examples, it appears evident that embracing certain aspects of Greek culture did not require an abandonment of the Jewish faith or heritage. Certain Jewish groups appear to have been more inclined to accept Greek culture than others. In general, Grant Osborne suggests that the “pull of Hellenism was always felt primarily by the upper-class nobility, and it was strongest in Jewish communities of the dispersion.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Accordingly, the urban nobility would be inclined to accept Greek culture, while the peasants saw Hellenism as a danger that could undermine the Torah. Furthermore, the diaspora Jews would be more likely to engage Hellenism than Palestinian Jews, but the differences must not be overstated, for Osborne notes that the Hellenistic Jews in the diaspora still regarded themselves as foreigners and considered Palestine their true home.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Based on these general distinctions, it is not surprising that the inclinations spilled over into the more formalized groups of Jews: the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. Josephus contends that the Pharisees were the party of the people (*Ant*. 13.296). Furthermore, Michelle Lee-Barnewell suggests the Pharisees may have had their origins from the Hasideans, the pious ones, and were known for emphasizing the study and observance of the Law.[\[13\]](#_ftn13) The Essenes also strongly emphasized the Law, but also accentuated the importance of separation. Thus, both the Pharisees and the Essenes would be less inclined to accept Greek culture. Alternatively, Ferguson identifies the Sadducees as wealthy priests and friends of the aristocracy who combined religion and politics.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Furthermore, George Holley Gilbert explains that the Sadducees rejected isolating themselves from society, and thus they were more inclined to engage Greek civilization.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Although different groups of Jews engaged Hellenism with various emphases, strict or absolute lines of differentiation must be carefully avoided. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Leonard J. Greenspoon, “Hellenism,” ed. John D. Barry et al., *The Lexham Bible Dictionary* (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016). [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Larry R. Helyer, “The Hasmoneans and the Hasmonean Era,” in *The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, ed. Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald, Annotated. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017), 39-40. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 40. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Louis H Feldman, “How Much Hellenism in the Land of Israel?,” *Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman Period* 33, no. 3 (2002): 290–291, 312–313. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) N. T. Wright and Michael F. Bird, *The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2019), 143–144. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) David DeSilva, “Jews in the Diaspora,” in *The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, ed. Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017), 281. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Ibid., 282. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Everett Ferguson, *Backgrounds of Early Christianity*, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 175–177. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) DeSilva, “Jews in the Diaspora,” 283. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ferguson, *Backgrounds of Early Christianity*, 444. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Grant Osborne, “Hellenistic Judaism,” ed. Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, *Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible* (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1988), 956. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Ibid., 959. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Michelle Lee-Barnewall, “Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes,” in *The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, ed. Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017), 218. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Ferguson, *Backgrounds of Early Christianity*, 519. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) George Holley Gilbert, “The Hellenization of the Jews between 334 B. C. and 70 A. D.,” *The American Journal of Theology* 13, no. 4 (1909): 539. # Bibliography - DeSilva, David. “Jews in the Diaspora.” In *The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, edited by Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017. - Feldman, Louis H. “How Much Hellenism in the Land of Israel?” *Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman Period* 33, no. 3 (2002): 290–313. - Ferguson, Everett. *Backgrounds of Early Christianity*. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. - Gilbert, George Holley. “The Hellenization of the Jews between 334 B. C. and 70 A. D.” *The American Journal of Theology* 13, no. 4 (1909): 520–540. - Greenspoon, Leonard J. “Hellenism.” Edited by John D. Barry, Derek R. Brown, Rachel Klippenstein, Douglas Magnum, Carrie Sinclair Wolcott, Lazarus Wentz, Elliot Ritzema, and Wendy Widder. *The Lexham Bible Dictionary*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016. - Helyer, Larry R. “The Hasmoneans and the Hasmonean Era.” In *The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, edited by Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald. Annotated. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017. - Lee-Barnewall, Michelle. “Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes.” In *The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts*, edited by Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017. - Osborne, Grant. “Hellenistic Judaism.” Edited by Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel. *Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible*. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1988. - Wright, N. T., and Michael F. Bird. *The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2019. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Jewish Religious Thought](https://www.livestransforming.com/jewish-religious-thought/) **Published:** January 13, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Jewish Religious Thought After reading the primary sources pertaining to the first-century Jewish groups, I agree with Derek Dodson and Katherine Smith’s assertion that it is misleading to suggest that [first-century Judaism](https://www.livestransforming.com/first-century-judaism/) promoted a legalistic perspective of religion. It appears that the primary sources generally support the conclusion of Dodson and Smith. The topic at hand has led to tens of thousands of scholarly pages. Thus, attempting to address the issue in less than one thousand words is certainly an impossible task. However, the following brief analysis will engage only one small topic pertaining to the Dead Sea Scrolls from sources written by two scholars. First, it would be difficult to discuss the topic without engaging E. P. Sanders’s *Paul and Palestinian Judaism*. Sanders’s masterpiece is a work that exploded onto the scholarly scene almost half a century ago and set the stage for many of the arguments. Second, one of the staunchest critics of Sanders is the evangelical perspectives of D. A. Carson, as documented in the two-volume tome entitled *Justification and Variegated Nomism*, which he, along with Peter O’Brien and Mark Seifrid, edited. Finally, the following will focus specifically on how these two perspectives deal with 1QS from the Dead Sea Scrolls. Sanders begins his assessment of 1QS by pointing out a dichotomy. He first explains that the members of the Qumran community are expected to walk perfectly (1QS ix 19; 1QS viii 18) and, until confirmed in the perfection, the individual cannot enter the covenant (1QS viii 10).[\[1\]](#_ftn1) However, Sanders continues, the Qumran hymns stress that righteousness is not within the grasp of man and quotes, “Righteousness, I know, is not of man, nor is perfection of way of the son of man” (1QH iv 30).[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The content of 1QS also supports the assertion that perfection is not in man’s grasp and is only possible with God because “in His hand is the perfection of my behavior” (1QS xi 2) and “from His hand is the perfection of the path” (1QS xi 11). [![Exploring Biblical Backgrounds 182x300 - Jewish Religious Thought](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Exploring-Biblical-Backgrounds-182x300.jpg "Jewish Religious Thought - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3W65Vqm)Exploring Biblical Backgrounds: A Reader in Historical and Literary Contexts Accordingly, Sanders asserts that the context of the statements makes it clear that perfection of man only comes by God’s grace, not by man’s works.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) What Sanders observes in 1QS is what appears to be a significant difference between the legalistic language of 1QS i-ix and the language of salvation by grace in 1QS x-xi.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In other words, the excerpt of 1QS xi 2-17 documented by Dodson and Smith certainly supports their assertion that labeling first-century Judaism as legalistic is misleading, but Sanders recognizes that column xi does not tell the whole story.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The themes of legalistic righteousness and perfection are certainly found in the Qumran documents (cf. 1QH), but frequently the cause is God’s mercy and grace (1QS i 21-23; 1QS xi 10). Ultimately, Sanders does not perceive a dichotomy between works and grace, but instead, he synthesizes the concepts in an attempt to explain the strict legalistic sayings that exist alongside the profound affirmations of grace. Sanders concludes that “*Obedience to the commandments* was not thought of as earning salvation, which came rather by God’s grace, but was nevertheless required as a *condition of remaining in the covenant*; and not obeying the commandments would damn.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Evangelical scholars have robustly responded to Sanders’s efforts. The editors of *Justification and Variegated Nomism* tap Markus Bockmuehl to address 1QS and the topic of salvation at Qumran. Bockmuehl agrees with Sanders’s basic assumption that salvation is not based on human merit because God has “caused them to inherit the lot of the Holy Ones” (1QS xi 7-8).[\[7\]](#_ftn7) In other words, it is God’s righteousness that constitutes salvation that allows forgiveness. Bockmuehl also highlights the forensic nature of the language, which hearkens back to the Reformers, by quoting 1QS ix. 10, “Man cannot establish his own steps, for to God belong judgment and perfection of way…no one is righteous in your judgement, or innocent at your trial” (1QHa xvii 14).[\[8\]](#_ftn8) So far, Bockmuehl really does not part in any significant way from Sanders. However, a major point of disagreement lies in Bockmuehl’s assertion that the theological diversity of the Qumran community occurred due to textual developments over a long period of time.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Thus, per Bockmuehl, the Qumran religion is much less coherent than Sanders perceives. Covenant nomism may have been an underlying belief during certain times of Judaist thought, but that does not preclude the possibility of other patterns of development that could have emphasized the legalistic aspects of Judaism. Accordingly, Bockmuehl concludes that proper redactional analysis points to the possibility of a legalism that Paul reacts against in his epistles.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Regardless of the nuances placed upon the analysis, which may or may not attempt to justify certain theological presuppositions of the Pauline epistles, concluding that Judaism was solely a legalistic religion is not supported by the primary sources at Qumran, specifically 1QS. More likely, Judaism had a diverse set of beliefs that not only developed over time but also were nuanced between different groups of Jews. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) E. P. Sanders, *Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion* (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977), 288. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 290. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid., 291. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Derek S. Dodson and Katherine E. Smith, eds., *Exploring Biblical Backgrounds: A Reader in Historical and Literary Contexts* (Waco, Texas: Baylor University Press, 2018), 179–180. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Sanders, *Paul and Palestinian Judaism*, 320. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Markus Bockmuehl, “1QS and Salvation at Qumran,” in *Justification And Variegated Nomism: The Complexities of Second Temple Judaism*, ed. D. A. Carson, Peter T. O’Brien, and Mark A. Seifrid, vol. 1 (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001), 397. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 398. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 412–413. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 414. # Bibliography - Bockmuehl, Markus. “1QS and Salvation at Qumran.” In *Justification And Variegated Nomism: The Complexities of Second Temple Judaism*, edited by D. A. Carson, Peter T. O’Brien, and Mark A. Seifrid. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001. - Dodson, Derek S., and Katherine E. Smith, eds. *Exploring Biblical Backgrounds: A Reader in Historical and Literary Contexts*. Waco, Texas: Baylor University Press, 2018. - Sanders, E. P. *Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion*. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Virtue and Biblical Exegesis](https://www.livestransforming.com/virtue-and-biblical-exegesis/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Virtue and Biblical Exegesis In some ways, engaging the topic of virtue in a Christian context seems simple and obvious, so obvious that Christians should not encounter much disagreement and may even question its relevance. However, when the news headlines feature Christian rock-stars such as Mark Driscoll, Bill Hybells, and most recently, John Crist, to name a few, the question may have more relevance now than ever. The question is based on an assumption that a connection exists between virtue and interpretation, and more specifically, masterful interpretation. [![Hermeneutics as Apprenticeship 182x300 - Virtue and Biblical Exegesis](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Hermeneutics-as-Apprenticeship-182x300.jpg "Virtue and Biblical Exegesis - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3Pojv4o)Hermeneutics as Apprenticeship: How the Bible Shapes Our Interpretive Habits and Practices David Starling appropriately highlights four important risks associated with the assumption without immediately addressing them.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) First, even Greek and Roman philosophers spent much effort in encouraging a virtuous life with its significant benefits. Accordingly, one would surmise that Greek and Roman philosophers may be some of the most masterful interpreters of Scripture. The implicit question at hand is how Greek virtue and Christian virtue differ. Second, Starling quotes Hauerwas and Pinches who suggest that Christian virtue can bear bad fruit. In other words, in some way, virtue can actually be harmful. Third, the idea of mastery becomes another issue. The concept is difficult to define. In fact, one wonders if a person who claims to have mastery over the Scriptures could possibly be virtuous. Finally, and most importantly, Starling asks whether virtue or character is something brought to Scripture or something formed by Scripture. The final question is the primary focus of this brief essay, as it is the key to resolving the remaining issues. Starling, while expounding on John 5:44, emphasizes that fear and desire are significant culprits that bias interpretation.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Furthermore, it does not seem unreasonable to conclude that fear and desire may be the two primary forces that undermine character and virtue. For example, would Driscoll have fallen without the desire for power over people? Would Hybells have fallen without the desire to be adored by people? Most recently, it is difficult to even read the words of John Crist, “My greatest *fear* has been that those who have loved and supported me would hate me if they knew everything about me.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Desire and fear dominate those who lack character. Unfortunately, the only thing more dangerous than desire and fear is the interpreters attempt to offer a life of character, devoid of desire and fear, to God and the Scriptures. Importantly, as Starling explains, the message that requires interpretation is simultaneously the means of overcoming the desire and fear that distort judgement as well as bias and impede proper interpretation.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In other words, the gospel must first set the interpreter free from desire and fear, before the individual can appropriately interpret the Scriptures. More specifically, if the gospel is something like the God of the universe inhabits me (Gal 2:20), calls me His child (2 Cor 6:18), completes me (Col 2:10), loves me (John 15:9), and gives me the gift of righteousness (Rom 5:15), then power over others, adoration from others, or success in the eyes of others would seem completely unnecessary. If Driscoll and Hybells understood the gospel, that they are already transferred in to a new cosmic reality in Christ, [full of love and righteousness](https://www.livestransforming.com/righteousness-theme-in-the-book-of-matthew/), then what desire is left to fill? Why would power and adoration be necessary? If Crist understood the gospel, why would it matter if others hated him…what is there to fear? Other people are not who make Crist who he is…God does. In other words, Craig Keener explains that character formation is a divine initiative, “The one who trusts in Christ’s work for being put right forensically should also trust in Christ’s work for being put right behaviorally.”[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The questions posed in the prompt and at the beginning of the response can now be addressed. First, the difference between Greek virtue and Christian virtue is significant. Christian virtue is empowered by a divine initiative. Second, when virtuous living is disconnected from the gospel, the result is bad fruit. Doing good for the purpose of obtaining power and adoration or pleasing others to overcome the fear of rejection, is not virtuous at all. If mastery of Scripture is possible, it is only because of a divine initiative that reveals God’s truth to the recipient within the context of the gospel. Finally, character cannot be anthropologically brought to Scripture. God and His communication through Scripture is the agent that forges the character necessary for proper interpretation. Accordingly, it is safe to assume that those who do not advance spiritually do so because they resist the divine initiative, thus cannot be masterful interpreters. Next, it is not possible to grow spiritually via the power of the divine initiative and be stunted in understanding God’s Word. God’s empowerment cannot stunt God’s revelation. What this reveals about the centrality of Scripture is that the impact of Scripture is directly correlated to God’s divine work. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) See discussion provided by David I. Starling, *Hermeneutics as Apprenticeship: How the Bible Shapes Our Interpretive Habits and Practices* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016), 47–48. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 123–24. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Taylor Berglund, “John Crist Cancels 2019 Tour Dates After Reports of Sexting, Harassment, Manipulation,” Charisma News, November 6, 2019, accessed November 11, 2019, https://www.charismanews.com/us/78703-john-crist-cancels-2019-tour-dates-after-reports-of-sexting-harassment-manipulation; emphasis added. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Starling, *Hermeneutics as Apprenticeship*, 128. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Craig S. Keener, *The Mind of the Spirit: Paul’s Approach to Transformed Thinking* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016), 134. ## Bibliography - Keener, Craig S. *The Mind of the Spirit: Paul’s Approach to Transformed Thinking*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016. - Starling, David I. *Hermeneutics as Apprenticeship: How the Bible Shapes Our Interpretive Habits and Practices*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Spiritual Interpretation of the Bible](https://www.livestransforming.com/spiritual-interpretation-of-the-bible/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Spiritual Interpretation of the Bible Although an argument may be made that all spiritual meaning should be excluded from biblical interpretation in favor of a literal meaning, I do not. Accordingly, the following post presupposes the validity of spiritual interpretation, and I will yield arguments to the contrary to my classmates. Regarding balancing the literal and spiritual meaning, I believe that Keith Stanglin does a masterful job providing guidelines for a healthy balance between the letter and the spirit using modern interpretive methods. However, a brief summary of the risks of both the spirit and letter may assist. [![The Letter and Spirit of Biblical Interpretation 182x300 - Spiritual Interpretation of the Bible](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Letter-and-Spirit-of-Biblical-Interpretation-182x300.jpg "Spiritual Interpretation of the Bible - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3PfNhIv)The Letter and Spirit of Biblical Interpretation: From the Early Church to Modern Practice The risk of a spiritual interpretation is speculation. The risk of the literal interpretation is the uncertainty of one meaning, and the exclusion of faith from the interpretive process. Accordingly, Stanglin suggests a balance between the spirit and the letter by applying certain principles to each category. The spiritual meaning must (1) be tied to the literal sense, (2) utilize intertextuality, and (3) align with the Apostle’s faith, all of which assume a unity of Scripture.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) The literal meaning must acknowledge (1) that it is only the first step in the interpretive process providing the foundation for a spiritual interpretation, (2) that the diverse nature of Scripture lives within a greater unity, and (3) that a literal interpretation is often as speculative as a spiritual interpretation.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Stanglin’s engagement with the spirit and the letter is strong, but as I was reading the final chapters of his book another question continued to come to mind. Stanglin states, “Spiritual interpretation is…not merely an added application.”[\[3\]](#_ftn3) If spiritual interpretation and spiritual application are distinct, then what exactly is the difference? I do not believe that Stanglin sufficiently addresses the distinction. Accordingly, the goal of the remainder of the post is to not only provide a couple examples of healthy balance between spirit and letter, but also highlight the distinction between spiritual meaning and spiritual application via two popular passages. The first example is one that Stanglin mentions. Matthew 6:11 states, “Give us this day our daily bread.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) The exegetical challenge resides in the words daily and bread. Stanglin suggests that daily could mean every day, essential, or even supernatural, while bread could mean physical bread, or standing alongside tradition, mean some type of spiritual food or sustenance that *expects* transformation.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) What exactly was the author’s intent? It is difficult to know. It is not unreasonable to assume that a literal meaning could pertain to food. It is also not unreasonable to assume that the passage also pertains to something beyond food, for spiritual and emotional sustenance, peace, joy, and love – a spiritual meaning. Assuming a literal meaning and a spiritual meaning coexist, then what is the application? I believe spiritual meaning and spiritual application are often conflated and confused. Some might say that the [spiritual application of Matthew 6:11](https://www.livestransforming.com/righteousness-theme-in-the-book-of-matthew/) is that God will sustain you spiritually and emotionally. Although this sounds like application it is not application at all, it is a spiritual meaning or principle that is begging to be applied. However, if the recipient ponders the literal and spiritual meaning and finds peace during an evening where he had just learned that his job was terminated, spiritual application exists. In sum, spiritual interpretation *expects* transformation, and spiritual application *effectuates* transformation. A final example comes from the famous story of Abraham and Isaac. I believe that the partnership between the literal sense, spiritual sense, and its application shines in the Old Testament narratives. Due to the popularity of the story, I will only provide a reference to two verses: “But the angel of the Lord called to him from heaven and said, ‘Abraham, Abraham!’ And he said, ‘Here I am.’ He said, ‘Do not lay your hand on the boy or do anything to him, for now I know that you fear God, seeing you have not withheld your son, your only son, from me’” (Gen 22:11-12). The literal meaning is that there was a man named Abraham that went to sacrifice his son, Isaac, and then an Angel of the Lord stopped him. The tendency would be to teach the story and then communicate the spiritual principles of faith and obedience. The question is whether the spiritual principles would be considered interpretation or application. Many would consider the spiritual principles application. However, the spiritual principles or interpretation only *expect* transformation. It is not until the recipient applies the spiritual meaning to a specific real-life situation that it become spiritual application, which *effectuates* transformation. The literal meaning must lead to spiritual meaning that results in spiritual application for transformation to occur – a missing link in congregations across the nation. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Keith D. Stanglin, *The Letter and Spirit of Biblical Interpretation: From the Early Church to Modern Practice* (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 205–7. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 207–10. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 217. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008). [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Stanglin, *The Letter and Spirit*, 237–38. ## Bibliography - Stanglin, Keith D. *The Letter and Spirit of Biblical Interpretation: From the Early Church to Modern Practice*. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Text Driven Preaching](https://www.livestransforming.com/text-driven-preaching/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Text Driven Preaching ## **Question 1: Text-Driven Preaching** When discussing doctrinal fidelity, Ned Matthews (pp. 87-92) explains that a text-driven man will be less likely to dilute the gospel for fear of the consequences and less likely to shape the message to assure popularity. Provide at least one example of how you have personally seen dilution of the message to avoid consequences and/or assure popularity. Then explain how this challenge can be avoided. Matthews also discusses the [failure of the local church](https://www.livestransforming.com/disciple-making-in-the-local-church/), both the seeker-sensitive and traditional models, to make disciples. Then states that when “dynamic exposition of Scripture is practiced in the churches, it is *always* effective in making and maturing disciples.” Is dynamic expository preaching always effective in making and maturing disciples? If not, what needs to change? If so, how does this occur? Please provide substantive evidence for any personal opinions. ## **Question 2: Text-Driven Preaching** [![Text Driven Preaching Gods Word at the Heart of Every Sermon 182x300 - Text Driven Preaching](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Text-Driven-Preaching-Gods-Word-at-the-Heart-of-Every-Sermon-182x300.jpg "Text Driven Preaching - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3DFavW3)Text-Driven Preaching: God’s Word at the Heart of Every Sermon In a section entitled “A Surprising Observation,” Adam Dooley and Jerry Vines (pp. 250-253) assert that preaching must not only align with the content, but also the emotion of the text. Furthermore, Dooley and Vines suggest that “although transparency is important, exegetical faithfulness ranks more importantly.” Do you agree? Why or why not. Finally, the authors states that transparency is manipulative if it contradicts the *pathos* of the author’s intent. Thus, certain situations require preachers “to ignore personal disposition for the sake of interpretive fidelity.” If a preacher’s emotional state does not align with Scripture, the authors suggest that “being transparent in the pulpit can be manipulative.” However, others would assert that if a preacher misrepresents his emotions or is not transparent (pretending) in the pulpit, he is being manipulative. Should a preacher avoid transparency or be transparent in the pulpit? Is this a contradiction? Is it resolvable? Please provide substantive evidence for any personal opinions. ## **Question 3: The Hermeneutical Spiral** While discussing practical methods for applying a text, Grant Osborne (pp. 444-451) explains that indirect application “forces the hearer to decide how to contextualize the point for him- or herself.” Explain the benefits of indirect application in a sermon. Also, provide examples of four different types of indirect application (these do not have to align with Osborne’s suggestions), but confirm they are indirect applications, rather than direct or persuasive. Finally, explain how preachers might effectively transition from direct to indirect sermon applications in churches that have primarily focused on direct application. Please provide substantive evidence for any personal opinions. **Categories:** Academic, Research Brief --- ### [Old Testament: Messianic Expectation](https://www.livestransforming.com/old-testament-messianic-expectation/) **Published:** January 12, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Old Testament: Messianic Expectation The Old Testament establishes a robust messianic expectation that becomes increasingly apparent through a careful biblical-theological analysis. The following essay briefly analyzes the biblical-theological approach and then mentions a few necessary theological presuppositions. Next, the essay moves through each section of the Old Testament from Genesis to Malachi, expounding on how the Old Testament provides a messianic vision. The analysis focuses on relevant thematic initiatives and intertextual connections rather than a summary of disjointed prophecies. ## **Biblical Theology** Although the essay’s primary focus expounds upon how specific texts within the [Old Testament](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-functions-of-old-testament-law/) provide a messianic expectation, a brief synopsis regarding the theological approach is relevant. Two overarching approaches to theology exist, which include systematic theology and biblical theology.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) [![Messiah in the Old Testament 182x300 - Old Testament: Messianic Expectation](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Messiah-in-the-Old-Testament-182x300.jpg "Old Testament: Messianic Expectation - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3BQLC9d)Messiah in the Old Testament The former is a deductive approach that starts with the interpreter’s questions outside of the text and looks for answers within the text. The latter is an inductive approach that looks to the text to provide both answers and questions. Systematic theology leans upon Scripture, tradition, and philosophy to address various doctrinal topics and ultimately attempts to formulate a coherent system. Biblical theology focuses on the text’s historical, literary, and theological contexts while remaining faithful to the unity of Scripture. Accordingly, the concepts of progressive revelation, where thematic initiatives are developed throughout the canon, and intertextuality, where the interconnectedness between Scripture is recognized, become an integral part of the theological approach. The remainder of this essay utilizes biblical theology, which centers on motifs and intertextual threads to show how the Old Testament establishes a messianic expectation.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) ## **Presuppositions** Presuppositions provide the groundwork for any interpretive methodology; therefore, establishing a messianic expectation requires a brief assessment of presuppositional alternatives. Anti-supernaturalist approaches, such as those espoused by certain forms of historical criticism, eliminate the possibility of supernatural predictions by the Old Testament prophets; thus making the establishment of messianic expectation impossible. Alternatively, this essay presupposes that a supernatural God can intervene within actual historical events through divine communication with Old Testament prophets to provide a messianic expectation. Finally, the following analysis attempts to emphasize explicit prophecy within the Old Testament texts to identify themes that forge a messianic expectation while recognizing the possibility that the predictions may arguably fall into foreshadowing, typology, or prophetic patterns. ## **Pentateuch** It seems reasonable to begin the messianic analysis with the book of Genesis. Genesis 3 contains a verse that some have called the “mother prophecy” that birthed the rest of the promises in the Old Testament: “I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel” (Gen 3:15, English Standard Version).[\[3\]](#_ftn3) The language points to a promise that a male descendant of a woman will bruise or crush the head of the serpent; thus, the first biblical-theological motif is a promise of victory from God. God also promises to dwell, or tabernacle, among the people of Shem (Gen 9:27, cf. John 1:14). Genesis 3:15 and 9:27 provide insight into both the humanity and divinity of a God who will eventually dwell on earth in the form of the Incarnate Messiah. Yahweh’s promise to Abraham also connects the biblical motif of the covenant with a messianic expectation when stating, “I will bless those who bless you, and him who dishonors you I will curse, and in you, all the families of the earth shall be blessed” (Gen 12:3). In other words, through a genealogical descendant of Abraham, God will bless all the nations of the earth. Accordingly, the Apostle Paul appropriately ties God’s promise to Abraham to its fulfillment through Christ in Galatians 3:8. Kingship is another motif that points to a messianic expectation. The prophet, Balaam, under the rule of Balak, the Moabite king, provides the following oracle regarding Israel’s future. Balaam foresees a future where a ruler or king, the Messiah, will emerge and oppose evil powers (Num 24:17). The coming Messiah is also a prophet. In Deuteronomy 18:15, Moses declares: “The Lord your God will raise up for you a prophet like me from among you.” New Testament writers such as the Apostle John also recognized the prophetic nature of the Messiah: “When the people saw the sign that he \[Jesus\] had done, they said, ‘This is indeed the Prophet who is to come into the world’” (John 6:14). Three biblical-theological motifs emerge within the Pentateuch that point to a messianic expectation: God’s covenant promises, a messianic king, and a messianic prophet. ## **Davidic Monarchy** Three relevant prophecies occur before David’s reign. The first prophecy occurs at the end of Hannah’s prayer, “The Lord will judge the ends of the earth; he will give strength to his king and exalt the horn of his anointed” (1 Sam 2:10). Hannah’s prayer points to a messianic king motif. The Lord’s judgment likely reflects a “now and not yet” eschatology indicating the power of God during the time of David, the coming of Christ, and the ultimate restoration during Christ’s second coming (cf. Acts 3:24). A messianic priest motif appears again in 1 Samuel 2:35, “And I will raise up for myself a faithful priest…and I will build Him a sure house.” Although the identity of the faithful priest may encompass a collective priesthood, the culmination of the prophecy rests on Christ (cf. 1 Pet 2:9). Finally, God’s famous promise to David in the books of Samuel establishes the most prominent messianic expectation. Yahweh promises David that from his offspring, the Lord will establish His kingdom and house for all eternity (2 Sam 7:12-13), and Yahweh’s love will never depart from the Son He has raised (2 Sam 7:14-15). Luke recognizes the prophetic reference when noting that Jesus “will be called the Son of the Most High. And the Lord God will give him the throne of his father David . . . forever” (Luke 1:32-33). Nathan’s prophetic message clearly announces a future Messiah that will come as a descendant of David in the flesh to establish the kingdom of God. These prophecies reinforce the three theological motifs in the Pentateuch: God’s covenant promises, a messianic king, and a messianic prophet. ## **Psalter** The prophetic nature of the Psalter is significant. J. Barton Payne asserts that the Psalter is the “greatest single block of predictive matter concerning the Savior to be found anywhere in the Old Testament.”[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Accordingly, this essay briefly references various messianic motifs in several Psalms. Psalm 110 references the Messiah sitting at Yahweh’s right hand, ruling Israel’s enemies, and being an everlasting priest (Ps 110:1-4). Psalm 2:6-7 explains that Yahweh will set His King over Zion while referring to the Messiah as His Son. Psalm 110 focuses on a messianic priesthood, and Psalm 2 presents the theme of Sonship, while both Psalms highlight a messianic king motif. Next, the Messiah’s thematic initiative as a symbolic stone shows up in Psalm 118. The author explains that the builders reject the cornerstone of salvation (Ps 118:21-22). New Testament writers also pick up on the language of the Messiah as a stone. For example, Mark 12:10 states, “The stone that the builders rejected has become the cornerstone.” It would be challenging to ignore Psalm 22:1 when reflecting upon Jesus on the cross, “My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?” Jesus’s words reflect a theme also explored in the book of Isaiah, which offers the motif of a Suffering Servant (cf. Isa 53:3). Psalm 22 also addresses the Messiah’s suffering when describing the scorn and mockery that Jesus faced (Ps 22:6-7). Peter’s quotation of Psalm 16:10 in Acts 2:27 provides some relief to the language of Psalm 22:1 since the author envisioned a Messiah who overcomes His suffering through resurrection. Psalms 68 and 72 support the powerful resurrection message with a triumphant king motif. The Psalmist tells of the Messiah ascending, taking captives, and receiving gifts (Ps 68:18). The Apostle Paul references the triumphant resurrection language of Psalm 68 in his letter to the Ephesians (Eph 4:8). The theme of triumph also appears in Psalm 72:17 where the Messiah endures forever, believers are blessed in Christ, and all the nations are blessed. The final phrase reflects the covenantal motif seen within the Abrahamic covenant. The Psalter reflects several biblical-theological motifs pointing to a messianic expectation. Like the motifs found during the time surrounding the Davidic monarchy, the Psalter reveals a messianic king and priest. Other motifs that point to a messianic expectation include the symbol of a stone, Sonship, a suffering Messiah, and a triumphant Messiah. ## **Ninth and Eighth-Century Prophets** As expected, the Old Testament prophetic texts have much to say about a messianic expectation and may provide the clearest messianic vision in all of the Old Testament. This essay’s ninth and eighth-century prophets include Hosea, Amos, Micah, and Isaiah. The covenant motif arrives in Hosea 3:4-5 where the Israelites live without a king, but God commits to keep His promises in the last days. Furthermore, a new David will emerge as Israel’s king when Israel seeks God (Hos 3:5). Amos 9:11-15 references the Davidic covenant when Yahweh promises to restore David’s house (Amos 9:11). God also promises to raise a Messiah in the coming days to restore the fortunes of Israel (Amos 9:13-14). Amos is likely pointing to an eschatological reign inaugurated by Christ during New Testament times and the final fulfillment of the promise at Christ’s second advent. Micah also provides words of hope as he explains that God will gather a remnant of Israel as a “flock in its pasture” (Mic 2:12). A leader will arise and break open the way for His flock to pass through (Mic 2:13a). The leader is not only the messianic Good Shepherd (cf. John 10:1-18), but He is also a messianic king (Mic 2:13b).[\[5\]](#_ftn5) Although various messianic themes and sub-themes weave through the book of Isaiah, the motifs, according to Walter Kaiser, can be placed within three broad categories: a King, a Servant, and an anointed Conqueror.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) An example from each thematic category should suffice. First, the wonderful, everlasting, ruling son of Isaiah 9 provides a famous example of the messianic kingship motif (Isa 9:6). In summary, a day will come when people see the light, and a child who will reign on the throne of David will break their oppression (Isa 9:1-7; see also 2 Sam 7:16).[\[7\]](#_ftn7) The famous passage of Isaiah 52:13-53:12 is an excellent example of the messianic Servant motif. Specifically, Isaiah 53:5-6 speaks of Jesus being pierced and crushed for humanity’s sins and points to the substitutionary nature of Christ’s work on the cross as the Lord “laid on Him the iniquity of us all.” It would be hard to imagine a more faithful and loving Servant of humankind.[\[8\]](#_ftn8) Regarding the theme of an anointed Conqueror, Isaiah 61:1-2 describes a scene where the Holy Spirit anoints the Messiah who brings good news, heals the brokenhearted, liberates the captives, and comforts those who mourn.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) During New Testament times, Jesus announces in a synagogue in Nazareth that He is the fulfillment of Isaiah’s words (Luke 4:16-21). Without question, Isaiah is pointing to an eschatological reality inaugurated in Christ’s first coming that Christ will ultimately fulfill in His second coming. The ninth and eighth-century prophets encompass themes of covenantal promise, the Good Shepherd, a messianic Servant, and an anointed Conqueror. The Old Testament continues adding layers of paint upon a complex portrait that establishes a messianic expectation. ## **Seventh, Sixth, and Postexilic Prophets** For this essay, the seventh and sixth-century prophets include Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, while the postexilic prophets include Zechariah and Malachi. One example from each prophet will highlight the biblical-theological motifs of the Old Testament’s messianic vision. Again, the themes of a new covenant, a messianic kingship, and a messianic priesthood arise, but this time in the book of Jeremiah. Within Jeremiah’s “Book of Comfort” (Jer 30-33), God will raise a new king in the line of David that the people will serve (Jer 30:9), and, like a priest, God will “make Him draw near, and He shall approach Me” (Jer 30:21). Furthermore, the Priest-King will inaugurate a new covenant where God will forgive His people. Yahweh will also write the law on their hearts (Jer 31:31-34). Reminiscent of Micah, the Good Shepherd messianic motif appears in Ezekiel 34:23-31. Yahweh will rescue His flock, and a servant in the line of David will be their shepherd (Ezek 34:22-23). Furthermore, within the pericope, the themes of messianic royalty (Ezek 34:24), messianic servanthood (Ezek 34:23), and God’s covenant of peace (Ezek 34:25) provide a tapestry of intertextual motifs. Daniel follows suit by highlighting both the anointed conqueror motif and the messianic kinship motif when prophesying that Yahweh will rebuild Jerusalem with the “coming of an anointed one, a prince” (Dan 9:25). The prophet Zechariah also provides a messianic vision with overtones of a kingship and a priesthood. Zechariah envisions a high priest, also called a servant and a stone, who will be integrally involved in removing “the iniquity of this land” (Zech 3:8-9). Zechariah also announces that a king is coming, who will ironically arrive mounted on a donkey (Zech 9:9; cf. Mark 11:1-10). Finally, Malachi 3:1 reports that a “messenger of the covenant” is coming, which may provide a comprehensive summation of the covenantal thread of the entire Old Testament. In other words, the Messiah embodies all God’s covenants, from the promises beginning in the book of Genesis to the new covenant inaugurated via Christ’s incarnation. Without question, the latter prophets encompass thematic initiatives similar to their predecessors, establishing a robust messianic expectation. ## **Conclusion** Although certainly not comprehensive, this essay has provided abundant evidence to support that the Old Testament establishes a messianic expectation that becomes increasingly apparent through a careful biblical-theological analysis of the Old Testament. Several thematic initiatives stand out: messianic kingship, messianic priesthood, Yahweh’s covenantal promises, Christ’s inauguration of God’s promises, the Good Shepherd, an anointed Conqueror, and a suffering Servant, to name only a few of the most significant motifs. Furthermore, the motifs provide glue that not only connects various Old Testament intertextual relationships but also provides intertextual relationships between the Old and New Testaments. Without a doubt, the Old Testament establishes a coherent and persuasive messianic expectation fulfilled by and in the Messiah, Christ Jesus. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) For a concise explanation of biblical theology and a brief comparison between systematic theology and biblical theology, see Richard Alan Fuhr and Andreas J. Köstenberger, *Inductive Bible Study: Observation, Interpretation, and Application through the Lenses of History, Literature, and Theology* (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016), 340–52. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) The essay utilizes categories for Old Testament prophetic corpus patterned after the work of Walter Kaiser. See Walter C. Kaiser Jr., *The Messiah in the Old Testament* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 1995), 5–6. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) James E. Smith, *What the Bible Teaches About the Promised Messiah* (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1993), 38. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) J. Barton Payne, *Encyclopedia of Biblical Prophecy* (New York: Harper and Row, 1973), 257. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) See similar motifs and messaging in Micah 5:1-4. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Kaiser Jr., *The Messiah in the Old Testament*, 155. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) For similar themes of a messianic King in the book of Isaiah, see Isa 7:10-15; 11:1-16; 14:28-32; 24:21-25; 21:1-8; 33:17-24). [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) For similar themes of a messianic Servant in the book of Isaiah, see Isa 42:1-4; 49:1-6; 50:4-9). [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) For similar themes of an anointed messianic Conqueror in the book of Isaiah, see Isa 55:3-5; 63:1-6). # Bibliography - Fuhr, Richard Alan, and Andreas J. Köstenberger. *Inductive Bible Study: Observation, Interpretation, and Application through the Lenses of History, Literature, and Theology*. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016. - Kaiser Jr., Walter C. *The Messiah in the Old Testament*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 1995. - Payne, J. Barton. *Encyclopedia of Biblical Prophecy*. New York: Harper and Row, 1973. - Smith, James E. *What the Bible Teaches About the Promised Messiah*. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1993. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Relevance of Prophetic Preaching](https://www.livestransforming.com/relevance-of-prophetic-preaching/) **Published:** January 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Relevance of Prophetic Preaching ## **Introduction** The issue of idolatry continues to pervade the life of many Christians. An important question is how the Old Testament prophets point to timeless, practical principles related to idolatry that inform and enhance a modern believer’s life. By ignoring the Old Testament prophetic theology of idolatry, believers risk missing important lessons from ancient Israel. The Old Testament prophets teach that idolaters become like the object worshipped, while the idols remove God’s presence, make false promises, bankrupt souls, and ruin lives. First, this brief analysis examines the famous golden calf episode in its original [context in the book of Exodus](https://www.livestransforming.com/exodus-ancient-near-east-context/) and then further examines the famous event in the prophets Hosea and Jeremiah. Next, an investigation of Ezekiel 28 explores the idea of the idolatry of self, which is followed by reflections upon idolatry and self-worship in contemporary life. ## **Golden Calf** ### The Golden Calf in Exodus When discussing the topic of idolatry in the Old Testament, it is difficult not to reflect upon the famous golden calf incident in Exodus 32:1-33:6. The ancient Israelites presumed that Moses was lost after ascending the mountain, so they lose confidence in Yahweh and ask Aaron to assist in building gods (Exod 32:1). The people gather their jewelry and make a golden calf to worship (Exod 32:3-5). Out of anger, Moses burned the calf, spread the powder on the water, and made the Israelites consume the idol (Exod 32:20). According to Richard Lints, when recording Israelite rebellions, the biblical authors often attribute the qualities of the calf to the people, which include a stiff neck and hard heart signifying a stubborn heifer and malfunctioning ears and eyes that are unable to operate.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) In other words, the people of Israel became like the idol they created or as Lint states, “Worship fashioned the worshipper into an imprint of the object worshipped.”[\[2\]](#_ftn2) The creation story asserts that God made man in His own image to have dominion over the earth (Gen 1:26). Rather than finding their security and significance in their Creator, the Israelites now turned to a created calf-idol to find their security and significance. Accordingly, instead of reflecting the image of God’s glory, the Israelites reflected the image of the idols. The idolatrous activities of the Israelites resulted in the Lord stating, “I will not go up among you” (Exod 33:3). In other words, according to Lints, Israel reversed the original covenantal arrangement; thus Yahweh’s divine presence is removed from the wayward people.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Down through the ages, similar to the ancient Israelites, when believers assume God or their leader has left them, they take matters into their own hands and attempt to place their significance and security in the created order. ### The Golden Calf in the Prophets The theme of becoming what is worshipped and the loss of God’s divine presence within the context of idolatry also presents itself in the biblical prophets. First, the prophet Hosea claims that, although Yahweh found Israel, the people turned to Baal-peor and became detestable like the idol, and then the prophet laments at the result, which is the deportation of Yahweh from His people (Hos 9:10-12). [![We Become What We Worship A Biblical Theology of Idolatry 182x300 - Relevance of Prophetic Preaching](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/We-Become-What-We-Worship-A-Biblical-Theology-of-Idolatry-182x300.jpg "Relevance of Prophetic Preaching - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/400w5f2)We Become What We Worship: A Biblical Theology of Idolatry G. K. Beale explains that the Israelites were likely imitating Baal’s detestable sexual acts by participating in rituals as a fertility rite in the hopes for abundant crops and material prosperity.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) In other words, the Israelites, similar to the calf episode, became what they worshipped. Furthermore, just as Yahweh promised to remove His presence from the people at Sinai, Hosea announces that God will depart from His people (Hos 9:12b). The prophet Jeremiah also alludes to the golden calf experience. In Jeremiah 2:5, the prophet contends that the Israelites “went after worthlessness, and became worthless,” and then in verse 11, the prophet explains that Israel not only changed its gods for no gods, but also “changed their glory for that which does not profit.” Beale explains that when the people worshipped spiritually empty idols, then, ironically, they became spiritually empty themselves receiving the likeness of the god they worshipped.[\[5\]](#_ftn5) To add insult to injury, the Israelites not only became spiritually empty, but also experienced no profitable return. Beale continues, the ironic result is that the people reflect the glory of the empty gods rather than the glory of Yahweh, which eventually results in spiritual, emotional, relational, and material bankruptcy.[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Unfortunately, the spiritual deception continues as modern-day idols such as money, success, and fame timelessly continue to promise prosperity while delivering bankrupt souls. ## **Self-Worship** ### Self-Worship in Ezekiel 28 It is not unreasonable to conclude that idolatry likely started at the very beginning of humanity when Adam decided to place his own desirable outcomes in front of God’s directives. Beale suggests that Adam’s behavior points to self-worship, which is confirmed in Ezekiel 28 within two of the pronouncements against the King of Tyre.[\[7\]](#_ftn7) First, in Ezekiel 28:1-10, the prophet proclaims that the king is a man, not a god, which not only implies that the king depicted himself as a god to be worshipped by his followers, but also implies self-worship. Second, Ezekiel 28:11-19 points to the King of Tyre representing himself as a god, but the oracle places the king in the Garden of Eden (Ezek 28:13a). Accordingly, Beale concludes that the prophet’s message applies to someone in the Garden such as Adam, and thus the relationship between Ezekiel 28 and Genesis 3 appears to conceive sin as the “rearranging of existence around the self.”[\[8\]](#_ftn8) In other words, the self becomes the sustainer and provider ensuring both sustainability and prosperity. The question that remains is how people become what they worship when they worship themselves. Upon reflecting on the King of Tyre, Beale answers by explaining that it appears that when individuals worship the self, the focus is on enlarging the self to be more of the self, thus enhancing the glory of man rather than the glory of God.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Paradoxically, when the self is centered on the self, the result is that the self is undermined and ultimately lies in ruin.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) For example, from a practical perspective, it is difficult to imagine how a modern man or woman can maintain healthy relationships in an environment where the self becomes god. Accordingly, the timeless principle may be summarized as follows: When the self focuses on profiting the self, it bankrupts the self. ### Self-Worship in Contemporary Life Idolatry may be the single most destructive force in modern Christianity. Both believers and non-believers alike appear to be on an insatiable quest for significance and security. Timothy Keller provides important advice for identifying idols in a believer’s life when stating, “A counterfeit god is anything so central and essential to your life that, should you lose it, your life would hardly feel like living.”[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Similar to the Israelites, when people worship sex, they become like the idol and find their meaning, their very life, in the next adulterous conquest; the identity *becomes* forged with the idol. When people worship money, a similar experience occurs, and people may stop at nothing to obtain the dollar bill that represents significance and security. The value of money *becomes* the value and worth of the man. The idols continue to promise the world but instead deliver destruction. Furthermore, when setting idols in place of God, the presence of God is diminished as He gives idolators up to their creaturely idols (Rom 1:24). Unfortunately, from a personal perspective, my idol continues to be the self, which has manifested itself in two stages. When I was younger, I needed to enlarge myself by expanding my career to find my significance and security. I was successful in the world’s eyes and even the institutional church’s eyes. However, the anxiety wrought from worshipping success eventually caused an emotional train wreck. The wreck was twenty years ago, but I continue to worship the self. I am often convinced that I know what is best for my health and my future. I struggle with health anxiety as I want to control the outcome of my inevitable death. The result is anxiety, worry, and misery as the paradox reigns down upon me that the more I focus on the self, the more I lose the self. The only solution is the appropriation of the reality that all of my security and significance exist solely in Christ Jesus. ## **Conclusion** Certainly, the Old Testament prophets teach that idolaters become like the object worshipped as the idols remove God’s presence, make false promises, bankrupt souls, and ruin lives. Beginning with the famous story of the Israelites’ worship of the golden calf, the destructive effects of idolatry ensue as Yahweh removes His presence from the people. The prophets, specifically Hosea and Jeremiah, pick up the thematic initiative of the golden calf episode and highlight the spiritual deception of idols, which promise prosperity but deliver ruin. Ezekiel addresses idolatry at a more personal level in his oracle to the King of Tyre, which highlights the risks of self-worship. Unfortunately, the timeless principles within the Old Testament continue their relevance to this day as believers, including myself, often attempt to find their significance and security in people and objects other than God. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Richard Lints, *Identity and Idolatry: The Image of God and Its Inversion*, New Studies in Biblical Theology 36 (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2015), 92. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 94. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Ibid., 93–94. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) G. K. Beale, *We Become What We Worship: A Biblical Theology of Idolatry* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2008), 105. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 111–113. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Ibid., 114–115. [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Beale, *We Become,* 135. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Ibid., 136–137. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Ibid., 139. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Ibid., 140. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Timothy Keller, *Counterfeit Gods: The Empty Promises of Money, Sex, and Power, and the Only Hope That Matters* (New York: Penguin, 2011), xx. # # Bibliography - Beale, G. K. *We Become What We Worship: A Biblical Theology of Idolatry*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2008. - Keller, Timothy. *Counterfeit Gods: The Empty Promises of Money, Sex, and Power, and the Only Hope That Matters*. New York: Penguin, 2011. - Lints, Richard. *Identity and Idolatry: The Image of God and Its Inversion*. New Studies in Biblical Theology 36. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2015. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Ezekiel 36: Recovery of Honor](https://www.livestransforming.com/ezekiel-36-recovery-of-honor/) **Published:** January 4, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Ezekiel 36: Recovery of Honor ## **Introduction** In Ezekiel chapter 36, Yahweh conveys a message to His prophet in the form of a divine monologue that evolves into a transformational message to the Israelites. Famously, the promised heart transplant continues to astound and amaze both its readers and interpreters. However, the question regarding how the promises of God provided in Ezekiel 36 are interpreted in light of their immediate and broader historical and literary context remains. Without a contextually accurate interpretation, readers may fail to grasp the essential aspects of the prophetic message. *The message of Ezekiel 36:16-32 accentuates the desecration of the Promised Land, the Israelites, and Yahweh’s name, which necessitates God’s restoration through the recovery of land, the purification of His people, and the renovation of hearts for the purpose of restoring God’s honor*. The research begins by providing a brief historical, literary, and text-critical overview of the passage. An exegetical exposition then ensues by dividing the passage into two sections. The first section, verses 16-21, analyzes the crisis of honor facing Yahweh due to the desecration of His land, His people, and His name. The second section, verses 22-32, examines God’s motivation, God’s miraculous re-creative activity, and God’s vindication, which ultimately results in the recovery of His honor. The analysis then explores how the passage contributes to the larger message of the book of Ezekiel as a whole. The research concludes by identifying three timeless theological principles and providing a brief application of the passage to modern believers. ## **Historical, Literary, and Text-Critical Overview** An accurate identification of historical context, formulaic markers, literary structure and genre, and textual composition provides a necessary foundation for proper exegesis. First, briefly placing the book within its historical context frames the research. Yahweh called Ezekiel as one of His prophets to the Israelites. The prophet was exiled to Babylon under the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar sometime around 597 BC. According to Daniel Block, Ezekiel’s audience was the Jewish people exiled with him in Babylon.[\[1\]](#_ftn1) Although syncretism and idolatry undermined the Israelites’ beliefs, it did not completely eradicate their connection with Yahweh. Accordingly, Block explains that Ezekiel’s message of judgement and hope was desperately needed by the Israelite people during the sixth century BC.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) Second, regarding formulaic markers, Tyler Mayfield suggests that examining the chronological formulas, prophetic word formulas, and messenger formulas help the reader discern the boundaries of the literary unit.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Chronological formulas occur throughout the book of Ezekiel and express the year, month, and day of the activity (cf. Ezek 1:1; 8:1; 20:1; 24:1). Literary units consist of material between each chronological marker. According to Mayfield, thirteen chronological formulas guide the macro-structure of the book with Ezekiel 36 landing within the larger literary unit of 33:21-39:29.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) Prophetic word formulas assist with further structural divisions and specifically state that Yahweh is speaking to the prophet (cf. 33:23; 34:1; 35:1).[\[5\]](#_ftn5) The literary unit examined during the remainder of the research begins with the prophetic word formula in Ezekiel 36:16, which states, “The word of the Lord came to me.”[\[6\]](#_ftn6) Finally, a formulaic marker also defines the end of the literary unit. The messenger formula, “thus says the Lord,” provides the boundary in verse 33, which signals the end of the literary unit as Ezekiel 36:32. Third, regarding literary structure, the entire book of Ezekiel forms a chiastic arrangement. Jiří Moskala identifies the symmetry by leaning on the work of Richard Davidson: The outermost segments focus on Yahweh’s entrance into a defiled Temple in chapters 1-11 (A) and a restored Temple in 40-48 (A1), and then moves inward to the oracles of judgement in 12-23 (B) and oracles of restoration in 34-39 (B1), which is followed by Jerusalem’s siege in 24 (C) and fall in 33 (C1) and, finally, the oracles against the foreign nations in 25-28:10 (D) and 29-32 (D1).[\[7\]](#_ftn7) However, the center of the chiasm in 28:11-26 (E) is decisive for interpretation not only of the book of Ezekiel, but also specifically for Ezekiel 36:16-32. Moskala identifies four key thematic elements of the interpretive center: the theocentric nature of the passage (28:11-26), the judgment on the fallen cherub (28:11-19), the vindication of God’s holiness (28:20-26), and the restoration of God’s people (28:25-26).[\[8\]](#_ftn8) The pinnacle of Ezekiel’s chiastic artistry is found in miniature within 36:16-32. Ezekiel’s theocentric focus is on display in God’s judgement (36:16-21), the vindication of God’s holiness (36:22-23), and the restoration of God’s people (36:24-32), which ultimately points to the genre of the passage. Gary Smith explains that a salvation oracle or an oracle of hope highlights the positive aspects of God’s promises to deliver His people from a problematic situation.[\[9\]](#_ftn9) Certainly, the people of God have a problem; they desecrated God’s land, reputation, and name (Ezek 36:16-21). However, God promises deliverance through the cleansing properties of sprinkled water and the transformative characteristics of a new, Spirit-filled heart (Ezek 36:22-32). Accordingly, the genre of Ezekiel 36:16-32 is a salvation oracle. Fourth, regarding textual composition, the most significant concern pertains to an omission. According to Verena Schafroth, Ezekiel 36:23b-38 is missing from Papyrus 967, the oldest manuscript of the LXX, and from the Codex Wirceburgensis, one of the best-preserved Old Latin texts of Ezekiel.[\[10\]](#_ftn10) Various theories have been proposed to explain the omission including a lost page of the codex, inner-Greek parablepsis, and an omission from the Hebrew *Vorlage* added later.[\[11\]](#_ftn11) Michaël van der Meer provides numerous linguistic explanations that refute the possibility of a later addition such as the use of the longer form of the first personal pronoun אנכי in Ezekiel 36:28 that often characterizes earlier Hebrew writings.[\[12\]](#_ftn12) Additionally, van der Meer provides several literary-critical explanations that refute the possibility of a later addition. For example, some scholars contend that certain themes and phrases within the pericope such as וישׁבתם בארץ אשׁר נתתי לאבתיכם, “you shall dwell in the land which I gave your fathers” (Ezek 36:28), are later redactions, but this is unnecessary as the phrase aligns with similar theology and expressions in the book of Ezekiel (20:6, 15, 28, 42; 37:25; 47:14).[\[13\]](#_ftn13) Accordingly, from both a literary-critical and linguistic perspective, it appears reasonable that Ezekiel 36:23b-38 was part of the original text, not a later addition. Furthermore, the passage is preserved in the Masoretic Text, and thus the totality of the evidence supports the inclusion of Ezekiel 36:23b-32 in the remainder of the research. ## **A Crisis of Honor: Ezekiel 36:16-21** In Ezekiel 36:16-21, the word of Yahweh comes to the prophet Ezekiel. The land that God promised to Israel has been desecrated by the people and thus dishonors God, and thus the land requires a sabbatical from the people of Israel, which initiates the necessity of an exile. The idolatry and heinous acts of the Israelites breach the covenant relationship with Yahweh and undermine His honor. Ironically, the cleansing of land by exiling the Israelites due to their idolatrous activity resulted in dishonoring Yahweh’s name by undermining His reputation with the nations. The desecration of the land, the people, and God’s name created a crisis of honor. ### Desecrated Land: Ezekiel 36:16-17 [![The Book of Ezekiel Chapters 25–48 182x300 - Ezekiel 36: Recovery of Honor](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/The-Book-of-Ezekiel-Chapters-25%E2%80%9348-182x300.jpg "Ezekiel 36: Recovery of Honor - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3ZUQB0B)The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 25–48: New International Commentary on the Old Testament The word of the Lord comes directly to Ezekiel in verse 16, but nothing suggests that the prophet is to communicate the oracle to a specific audience. Furthermore, no imperative exists commanding the prophet to communicate to a third party as in verse 22. Accordingly, Daniel Block suggests that the words spoken by Yahweh in verses 17-21 is a divine monologue where Ezekiel receives the message as both a confidant and companion.[\[14\]](#_ftn14) Block also suggests that Ezekiel may have been a member of Yahweh’s divine council.[\[15\]](#_ftn15) Regardless of the prophet’s location, Yahweh addresses Ezekiel as the son of man or, more simply, a human. The Lord then succinctly summarizes the history of Israel and, specifically, the reason for the exile, which was the defilement of the land (36:17). The verb טָמֵא, to defile, normally means to become unclean, and, according to the *New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis* (NIDOTTE), the term is often used in conjunction with breaking the Mosaic covenant, which may result in unclean land.[\[16\]](#_ftn16) At this point, an introduction of the covenant triangle is necessary. Block explains that the Israelites counted on the permanence of the covenantal relationship with Yahweh, which consisted of three parts of a triangle: Yahweh, His people, and His land.[\[17\]](#_ftn17) Unfortunately, the land defilement ruptured the triangle. The land motif runs through the entire Old Testament and is no less prominent in Ezekiel. Although the idea that a piece of land could be rendered defiled or unclean may be unique to a modern reader, intertextuality assists in understanding the history of land defilement. The reason the Canaanites were originally driven out of the Promised Land was due to the polluting of the land (Deut 9:4-5). Furthermore, Yahweh warns Israel they too will be driven from the land if they commit the abominable acts of their predecessors (Deut 18:9-12). In more graphic terms, Leviticus 20:2 asserts that if the Israelites do not obey, then the land will vomit them out. In Ezekiel 36:17, the Israelites defile the land by their “ways and their deed,” which likely points forward to another pair of transgressions in the following verse: bloodshed and idolatry. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the land within the culture of the ancient Near East as it not only serves a critical role in the triangle that forms the covenantal relationship between Yahweh and His people but also becomes integral in communicating the power of Yahweh to the pagan nations. The word “defile” in Hebrew carries two distinct connotations. According to *The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon* (BDB), the uncleanness referred to by defilement consists of two distinct types of pollution: ceremonial and moral.[\[18\]](#_ftn18) Ezekiel concludes 36:17 with a simile that compares Israel’s behavior to the uncleanness of a menstruating woman. Leviticus 18:19 suggests having sex with a menstruating woman is the cause of transference of uncleanness to both the man and the land, which results in the land vomiting its inhabitants (Lev 18:24-25). Accordingly, Steven Tuell contends that the metaphorical meaning conveyed by Ezekiel is that Israel is the menstruating woman who defiles what is touched, the land, and thus her husband, the Lord, cannot have an intimate relationship with Israel.[\[19\]](#_ftn19) Although Tuell’s conclusion is logical, it may seem incongruous for Ezekiel to use a metaphor that compares the heinous actions of Israel to the ceremonial impurity caused by a natural biological event. One might expect Ezekiel to have used a metaphor more aligned with an immoral impurity rather than a ceremonial impurity. However, Ezekiel’s metaphorical language may be conveying a double meaning. Block suggests that in light of the feminine gender of the land, אדמה, menstrual defilement may be appropriately applied since the land is no more morally culpable than a menstruant woman.[\[20\]](#_ftn20) In other words, although Israel was like a menstruating woman in the sense that she defiles what is touched, the menstrual analogy also highlights the land’s moral innocence as ceremonially defiled. Regardless, in the following verses, Ezekiel reveals that the defilement has significant consequences. ### Desecrated People: Ezekiel 36:18-19 God’s anger is not directed toward the land, which is innocent. However, the Lord’s wrath is certainly poured out, שׁפךְ, upon the Israelites for their immoral ways and deeds, and specifically, for the shedding of blood and the worshipping of idols (Ezek 36:18). The prophet appears to utilize metallurgical imagery to convey the pouring out of wrath, which is likely used to elicit a visceral response associated with the pain of melted silver from a blazing furnace being poured onto the Israelites as in Ezekiel 22:22. Furthermore, Ezekiel appears to emphasize the methodology through the use of multiclinatum, the repetition of verbal roots.[\[21\]](#_ftn21) Just as the Israelites poured (שׁפךְ) blood on Yahweh’s land, Yahweh will pour (שׁפךְ) His wrath upon Israel (Ezek 36:18). However, the wrath was poured out not only for the shedding of blood, but also for the worship of idols. The Hebrew lemma for idols utilized by Ezekiel is גִּלּוּלִים, which, according to the *Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament* (TDOT), means dung, manure, balls of dung, or dung things.[\[22\]](#_ftn22) The vivid language would likely engage various senses of the listeners at the basest human level. Finally, Block suggests that the combination of murder and idolatry points to child sacrifice mentioned in Ezekiel 23:36-38, which may indicate the ultimate reason for Yahweh’s wrath.[\[23\]](#_ftn23) John Walton, Victor Matthew, and Mark Chavalas explain that child sacrifice was common in the ancient Near East as the pagan fertility gods demanded the abominable act in return for their favor, a practice strictly forbidden in the [biblical account](https://www.livestransforming.com/biblical-interpretation/).[\[24\]](#_ftn24) The result of the defilement was expulsion; God scattered the Israelites throughout the pagan nations. If the Israelites wanted to live like pagans, then God would give them over to the pagan lifestyle (cf. Deut 4:27-28; 28:64; Rom 1:18-32). Robert Jenson, in reference to the Targum, explains that Yahweh’s abode extended beyond the Temple and even beyond Jerusalem; God’s house extended to the entire land of Israel; thus, the people needed removed from God’s presence due to their abhorrent behavior.[\[25\]](#_ftn25) Although the holiness of God required separation, one might wonder why the people had to leave the land rather than God leaving the people in the land. The answer reverts back to the covenant triangle; the land was an integral part of the covenantal relationship (cf. Gen 17:8). For the covenantal relationship to be restored, the land required restoration. Accordingly, Tuell explains that the ancient covenant curse of exile was necessary to spare the land from the pollution of defilement, which would provide an opportunity for the land to heal.[\[26\]](#_ftn26) In other words, the land needed a Sabbath (cf. Lev 26:33-35). Block now connects the various motifs by explaining that like the menstruous woman who could return clean to Yahweh’s house after a time period of seven days (Lev 15:19), the land would return clean after a period of exile, which would be determined by the number of sabbatical years robbed of the land.[\[27\]](#_ftn27) Ultimately, Jeremiah calculates the number of years at seventy (Jer 25:11-12). In the final analysis, the Israelites are judged by their heinous behaviors, which, unfortunately, not only reflected poorly on the people of Israel but also reflected poorly on Yahweh. [\[28\]](#_ftn28) ### Desecrated Name: Ezekiel 36:20-21 Although in the previous two verses Ezekiel focused on the Israelites, now the prophet turns the focus of his message toward Yahweh. According to Moshe Greenberg, the two initial phrases in Ezekiel 36:20, “but when they came to the nation, wherever they came,” rhetorically provide imprecise language, which literarily reflects the scattering of the exiles.[\[29\]](#_ftn29) Although the exile was necessary because God desired for the land to rest and for Israel to obey, the exile did not solve the problem between Yahweh and His people. Ironically, the exilic sabbatical provided to cleanse the land of defilement actually resulted in the defilement of Yahweh’s name. Ralph Alexander explains that just as the nation of Israel was uniquely tied to the Promised Land, the ancient Near East worldview also tied the identity of the pagan nations to the land.[\[30\]](#_ftn30) Thus, the result of the exile was that the pagan nations concluded that either Yahweh broke His promises and abandoned His people or that Yahweh was incapable of protecting them from a superior deity such as Marduk, the god of Babylon.[\[31\]](#_ftn31) One might wonder why God would be so concerned about having the good opinion of pagan peoples. However, the question likely misses the point. God does not need the pagan nations; the pagan nations need God, and God promised to reclaim the disinherited nations scattered at Babel (Gen 11:8-9; Deut 32:8-9). Specifically, God promises Abraham, and thus all of Israel, that He will not only make Abraham’s name, שׁם, great, but will also bless all the nations of the earth through Abraham (Gen 12:2). Also, in a fascinating reversal that will extend through the entire canon, it was in Babylon where the people originally attempted to make a name, שׁם, for themselves (Gen 11:4), and now Yahweh will act to recover the reputation of His name, שׁם. Accordingly, the concept of name theology needs to be addressed. First, the Name is a person in Isaiah 30:27, where the Name comes from far away. The Name also appears to be a person in Psalm 20:1, where the Name provides protection. Second, Michael Heiser asserts that Deuteronomy 12:4-11 provides evidence that the Name is the presence of God dwelling among the people.[\[32\]](#_ftn32) If Yahweh’s name does specifically refer to the presence of God, then not only is God’s reputation sullied among the nations, but God’s presence among the people is also marred. The concern for Yahweh’s name and reputation is not a new phenomenon. First, Moses argues for God to relent from bringing disaster against His people in Exodus 32:11-12. Specifically, Moses argued that an act of fury would soil God’s reputation with the Egyptians; thus, God relented (Exod 32:12-14). A second example occurs when Moses intercedes for the people in Numbers 14:15-16 by arguing that the nations will question God’s power and ability to bring the Israelites into the land if God kills them, and accordingly, once again, God relents. Importantly, Block notes that it is the inability of the pagan nations to differentiate between divine action and human causation that leads to the erroneous views of God, which is a theological conundrum that continues into modernity; thus, the profanation of God’s name continues.[\[33\]](#_ftn33) Fortunately for Israel, Yahweh’s concern for His holy name becomes a beacon of hope, a hope that God will solve the dilemma and pull the covenantal triangle, which consists of God, the land, and His people, together to fulfill His covenantal promises. However, to accomplish the task, God must recover His decimated honor. ### A Recovery of Honor: Ezekiel 36:22-32** Yahweh now has a word to Israel through the mouth of Ezekiel. Ezekiel first identifies the motivation for God’s restorative activity, which has nothing to do with the people of Israel, but instead focuses solely on Yahweh’s initiative to vindicate His holy name. Yahweh then proceeds with the promise of divine activity that consists of the peoples return to the land, the cleansing of the people, the work of the Spirit, and, finally, the restoration of prosperity to the land. Ezekiel then reinforces that the motivation and activity of Yahweh was built upon a foundation of grace by exhorting the Israelites to remember their evil ways and deeds. God’s grace-filled restoration of His land and His people result in the recovery of Yahweh’s honor. ### Sanctified Objective: Ezekiel 36:22-23 The private conversation between Yahweh and Ezekiel is complete. The salvation oracle continues with a clear command for Ezekiel to communicate Yahweh’s message to the nation of Israel as exemplified by the Qal imperative (אֱמֹר) in verse 22. The opening statement provides multiple rhetorical functions. First, Block notes the irony of the continued accusations and lack of conciliation within the broader scope of a salvation oracle.[\[34\]](#_ftn34) The contrast will soon spotlight the climax of the pericope. Second, “it is not for your sake,” repeats the message from the previous verse for emphasis. Third, the same phrase is repeated in verse 32 forming an *inclusio* for the subunit consisting of verses 23-32, which also highlights the importance of Yahweh’s message that his sole motivation for solving the problem is the vindication of His name.[\[35\]](#_ftn35) The meaning of the phrase, “for the sake of my holy name,” revolves around two terms: *name*, which was discussed above, and *holy* (Ezek 26:22). The Hebrew lemma for holy, (קֹדֶשׁ), has a rather broad semantic range. According to BDB, it can mean apartness, set apart as sacred by God’s presence, persons and things consecrated in connection with sacred places, periods of time consecrated to worship, and persons and things ceremonially cleansed.[\[36\]](#_ftn36) Without ignoring the possibility of alternatives, it is the second definition, set apart by God’s presence, that appears most relevant. Both terms, name and holy, provide semantic nuances that highlight the importance of Yahweh’s presence. Ezekiel states that God is “about to act,” but the point of what God is about to do, which continues to be a mystery, points to the revelation of God’s presence, His name (Ezek 36:22). In sum, it is through the power of God’s presence, His holiness, in a miraculously re-creative act that Yahweh will set apart His land and His people as sacred. With an understanding of Yahweh’s attributes firmly in grasp, a theological conundrum needs to be addressed. It appears that Yahweh no longer cares about His people. Yahweh’s motivation and objective revolve completely around vindicating His name, which appears to be similar to the motivation by modern-day leaders struggling with narcissistic personality disorder. However, Jenson correctly recognizes the antinomy of God’s involvement throughout history on both sides of the conflicts.[\[37\]](#_ftn37) God may have initiated the problem by exiling the idolatrous Israelites, but God will also solve the problem by vindicating His name. As Tuell explains, God’s activity will have absolutely nothing to do with Israel.[\[38\]](#_ftn38) God will not be motivated by Israel’s thinking, worthiness, righteousness, repentance, emotional outbursts, or behavior. According to Block, the theocentric perspective of Ezekiel appears to “dismiss any hint of merit on Israel’s part.”[\[39\]](#_ftn39) Accordingly, by focusing solely on vindicating His name, God not only eliminates the possibility of building a relationship with Israel founded upon human effort, but also moves toward executing a plan to reconcile both His land and His people to Himself through the process of vindicating Himself: a gracious act indeed. Thus, it is through the act of Israel’s rebellion and the defaming of God that, as Alexander points out, God’s name will be honored among the nations through the supernatural act of transplanting human hearts.[\[40\]](#_ftn40) ### Sanctified Actions: Ezekiel 36:24-30 Ezekiel now commences with what is possibly the most powerful systematic treatment of Yahweh’s agenda to restore the covenantal triangle, God, His land, and His people, in the entire prophetic corpus. Alexander explains that the pattern of restoration within the subunit consists of four parts: (1) the return to the land (v. 24), (2) the cleansing of the people (v. 25), (3) the work of the Spirit (vv. 26-28), and (4) the prosperity of the land (vv. 29-30).[\[41\]](#_ftn41) The following examines each of the four topics individually while remaining sensitive to the cohesive whole. The rhetorical features within the return and cleansing segment in verses 24-25 abound. First, the subunit of verses 24-30 form a chiasm. According to Block, the ABA pattern begins with the outermost segments focusing on the external promises of returning to the land in verse 24 (A) and the fertility of the land in verses 29-30 (A), both of which sandwich the internal restoration of Israel’s heart in verses 25-28 (B).[\[42\]](#_ftn42) The climactic center of the chiasm clearly gives prominence to the internal transformation of the heart. Second, the three first person singular *waw* + perfect verbs provide verbal repetition in verse 24. The repetition dramatically emphasizes Yahweh as the subject, the only one initiating the action, which is exemplified by the following phrases: (1) I will take, (2) I will gather, and (3) I will bring. Third, the repetition of the Hebrew term for *clean* in verse 25 cannot be overlooked in its adjectival, Qal verb, and Piel verb forms alongside the contrasting term for unclean (טֻמְאָה). Without question, the rhetorical emphasis on transformation indicates Yahweh’s interest in reconciliatory activity. ## **The Return to the Land: Ezekiel 36:24** In verse 24, Ezekiel points to a new exodus where God takes Israel from the nations, gathers them, and brings them into the land. The original exodus event took place almost one thousand years earlier when God took Israel from the nation of Egypt into the wilderness and ultimately led them into the Promised Land (Exod 12-16). According to Alexander, God had already foretold of the regathering of the Israelites after the exile on the plains of Moab during the covenant renewal ceremony in Deuteronomy 30:10.[\[43\]](#_ftn43) Accordingly, Ezekiel tells of God once again gathering Israel from the pagan nations by reconstructing the covenant relationship between God, the land, and the people. ## **The Cleansing of the People: Ezekiel 36:25** Moving beyond the restoration of the land, Ezekiel now addresses the deeper, internal challenges involving the lack of morality and ethics, which led to defilement and exile. Yahweh initiates three steps to prevent future defilement: (1) the sprinkling of clean water (v. 25), (2) the giving of a new heart (v. 26), and (3) the placement of His Spirit within His people (v. 27). First, from a rhetorical perspective, according to Block, the sprinkling of clean water is a mixed metaphor that amalgamates the language of sprinkling blood with the cleansing rituals of water.[\[44\]](#_ftn44) The debated phrase in Ezekiel 36:25, וזרקתי עליכם מים טהורים, “I will sprinkle clean water on you,” appears to allude to the language of Numbers 19. First, the sprinkling of blood is referred to in verse 4 where the priest sprinkles blood on the tent. Second, the only other times the combination of sprinkling (זָרַק) and water (מַי) is found in the Old Testament besides Ezekiel 36:25 is in Numbers 19:13 and 19:20. However, in all cases, according to Olugbemiro Berekiah, the process of ritual cleansing is at stake, but Ezekiel uses the familiar language of ritual cleansing from Numbers as a rhetorical device to shift the audience’s paradigm from a “liturgical practice involving the use of blood sacrifices to a bloodless liturgy.”[\[45\]](#_ftn45) In other words, the once for all offering of Jesus’s blood renders blood sacrifices no longer necessary, while the sacrament of water baptism in Christian liturgy remains. In sum, according to Berekiah, the mixed metaphor rhetorically points to a potential double meaning: (1) on the one hand, through the use of intertextuality, the language of clean water conveys the meaning of purification, and (2) on the other hand, the language of clean water points to a prophetic future with a bloodless liturgy where baptism symbolizes Christ’s eternally unrepeatable cleanse through the Spirit (cf. Titus 3:5).[\[46\]](#_ftn46) In sum, the prophet sees a time when, according to Tova Ganzel, a nation that failed to purify themselves will be purified by a God-ordained and God-initiated process that ushers in a period where all the nations will “know” that Yahweh is Lord (Ezek 36:23).[\[47\]](#_ftn47) The process of restoration that began with the recovery of the land (v. 24) and moved to the purification of the people (v. 25) now continues with the renovation of the heart (v. 26). ## **The Work of the Spirit: Ezekiel 36:26-28** The rhetorical repetition in Ezekiel 36:26-27 is difficult to miss: new heart, new spirit, heart of stone, heart of flesh, and my Spirit. Furthermore, the prophet provides metaphorical language suggesting that the heart that needs removed is filled with stone, which likely refers to a cold lifelessness. Alternatively, the replacement heart filled with flesh likely refers to a rejuvenated warmth. In light of the rhetorical emphasis, the semantics of both terms, the *heart* and the *spirit*, require further analysis. First, the term spirit, רוּחַ, has a broad semantic range, which includes breath, wind, animation, a breathing being, seat of emotions or desires, seat or organ of mental acts, and activities of Yahweh.[\[48\]](#_ftn48) Second, the term heart, לֵב, may take on the following connotations: inner man, mind, will, soul, conscience, moral character, man, seat of appetites, emotions, and courage.[\[49\]](#_ftn49) The challenge is determining the meaning of the terms within the literary context of the passage. First, broadly, the similarities between Ezekiel 36:27, “I will put my Spirit within you,” and Jeremiah 31:33, “I will put my law (Torah) within them,” is undeniable. Second, within the immediate context, the prepositions take on significance in verse 27: the new heart is given to (לְ) the people, but the new spirit is placed within (בְּ) people, which likely rules out the possibility that the terms are synonymous in meaning. Third, verse 27 suggests a transformational effect on the people. Accordingly, in agreement with Block, the Spirit and Torah both provide an animating force (רוּחַ) or revitalization to the people that is within and distinct from the inner being (לֵב) of the people resulting in the “renewal of the covenant relationship.”[\[50\]](#_ftn50) A relevant theological question is whether the indwelling nature of the Spirit in Ezekiel 36:26-27 differs from the coming Spirit in Acts 2 to which the oracle likely points. More specifically, a common assertion is that under the Old Covenant the Spirit comes and goes, while under the New Covenant the Spirit indwells believers. The question of whether the reference to the spirit in Ezekiel should be interpreted anthropologically or theologically continues to be debated. According to Schafroth, if understood theologically, then the new spirit in verse 26 can be identified with God’s Spirit in verse 27, but it would substantially differ from the operation in the Old Covenant.[\[51\]](#_ftn51) However, alongside most scholars, if understood anthropologically, then the spirit and heart would be synonymous with human volition suggesting God is providing a new attitude.[\[52\]](#_ftn52) In a sense, neither the traditional theological perspective nor the anthropological perspectives encompass the nuances of the passage. First, against a strict anthropological perspective, the language surrounding an organ transplant suggests a re-creative act far beyond a shift in attitude, although a shift in attitude certainly does occur. As Schafroth notes, in verse 27, Ezekiel explains that God actively participates in obedience that results from a transplant where the relationship between the Torah and Spirit are aligned: the law comes first, then the Spirit, which points back to fulfilling the law.[\[53\]](#_ftn53) Second, against a traditional theological perspective, a radical discontinuity between the two Testaments is not necessary. As Block explains, Ezekiel was not introducing a brand-new perspective of indwelling, but instead, was expanding the scope of the indwelling; the emphasis is not on individual regeneration, but in light of the literary context, on national renewal.[\[54\]](#_ftn54) In other words, the prophet sees a new future where the Spirit transcends boundaries, where the people of Israel are not only rejuvenated within the Promised Land, but also beyond. In sum, the spirit and heart language in verse 27 merges two ideas: God is involved in the re-creation of His people allowing for an active participation in obedience, and the activity of re-creation is expanded to the entire nation for the purpose of restoring the covenantal relationship between Yahweh, His land, and His people. The relationship between God’s re-creation activity and Israel’s obedience requires further exploration as the theological issue of human responsibility and freedom arises. Christopher Wright elegantly summarizes the connection in verse 27 by stating, “It speaks of spiritual reality with ethical results. It speaks of cleansing and moral transformation, of radical inward change and radical outward obedience.”[\[55\]](#_ftn55) The relationship between the heart and the hands is not unique to the book of Ezekiel. In Deuteronomy 10:12-16, Israel is called to walk in Yahweh’s ways, to serve God with all their heart, and keep His commandments via the circumcision of their hearts. In the case of Ezekiel, it is clear that God is causing Israel to walk in His ways and to obey (v. 27b). However, due to the involvement of Yahweh, Paul Joyce contends that the initiative limits or undermines Israel’s responsibility.[\[56\]](#_ftn56) Greenberg takes the argument a step further by explaining that since Israel’s restoration is now irreversible, human freedom is curtailed.[\[57\]](#_ftn57) However, the theocentric focus of Ezekiel does not require the abdication of human responsibility or freedom. First, one must remember that God declares that His motivation for His salvific actions is to vindicate His name so the pagan nations will know that Yahweh is the Lord of all (v. 23). Second, according to Tuell, since the future relies on the motivation and activity of God, Ezekiel avoids the problem of relying on human effort or accomplishment.[\[58\]](#_ftn58) With these two assertions firmly intact, the issue of human responsibility resolves within the activity of God’s grace, which causes or results in obedient responses. In short, grace leads to obedience. As Paul Williamson explains, God facilitates obedience by transplanting a new identity within His people and writing the Torah internally on the heart of Israel, which creates an environment where “obeying will be as normal and as readily accepted as breathing and eating.”[\[59\]](#_ftn59) Although the specifics surrounding the practical applications will be addressed later, for now it suffices to say that as the Israelites embrace their new identity, they will choose to look more, not less, like the *imago Dei* as they become who they are, a newly created community of believers. According to Leonard Maré, the ultimate consequence of the inside-out transformational initiative is the inclusion of the entire community in the restoration of the covenant relationship.[\[60\]](#_ftn60) The climax of the covenantal language appears in Ezekiel 36:28, which summarizes the covenant triangle: (1) God will be the Israelites’ God, (2) the land will be the Israelite’s dwelling place, and (3) the people of Israel will be God’s people. The great covenant formula looks back to Leviticus 26:12-13 where the Israelites are said to be His people and God commits to be their God, a God who miraculously brought them out of the bondage of slavery from the nation of Egypt. Ezekiel again announces the covenant formula, but this time the prophet looks beyond the Israelites’ freedom from the Babylonian exile and toward an expansion of the exodus to all people of all nations. As Block explains, not only has the covenant triangle been restored through the reconciliation of God, His land, and His people, but it also answers the question of the pagan nations in Ezekiel 36:20.[\[61\]](#_ftn61) God surely loves His people, God surely has the power to restore them to the land, and thus, God surely deserves to be worshipped by all the nations. ## **The Prosperity of the Land: Ezekiel 36:29-30** The result of God’s accumulation of restorative activities now points to its logical conclusion, an eschatological message of hope whereby God promises to deliver, rescue, and save His people from all uncleannesses and defilement (Ezek 36:29a). According to Block, the powerful promise is the “closest any text comes in the First Testament to talking about salvation from sin in exodus language.”[\[62\]](#_ftn62) In other words, the promise looks back to the exodus event that delivered His people out of the hands of Pharaoh to the Promised Land. However, the promise also looks forward to Christ saving His people from their defilements or sins (Math 1:21). The exodus events provide one important common theme: It is God’s activity, not man’s activity, that saves. Just as Pharaoh held the Israelites captive, the prophet explains that Israelites’ defilements and sins are now holding them captive, and the people will be rescued. Using powerfully engaging imagery, Ezekiel then connects the salvation of the people with the salvation of the land. Rhetorical repetition once again commences in verses 29-30 with “I will deliver…I will summon…I will make.” The purpose of the repetition is clearly to emphasize the action of Yahweh. The prophet then uses personification by summoning the grain, which is expected to listen carefully and respond to its master (v. 29b). The rhetorical feature points to the relationship between the people and land, thus Jacqueline Lapsley states, “An appropriately abundant land is newly minted for a newly created people who will have distinctly new moral attributes.”[\[63\]](#_ftn63) The rejuvenation of the land and the people signal the presence of God. Accordingly, Stephen Cook takes the restorative message further by suggesting that Ezekiel’s reference to fruit production hearkens back to God’s presence in Eden where the seeds of the tree reproduced and the fruit of the tree supplied sustenance.[\[64\]](#_ftn64) In sum, it is not unreasonable to conclude that the fruitful transformation of the land through sabbath rest echoes an Edenic vision. The result of God’s activity was the promise that the Israelites would never face the disgrace of famine (Ezek 36:30b). Block explains that within an ancient Near Eastern worldview, the productivity of the land was directly correlated to the relationship between the people and their gods.[\[65\]](#_ftn65) Accordingly, when the disgrace of famine is lifted, then the nations no longer profane Yahweh’s name, which vindicates His holiness. The result of God’s miraculous, re-creative activities is the abundant riches of the land, the revitalization of His people, and the restoration of Yahweh’s reputation and honor. ### Sanctified Name: Ezekiel 36:31-32 The final two verses of the pericope provide a masterfully crafted theological conclusion to the miraculous activities of God. Although rhetorical features are limited, Greenberg suggests that the phrase, your deeds “were not good,” is a litotes emphasizing the utter corruption of the Israelites’ evil ways, iniquities, and abominations through understatement (Ezek 36:31).[\[66\]](#_ftn66) The definition of abominations, תּוֹעֵבָה, according to BDB, encompasses the following transgressions: worshipping of idols, child sacrifice, witchcraft, and various other wicked deeds.[\[67\]](#_ftn67) The contrast between the restorative activities of Yahweh (vv. 24-29) and the detestable behavior of the Israelites (v. 31) is palpable. The theological point is unmistakable: The grace of God is not earned as a reward for good behavior. It is difficult to imagine the use of a stronger methodology to convey the message of grace than starting with an idolatrous people deserving exile, moving to restore the people while they lived in debauchery, and then requesting the people to remember their detestable ways once rescued from their corruption. The chronology is key. Greenberg explains that remorse and repentance follow the spiritual re-creation and not the reverse.[\[68\]](#_ftn68) In other words, the work of repentance is not a good work that saves; salvation is solely an act of God. The final verse uses repetition to emphasize God’s grace. For the sixth time, God communicates that the motivation for rescuing the Israelites is to vindicate His name, and not for the sake of Israel (vv. 21, 22a, 22b, 23a, 23b, 32). Although it may appear that God’s motivation parallels an oppressive tyrant focusing on honoring Himself, the paradoxical message renders such a conclusion erroneous. If Yahweh’s motivation would come from any other source than the Self, then the people would take credit for the reward of restoration. Alternatively, as Block states, “What He does to vindicate His honor is lavish more grace. That’s what God does for the sake of His name.”[\[69\]](#_ftn69) Certainly, God’s honor is restored, but God restored His honor by restoring His land and restoring His people. ## Integration of Passage and Larger Message of the Book** An integral part of the interpretive process is to engage a passage’s broader literary context, which, in this case, allows the interpreter to determine how the concepts in Ezekiel 36:16-32 contribute to the larger message of the book of Ezekiel. First, Thomas Renz suggests the purpose of Ezekiel’s message is to transform the Israelites’ understanding of their relationship with Yahweh by looking at their past and future to inform their present circumstance.[\[70\]](#_ftn70) The structure of the book of Ezekiel suggests three distinct sections. According to Renz, chapters 1-24 pronounce judgement upon Judah and Jerusalem, chapters 25-32 pronounce judgement over the pagan nations, and chapters 33-48 focus on Israel’s future restoration.[\[71\]](#_ftn71) Within the book, the tension of God’s wrath and covenant love exist in direct proportion to each other. Specifically, Block explains that the relationship between Yahweh and His people has been ruptured, thus God must respond with intense judgement and profound restoration to not only resolve the breach but also keep His eternal covenant promises.[\[72\]](#_ftn72) Accordingly, the book of Ezekiel is a message of both judgment and hope, covenant promises and covenant love, which remind of the past and gesture to the future while simultaneously pointing toward reconciliation. Within the broader literary context of the book, Ezekiel 36:16-32 contributes mightily to the overall message. Ezekiel 36:16-32 is to some extent a microcosm of the entire book of Ezekiel, which focuses on Israel’s past, present, and future while simultaneously engaging a message of judgment and hope. Israel’s past is succinctly addressed in 36:17 as the word of the Lord reflects upon Israel’s desecration of the Promised Land. The first several verses of the pericope provide connections and similarities with the judgement found in 24:13-14. However, Tobias Häner notes that in 36:17-21 Yahweh states the consequences of the judgment without the language of extermination as in 24:14 and also focuses on the negative consequences to Yahweh’s name rather than the negative consequences to the Israelites.[\[73\]](#_ftn73) In other words, 36:16-32 not only reflects the overall message of judgement pronounced within Ezekiel chapters 1-24, but it also further develops the judgement motif. As Ezekiel moves to the present predicament facing the Israelites, the prophet explains in 36:22-23 that Yahweh’s motive for restoring God’s people is to vindicate His holy name. The reference to Ezekiel 20 and its fourfold reference to God acting to vindicate His name is unmistakable. As Häner explains, the reader is reminded of Israel’s continuous rebellion against Yahweh incited by the influence of the pagan nations.[\[74\]](#_ftn74) Accordingly, the language in 36:22-23 not only indicts the pagan nations, which explains the necessity of judgement pronounced upon them in Ezekiel 25-32, but it also holds the Israelites culpable for capitulating to pagan influence and thus desecrating Yahweh’s name. Ezekiel 36:22-23 not only points to the message of judgment earlier in the book but, once again, further develops the motif by connecting the Israelites culpability with the judgement of the nations. The prophet now moves to the future restoration of Israel in 36:24-30 that reflects the entire message of restoration found in Ezekiel 33-48. Yahweh promises to provide a heart transplant to Israel, which contributes to the message of hope that contrasts with the judgment motifs in both Ezekiel chapters 1-32 and 36:16-23. According to Renz, the restorative theme is then further developed in chapter 37, which explains the spirit’s animating force, in chapters 38-39, which highlights the eternality of the land, and in chapters 40-48, which points to a sanctuary that surrounds God’s people forever.[\[75\]](#_ftn75) In sum, the message of judgement and hope in Ezekiel 36:16-32 not only provides a further development of the message of chapters 1-32, but the reality of a future heart transplant also provides the impetus for further augmentation in chapters 33-48, which ultimately point toward the future reconciliation of Yahweh with both His chosen people and the pagan nations. ## **Theological Reflection** Several timeless theological principles arise from Ezekiel 36:16-32. The first theological principle is that God keeps His promises. God promises that He will make Israel a great nation, and Israel will be a vehicle through which all the nations will be blessed (Gen 12:1-3). Block expands the breadth of the promises by asserting that Yahweh’s commitment to Israel is for all eternity: The Promised Land is Israel’s forever, God’s presence will dwell with His people forever, and Yahweh’s promise to the Davidic line will last forever (2 Sam 7:12-17).[\[76\]](#_ftn76) It initially appears that Yahweh has broken His promise in Ezekiel 36:16-23 as the prophet recounts how Israel’s sin defiled the land, which resulted in their expulsion. Furthermore, it also appears that Yahweh will respond to the tragic circumstances by acting as a corrupt tyrant and selfishly vindicating His holy name and reputation. However, neither assertion is true. Yahweh keeps His promises by unselfishly restoring the Israelites through the process of vindicating His name. Although Yahweh scattered His people, He now commits that He will gather His people in a new exodus event (Ezek 36:24a). Yahweh will also bring Israel back to the Promised Land (Ezek 36:24b), renew and revitalize His people spiritually, (Ezek 36:25-28), and bless Israel with prosperity (Ezek 36:29-30). God does not break His promises. The evidence of God keeping His promises exists within ancient history and the New Testament era, which both point to the keeping of promises in the eschaton. First, God’s promises were partially fulfilled within the context of ancient history when the exiles were allowed to return to their homeland (Ezra 1-2). Second, Yahweh’s promises were also partially fulfilled during the New Testament era. In the book of Acts, Yahweh gathers the Jerusalem Jews who were “devout men from every nation under heaven” (Acts 2:5). God also revitalizes the people by filling them with the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:4). The events in Acts 2 also launch the ministerial activity necessary for the partial fulfillment of blessing all the nations through the nation of Israel (Gen 12:1-3) as the Spirit-filled individuals in Jerusalem disperse and take the message of the Gospel back to their hometowns. Third, although scholars disagree on methodology, consensus exists that the promises of God have, in some ways, been inaugurated but have not been fully consummated. On the one hand, Robert Saucy asserts that the land promises in Ezekiel, which would include the prophet’s language in 36:24, points to a larger message of the prophet in chapters 40-48 where the land resettlement “merges into the eternal state” during an interim, millennium, period.[\[77\]](#_ftn77) On the other hand, Oren Martin contends that the land restoration is typologically linked to the resurrection motif of Christ and thus has international significance that extends to every nation.[\[78\]](#_ftn78) Regardless of God’s ultimate, precise resolution, the evidence is clear: God has kept, does keep, and will keep His promises. The second theological principle is that God’s grace empowers obedience. Although the first principle focuses on what God does, He keeps His promises, the second principle focuses on how God accomplishes the task of promise keeping. Nicholas Piotrowski notes that only two verses in the entire Old Testament refer to saving individuals from an internal enemy such as sin rather than an external enemy such as a pagan nation, and one of those verses is Ezekiel 36:29b, “And I will save you from your defilements.”[\[79\]](#_ftn79) The intertextual connection with Matthew’s gospel, which sets the stage for the rest of the Evangelist’s message, is significant, “For he \[Jesus\] will save his people from their sins” (Matt 1:21). According to Piotrowski, in Matthew’s words, Jesus takes on the salvific role of Yahweh where Yahweh’s people become Christ’s people, and the forgiveness extended through Christ is tantamount to the forgiveness of covenant disobedience, which ends the exile through a Davidic heir.[\[80\]](#_ftn80) Powerfully, the saving of God’s defiled people came through a motivating force that had nothing to do with the Israelites; but instead, it occurred for the sole purpose of vindicating God’s holy name. God’s motivation highlights that His miraculous activity had nothing to do with human merit or effort. The reconciliation of God’s people to Himself was and is a complete extension of grace. The methodology used by Yahweh to cleanse the Israelites was the sprinkling of pure water to cleanse from idols (Ezek 36:25) and a heart transplant through the infusion of God’s Spirit (Ezek 36:26-27). The author of Hebrews clearly connects the sacrifice of Christ to Ezekiel’s reference to cleansing by stating that believers are to draw near with “our hearts sprinkled clean from an evil conscience and our bodies washed with pure water” (Heb 10:22). Furthermore, the apostle Paul also connects Yahweh’s Spirit in Ezekiel 36:27 with the Spirit of Christ in Romans 8:9 by asserting that Christ inhabits believers. Finally, it is the newly created, purified individual inhabited by the Spirit of Christ that is now empowered to obey. Immediately following Ezekiel’s words that promise the indwelling of Yahweh’s Spirit within his listeners, the prophet claims that Yahweh will be the cause of His people to obey. Although Titus connects the purification of God’s people with those zealous for obedient behavior (Titus 2:5), Peter goes a step further by explaining that when qualities of obedience are absent, then the believer has “forgotten that he was cleansed from his former sins” (2 Pet 1:9). In other words, obedience to a holy God is only possible when the individual is first cleansed, purified, and thus made holy, which is an act that God extends to believers by replacing their spirit with His Spirit as an extension of His grace. In sum, people do not cause obedience, God causes obedience. It is God’s grace that empowers obedience. The third theological principle is that God is the giver of an abundant life. The first principle focused on what God does, the second principle focused on how God accomplishes the task, and the third principle identifies the result of God’s miraculous activity. The bountiful prosperity in Ezekiel 36:29-30 breaks forth in the form of abundant grain and fruitful trees. The fourth gospel directly relates Jesus with an abundant life in John 10:10. Furthermore, the references to food from heaven occurs multiple times in John 6 (vv. 32, 33, 41, 50, 51, 58). Brian Peterson connects Jesus’s miracle of feeding the five thousand in the book of John to the end of famine and privations in Ezekiel 36:29-30.[\[81\]](#_ftn81) Accordingly, when Jesus states that He is the bread of life, God’s promise certainly is partially fulfilled for all who believe in Christ will never hunger or thirst (John 6:35). Accordingly, although it appears at the beginning of Ezekiel 36:16-32 that Yahweh was more interested in death than life, the pericope clearly communicates that God keeps His promises, God’s grace empowers obedience, and God is the giver of an abundant life. Without question, God deserves honor. ## Application** The idolatry of the Israelites caused Yahweh to scatter His people (Ezek 36:19) because the nation had desecrated the Promised Land and Yahweh’s name (Ezek 36:17-18, 21). Iain Duguid summarizes the challenge by stating that Israel moved from a category of “clean” to “unclean.”[\[82\]](#_ftn82) However, the New Testament sheds additional light on God’s redemptive history. In Acts 10, Peter receives a perplexing vision from God that further develops the idea of cleanliness when God makes clean what Peter considered unclean (Acts 10:9-16). Duguid explains that faith in Christ now determines the distinction between clean and unclean not ethnic origins; thus, gradations of holiness cease to exist for “all who are in Christ are sacred.”[\[83\]](#_ftn83) In Christ, all believers are holy, which point to two important applications, one external and one internal. Externally, since all believers are holy in Christ, then all activities fall into the category of worship, which takes place in an environment of holy ground. From religious activities to work activities and from recreational pursuits to relational and family life, all special interests and enterprises are forms of worship. Paul appeals to believers in his letter to the Romans to present themselves as living sacrifices in all areas of life, which is the worship of Yahweh (Rom 12:1). Additionally, the internal application is not only transformative, but also informs the believer’s external worship. Paul continues in Romans 12:2 by explaining that transformation occurs by the renewal of the mind. When believers place their mind on their cleanness, when they place their minds on their purification (2 Peter 1:9), when they appropriate the reality of their crucifixion with Christ (Gal 2:20), then the power of the idols that the ancient Israelites fought become impotent. By living in Christ, no longer does money purify, no longer does power cleanse the palette, and no longer does approval or addiction fill a void. Instead, because believers are sprinkled clean and re-created with new hearts by the indwelling of Yahweh’s Spirit as promised by Ezekiel, the result is a life filled with the fruit of the Spirit that not only informs but also empowers the daily worship and honor of God (Gal 5:22-23). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [\[1\]](#_ftnref1) Daniel I. Block, *By the River Chebar: Historical, Literary, and Theological Studies in the Book of Ezekiel* (Eugene: Cascade, 2013), 26. [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) Ibid., 27. [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) Tyler D Mayfield, “Literary Structure and Formulas in Ezekiel 34-37,” in *Ezekiel: Current Debates and Future Directions*, ed. William A. Tooman and Penelope Barter (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017), 235–237. [\[4\]](#_ftnref4) Ibid. [\[5\]](#_ftnref5) Ibid., 240. [\[6\]](#_ftnref6) Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the *English Standard Version* (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008). [\[7\]](#_ftnref7) Jiří Moskala, “Notes on the Literary Structure of the Book of Ezekiel,” in *Meeting with God on the Mountains: Essays in Honor of Richard M. Davidson*, ed. Jiří Moskala (Berrien Springs, MI: Old Testament Department, Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary, Andrews University, 2016), 104, 110. See also Richard M. Davidson, “The Chiastic Literary Structure of the Book of Ezekiel,” in *To Understand the Scriptures: Essays in Honor of William H. Shea*, ed. David Merling (Berrien Springs, MI: Institute of Archaeology, 1997), 1. [\[8\]](#_ftnref8) Moskala, “Notes on the Literary,” 105–109. [\[9\]](#_ftnref9) Gary V. Smith, *Interpreting the Prophetic Books: An Exegetical Handbook* (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2014), 39. [\[10\]](#_ftnref10) Verena Schafroth, “An Exegetical Exploration of ‘Spirit’ References in Ezekiel 36 and 37,” *Journal of the European Pentecostal Theological Association* 29, no. 2 (2009): 64. [\[11\]](#_ftnref11) Ibid., 65. [\[12\]](#_ftnref12) Michaël N van der Meer, “A New Spirit in an Old Corpus?: Text-Critical, Literary-Critical and Linguistic Observations Regarding Ezekiel 36:16-38,” in *The New Things Eschatology in Old Testament Prophecy: Festschrift for Henk Leene* (Maastricht, 2002), 153. [\[13\]](#_ftnref13) Ibid., 154–157. [\[14\]](#_ftnref14) Daniel I. Block, *The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 25–48* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 344. [\[15\]](#_ftnref15) Ibid. It is possible for prophets to have a seat in Yahweh’s divine council. For example, the call narrative of Isaiah 6:8 and the plurality of the senders seem to suggest the participation of a prophet within the divine council. Furthermore, Jeremiah 23:16-18 also suggests that only true prophets sit within the divine council. [\[16\]](#_ftnref16) Willem A. VanGemeren, ed., *New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis*, vol. 2 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997), 365–376. [\[17\]](#_ftnref17) Block, *By the River Chebar*, 13–14. [\[18\]](#_ftnref18) Francis Brown, Samuel Rolles Driver, and Charles Augustus Briggs, *The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon* (Oxford: Clarendon, 1977), 379. [\[19\]](#_ftnref19) Steven Tuell, *Ezekiel*, ed. W. Ward Gasque, Robert L. Hubbard Jr., and Robert K. Johnston, Understanding the Bible Commentary Series (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009), 246. [\[20\]](#_ftnref20) Block, *The Book of Ezekiel*, 346. [\[21\]](#_ftnref21) For an expanded analysis of rhetorical features associated with repetition including multiclinatum, see Jack R. Lundbom, *The Hebrew Prophets: An Introduction*, 1st ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2010), 168–178. [\[22\]](#_ftnref22) Dietrich Horst Preuss, “גִּלּוּלִים,” ed. G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, trans. John T. Willis and Geoffrey W. Bromiley, *Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament* (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1978), 2. [\[23\]](#_ftnref23) Block, *The Book of Ezekiel*, 347. [\[24\]](#_ftnref24) John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000), 53. [\[25\]](#_ftnref25) Robert W. Jenson, *Ezekiel*, ed. R. Reno, Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible (Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2009), 278. [\[26\]](#_ftnref26) Tuell, *Ezekiel*, 246. [\[27\]](#_ftnref27) Block, *The Book of Ezekiel*, 347. [\[28\]](#_ftnref28) Ibid., 100. [\[29\]](#_ftnref29) Moshe Greenberg, *Ezekiel 21-37: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary*, vol. 22A, Anchor Yale Bible (New Haven: Yale University, 2008), 728. [\[30\]](#_ftnref30) Ralph H. Alexander, “Ezekiel,” in *Jeremiah–Ezekiel*, ed. Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland, Revised. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2010), 843. [\[31\]](#_ftnref31) Ibid. [\[32\]](#_ftnref32) Michael S. Heiser, *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible*, First Edition. (Lexham Press, 2015), 144–145. Recent scholarship has attempted to disprove that the Name is an entity: see Sandra L Richter, *The Deuteronomistic History and the Name Theology: Lešakkēn Šemô Šām in the Bible and the Ancient Near East* (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2002). However, for a rebuttal to Richter’s claim, see Michael B Hundley, “To Be or Not to Be: A Reexamination of Name Language in Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomistic History,” *Vetus Testamentum* 59, no. 4 (2009). [\[33\]](#_ftnref33) Block, *The Book of Ezekiel*, 348–349. [\[34\]](#_ftnref34) Block, *The Book of Ezekiel*, 351. [\[35\]](#_ftnref35) For an expanded treatment of the rhetorical device of *inclusio* see Lundbom, *The Hebrew Prophets*, 172–175. [\[36\]](#_ftnref36) Brown, Driver, and Briggs, *The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon*, 871–872. [\[37\]](#_ftnref37) Jenson, *Ezekiel*, 278. [\[38\]](#_ftnref38) Tuell, *Ezekiel*, 246. [\[39\]](#_ftnref39) Block, *The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 25–48*, 351. [\[40\]](#_ftnref40) Alexander, “Ezekiel,” 844. [\[41\]](#_ftnref41) Ibid. [\[42\]](#_ftnref42) Block, *The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 25–48*, 353. [\[43\]](#_ftnref43) Alexander, “Ezekiel,” 844. [\[44\]](#_ftnref44) Block, *The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 25–48*, 354. [\[45\]](#_ftnref45) Olugbemiro O Berekiah, “A Historical-Liturgical Critique of וזרקתּי מים טהורים ‘I Will Sprinkle Clean Water’ in Ezek 36.25-27 and Its Translation Options in English,” *The Bible Translator* 69, no. 1 (2018): 14. [\[46\]](#_ftnref46) Berekiah, “A Historical-Liturgical Critique,” 16. [\[47\]](#_ftnref47) Tova Ganzel, “The Descriptions of the Restoration of Israel in Ezekiel,” *Vetus Testamentum* 60, no. 2 (2010): 207. [\[48\]](#_ftnref48) Brown, Driver, and Briggs, *The Brown-Driver-Brigg*, 924–926. [\[49\]](#_ftnref49) Ibid., 524–525. [\[50\]](#_ftnref50) Block, *By the River Chebar*, 155–156. [\[51\]](#_ftnref51) Schafroth, “An Exegetical Exploration,” 66–67. [\[52\]](#_ftnref52) Ibid. [\[53\]](#_ftnref53) Schafroth, “An Exegetical Exploration,” 67-68. [\[54\]](#_ftnref54) Block, *By the River Chebar*, 157–158. [\[55\]](#_ftnref55) Christopher J. H. Wright, *Knowing the Holy Spirit Through the Old Testament* (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2006), 128. [\[56\]](#_ftnref56) Paul Joyce, “Ezekiel and Moral Transformation,” in *Transforming Visions: Transformations of Text, Tradition, and Theology in Ezekiel*, ed. William A. Tooman and Michael A. Lyons (Eugene: The Lutterworth Press, James Clarke & Co Ltd., 2010), 155–156. [\[57\]](#_ftnref57) Greenberg, *Ezekiel 21-37*, 22A:735. [\[58\]](#_ftnref58) Tuell, *Ezekiel*, 248. [\[59\]](#_ftnref59) Paul R. Williamson, *Sealed with an Oath: Covenant in God’s Unfolding Purpose*, vol. 23, New Studies in Biblical Theology (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2007), 154. [\[60\]](#_ftnref60) Leonard P Maré, “Ezekiel, Prophet of the Spirit: רוח in the Book of Ezekiel,” *Old Testament Essays* 31, no. 3 (2018): 564. [\[61\]](#_ftnref61) Block, *The Book of Ezekiel*, 357. [\[62\]](#_ftnref62) Daniel I. Block, *OT362 Book Study: Ezekiel* (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), Segment 118. [\[63\]](#_ftnref63) Jacqueline E. Lapsley, *Can These Bones Live? The Problem of the Moral Self in the Book of Ezekiel* (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2000), 167–168. [\[64\]](#_ftnref64) Stephen L. Cook, “Burgeoning Holiness: Fecundity Let Loose in Ezekiel 34-36,” in *Ezekiel: Current Debates and Future Directions*, ed. William A. Tooman and Penelope Barter (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017), 351. For additional intertextual references connecting Ezekiel 36:30 to an Edenic vision, see Leviticus 23:40 that speaks of gathering of festival fruit linked to Eden and Zechariah 1:8 with the unveiling of the Sukkot trees of Eden. [\[65\]](#_ftnref65) Block, *The Book of Ezekiel*, 358. [\[66\]](#_ftnref66) Greenberg, *Ezekiel 21-37*, 22A:731. [\[67\]](#_ftnref67) Brown, Driver, and Briggs, *The Brown-Driver-Briggs*, 1072. [\[68\]](#_ftnref68) Greenberg, *Ezekiel 21-37*, 22A:731. [\[69\]](#_ftnref69) Block, *OT362 Book Study: Ezekiel*, Segment 119. [\[70\]](#_ftnref70) Thomas Renz, *The Rhetorical Function the Book of Ezekiel* (Boston: Brill, 1999), 57. [\[71\]](#_ftnref71) Renz, *The Rhetorical Function,* 59-60. [\[72\]](#_ftnref72) Block, *The Book of Ezekiel*, 13–15. [\[73\]](#_ftnref73) Tobias Häner, “Reading Ezekiel 36:16-38 in Light of the Book: Observations on the Remembrance and Shame after Restoration (36:31-32) in a Synchronic Perspective,” in *Ezekiel: Current Debates and Future Directions*, ed. William A. Tooman and Penelope Barter (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017), 327–328. [\[74\]](#_ftnref74) Häner, “Reading Ezekiel 36:16-38,” 329. [\[75\]](#_ftnref75) Renz, *The Rhetorical Function*, 113–117. [\[76\]](#_ftnref76) Block, *By the River Chebar*, 38. [\[77\]](#_ftnref77) Robert Saucy, *The Case for Progressive Dispensationalism* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993), 230. [\[78\]](#_ftnref78) Oren Martin, “The Land Promise Biblically and Theologically Understood,” in *Progressive Covenantalism: Charting a Course between Dispensational and Covenantal Theologies*, ed. Stephen J. Wellum and Brent E. Parker (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016), 265–266. [\[79\]](#_ftnref79) Nicholas G Piotrowski, “‘I Will Save My People from Their Sins’: The Influence of Ezekiel 36:28b-29a; 37:23b on Matthew 1:21,” *Tyndale Bulletin* 64, no. 1 (2013): 33. [\[80\]](#_ftnref80) Piotrowski, “I Will Save,” 53-54. [\[81\]](#_ftnref81) Brian Neil Peterson, *John’s Use of Ezekiel: Understanding the Unique Perspective of the Fourth Gospel* (Minneapolis, 2015), 135. [\[82\]](#_ftnref82) Iain M. Duguid, *The NIV Application Commentary: Ezekiel* (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 1999), 417. [\[83\]](#_ftnref83) Ibid., 418. # # Bibliography - Alexander, Ralph H. “Ezekiel.” In *Jeremiah–Ezekiel*, edited by Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland, 643–924. Revised. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2010. - Berekiah, Olugbemiro O. “A Historical-Liturgical Critique of וזרקתּי מים טהורים ‘I Will Sprinkle Clean Water’ in Ezek 36.25-27 and Its Translation Options in English.” *The Bible Translator* 69, no. 1 (2018): 9–18. - Block, Daniel I. *By the River Chebar: Historical, Literary, and Theological Studies in the Book of Ezekiel*. Eugene: Cascade, 2013. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. *OT362 Book Study: Ezekiel*. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. *The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 25–48*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. - Brown, Francis, Samuel Rolles Driver, and Charles Augustus Briggs. *The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon*. Oxford: Clarendon, 1977. - Cook, Stephen L. “Burgeoning Holiness: Fecundity Let Loose in Ezekiel 34-36.” In *Ezekiel: Current Debates and Future Directions*, edited by William A. Tooman and Penelope Barter, 345–359. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017. - Davidson, Richard M. “The Chiastic Literary Structure of the Book of Ezekiel.” In *To Understand the Scriptures: Essays in Honor of William H. Shea*, edited by David Merling, 71–93. Berrien Springs, MI: Institute of Archaeology, 1997. - Duguid, Iain M. *The NIV Application Commentary: Ezekiel*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 1999. - Ganzel, Tova. “The Descriptions of the Restoration of Israel in Ezekiel.” *Vetus Testamentum* 60, no. 2 (2010): 197–211. - Greenberg, Moshe. *Ezekiel 21-37: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary*. Vol. 22A. Anchor Yale Bible. New Haven: Yale University, 2008. - Häner, Tobias. “Reading Ezekiel 36:16-38 in Light of the Book: Observations on the Remembrance and Shame after Restoration (36:31-32) in a Synchronic Perspective.” In *Ezekiel: Current Debates and Future Directions*, edited by William A. Tooman and Penelope Barter, 323–344. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017. - Heiser, Michael S. *The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible*. First Edition. Lexham Press, 2015. - Hundley, Michael B. “To Be or Not to Be: A Reexamination of Name Language in Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomistic History.” *Vetus Testamentum* 59, no. 4 (2009): 533–555. - Jenson, Robert W. *Ezekiel*. Edited by R. Reno. Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible. Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2009. - Joyce, Paul. “Ezekiel and Moral Transformation.” In *Transforming Visions: Transformations of Text, Tradition, and Theology in Ezekiel*, edited by William A. Tooman and Michael A. Lyons, 139–158. Eugene: The Lutterworth Press, James Clarke & Co Ltd., 2010. - Lapsley, Jacqueline E. *Can These Bones Live? The Problem of the Moral Self in the Book of Ezekiel*. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2000. - Lundbom, Jack R. *The Hebrew Prophets: An Introduction*. 1st ed. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2010. - Maré, Leonard P. “Ezekiel, Prophet of the Spirit: רוח in the Book of Ezekiel.” *Old Testament Essays* 31, no. 3 (2018): 553–570. - Martin, Oren. “The Land Promise Biblically and Theologically Understood.” In *Progressive Covenantalism: Charting a Course between Dispensational and Covenantal Theologies*, edited by Stephen J. Wellum and Brent E. Parker. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016. - Mayfield, Tyler D. “Literary Structure and Formulas in Ezekiel 34-37.” In *Ezekiel: Current Debates and Future Directions*, edited by William A. Tooman and Penelope Barter, 235–244. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017. - Meer, Michaël N van der. “A New Spirit in an Old Corpus?: Text-Critical, Literary-Critical and Linguistic Observations Regarding Ezekiel 36:16-38.” In *The New Things Eschatology in Old Testament Prophecy: Festschrift for Henk Leene*, 147–158. Maastricht, 2002. - Moskala, Jiří. “Notes on the Literary Structure of the Book of Ezekiel.” In *Meeting with God on the Mountains: Essays in Honor of Richard M. Davidson*, edited by Jiří Moskala, 102–110. Berrien Springs, MI: Old Testament Department, Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary, Andrews University, 2016. - Peterson, Brian Neil. *John’s Use of Ezekiel: Understanding the Unique Perspective of the Fourth Gospel*. Minneapolis, 2015. - Piotrowski, Nicholas G. “‘I Will Save My People from Their Sins’: The Influence of Ezekiel 36:28b-29a; 37:23b on Matthew 1:21.” *Tyndale Bulletin* 64, no. 1 (2013): 33–54. - Preuss, Dietrich Horst. “גִּלּוּלִים.” Edited by G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren. Translated by John T. Willis and Geoffrey W. Bromiley. *Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament*. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1978. - Renz, Thomas. *The Rhetorical Function of the Book of Ezekiel*. Boston: Brill, 1999. - Richter, Sandra L. *The Deuteronomistic History and the Name Theology: Lešakkēn Šemô Šām in the Bible and the Ancient Near East*. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2002. - Saucy, Robert. *The Case for Progressive Dispensationalism*. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993. - Schafroth, Verena. “An Exegetical Exploration of ‘Spirit’ References in Ezekiel 36 and 37.” *Journal of the European Pentecostal Theological Association* 29, no. 2 (2009): 61–77. - Smith, Gary V. *Interpreting the Prophetic Books: An Exegetical Handbook*. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2014. - Tuell, Steven. *Ezekiel*. Edited by W. Ward Gasque, Robert L. Hubbard Jr., and Robert K. Johnston. Understanding the Bible Commentary Series. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009. - VanGemeren, Willem A., ed. *New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis*. Vol. 2. 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997. - Walton, John H., Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas. *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000. - Williamson, Paul R. *Sealed with an Oath: Covenant in God’s Unfolding Purpose*. Vol. 23. New Studies in Biblical Theology. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2007. - Wright, Christopher J. H. *Knowing the Holy Spirit Through the Old Testament*. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2006. **Categories:** Academic, Research --- ### [Freedom Missions Honduras](https://www.livestransforming.com/freedom-missions-honduras/) **Published:** August 6, 2013 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** [![384341_3984650730768_1733950337_n](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/384341_3984650730768_1733950337_n-276x300.jpg "- Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/384341_3984650730768_1733950337_n.jpg)Travis Lawyer felt a call to missions many years ago as a teenager, but it wasn’t until recently after years of marriage and three beautiful children, that the door opened for him and his family to do full time missions. Travis and his family went on cruises for family vacations, spending a lot of time visiting islands in the Caribbean. As always they did excursions on shore at each port, but one day when they were stopped at Roatan, Honduras they decided to create their own adventure and walk the island. Travis’ first impression of Honduras was that it was hot, smelly, and dangerous. His family returned home as usual but his wife, who had never been comfortable with the idea of missions, told Travis that she thought Honduras was the place for missions they had been looking for. He didn’t believe it. Travis decided to visit Honduras on his own and now after numerous trips and God bringing opportunities his way, Freedom Missions has come to life. Lives Transforming is proud to partner with Travis and his family and we invite you to find ways that you can help. To find out more about Freedom Missions check out the Website by clicking or click on the image below [](http://www.freedommissions.org)[![freedom_missions_cropped275x114](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/freedom_missions_cropped275x114.png "- Lives Transforming")](http://www.freedommissions.org) ![author avatar](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Wilder.jpg) Derek Wilder Executive Director DEREK WILDER, PhD, is the Executive Director of Lives Transforming Group, Inc., a Christian counseling ministry focused on personal transformation, and the author of FREEDOM and Minds on Fire. Wilder has a Master of Theological Studies, an MDiv in Pastoral Counseling, and a PhD in Biblical Exposition. Wilder's scholarly focus lies in Pauline studies, with his doctoral dissertation specifically examining the ontological implications present in the eighth chapter of Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Wilder, an adjunct professor, founded Convergence Therapy, integrating cognitive therapy and grace-based theology into the accredited college course: “Thought Life & Spirit Growth.” [See Full Bio](https://www.livestransforming.com/derek-wilder-author-bio/) [ ](https://www.livestransforming.com/derek-wilder-author-bio/) Biblical Theology Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Pauline Studies **Categories:** Freedom Missions --- ### [Christian Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/christian-counseling/) **Published:** July 25, 2013 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ###### *All therapist are licensed and certified and are here to help you renew your mind and get your life back on track. Through Christian Convergence Therapy you will find the Truth that God is revealing in your life and use it to change the way you think and live.* **Your Life. Transformed. 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She teaches the college course Thought Life and Spiritual Growth that has spawned a college based recovery program based on the Cognitive Theory and Christian Principles found in the Freedom Series with Derek Wilder and Dr. David Soper. She is in private practice with AT THE WELL in Fishers, Indiana. [To learn more about Lisa and the areas she counsels click here](https://livestransforming.com/lisa-pay/) [![amanda_reed](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/amanda_reed-e1417555137765.png "- Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/amanda_reed.png)**Amanda Reed, MA, LMHC** [click to contact us about counseling with Amanda](https://livestransforming.com/contact-us/contact-a-counselor/) Amanda earned both her undergraduate and master’s degrees from Ball State University and is licensed as a mental health counselor. Amanda has knowledge and experience in working with children, adolescents, and their families. She takes a Christian approach while utilizing cognitive behavioral, solution focused and person centered theories. Amanda is married to her amazing husband Mitchell and has two loving Beagles, Mila and Molly. [To learn more about Amanda and the areas she counsels click here](https://livestransforming.com/amanda-reed/) **[![Jennifer Cullen](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/20140802_141303-e1417555234280.jpg "- Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/20140802_141303.jpg)Jennifer Cullen, MA, LMHC** [click to contact us about counseling with Jennifer](https://livestransforming.com/contact-us/contact-a-counselor/) Jennifer is a licensed mental health counselor who attended both Christian-based Asbury University and IUPUI while earning her undergraduate degree. She then earned her Master’s Degree from the University of Indianapolis. Jennifer has several years of experience in working with families, children and adolescents in individual, group and family therapy. She utilizes Cognitive Behavioral and Solution Focused approaches while incorporating Christian principles and faith. Jennifer has been married to her husband, Ryan, and has two daughters, Avery and Callie. [To learn more about Jennifer and the areas she counsels click here](https://livestransforming.com/jennifer-cullen/) [![Janna Kinner](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Janna-Kinner-e1423159076293.jpg "- Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Janna-Kinner.png "Janna Kinner")**Janna Kinner, LCSW** [click to contact us about counseling with Janna](https://livestransforming.com/contact-us/contact-a-counselor/) Janna is a Licensed Clinical Social Worker and enjoys working with kids, teens, and adults. She uses a collaborative approach and a Christian worldview with her clients. Janna earned her Bachelor’s degree in Business Administration and Family Science from Anderson University, and her Master’s degree in Social Work from Colorado State University. Janna’s husband and four young children keep her busy. She enjoys being involved in her church, cooking, and spending time with friends and family. [To learn more about Janna and the areas she counsels click here](https://livestransforming.com/janna-kinner/) [![Morgan Lawson](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Morgan-Lawson-e1417554348390.jpg "- Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Morgan-Lawson.jpg "Morgan Lawson")**Morgan Lawson, MSW** [click to contact us about counseling with Morgan](https://livestransforming.com/contact-us/contact-a-counselor/) Morgan earned her master of social work degree from the University of Southern California and her undergraduate social work degree from Olivet Nazarene University. She utilizes Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Christian Convergence Therapy, as well as other evidence based interventions in her work with individuals and groups. Morgan is a member of the National Association of Social Workers. She is an active volunteer in a variety of settings in her community including: Celebrate Recovery leadership, programs for at-risk children, and animal advocacy. Morgan enjoys spending time with her family and her awesome pit bull named Fallon. [To learn more about Morgan and the areas she counsels click here](https://livestransforming.com/morgan-lawson/) ## ![author avatar](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Wilder.jpg) Derek Wilder Executive Director DEREK WILDER, PhD, is the Executive Director of Lives Transforming Group, Inc., a Christian counseling ministry focused on personal transformation, and the author of FREEDOM and Minds on Fire. Wilder has a Master of Theological Studies, an MDiv in Pastoral Counseling, and a PhD in Biblical Exposition. Wilder's scholarly focus lies in Pauline studies, with his doctoral dissertation specifically examining the ontological implications present in the eighth chapter of Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Wilder, an adjunct professor, founded Convergence Therapy, integrating cognitive therapy and grace-based theology into the accredited college course: “Thought Life & Spirit Growth.” [See Full Bio](https://www.livestransforming.com/derek-wilder-author-bio/) [ ](https://www.livestransforming.com/derek-wilder-author-bio/) Biblical Theology Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Pauline Studies **Categories:** Christian Counseling --- ### [Lisa Pay](https://www.livestransforming.com/lisa-pay/) **Published:** May 14, 2012 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Lisa is a licensed clinical social worker with 26 years of professional experience including her current position of 12 years as a Professor of Social Work at Anderson University. **Content:** ### Lisa D. Pay LCSW, ACSW, MSW, BASW Lisa is currently not accepting new clients. Lisa is a licensed clinical social worker with 28 years of professional experience including her current position of 17 years as a Professor of Social Work at Anderson University. Lisa directed the Counseling Center at the University for 10 years prior to teaching. Lisa has implemented several Christ based 12 step recovery programs for churches and organizations, such as Celebrate Recovery. She has developed a workshop series for youth that is based on Christian Identity and Worth as understood in the Convergence Model of the Lives Transforming Ministry. She is a sought after speaker for church, college, counseling seminars and youth groups. She teaches the college course Thought Life and Spiritual Growth that has spawned a college based recovery program based on the Cognitive Theory and Christian Principles found in the Freedom Series with Derek Wilder and Dr. David Soper. She is in private practice with Lives Transforming Counseling in Fishers, Indiana. Quotes: “It was great, look forward to it again or some form of follow up. I especially enjoyed hearing the presentation from Lisa, as I have heard Derek a few times and the new voice was refreshing to me.” “I loved Lisa. Her approach was great and she was such a wonderful example of how to react in tough situations. She was so calm, and reassuring.” Therapy and Life Coaching with Convergence Therapy: Lisa is a licensed clinical social worker with 28 years of experience in a variety of settings including: - domestic violence shelters - hospitals (inpatient psychiatric and state hospitals) - community mental health centers - community and church based recovery programs - university counseling centers - day treatment programs - prisons Lisa has experience with a wide range of issues including: - Depression - Anxiety (including Generalized Anxiety, Simple Phobias / Agoraphobia, Panic Disorder, and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder) - Adolescent / Teen Issues - Relationship Problems (Marriage Relationships, Interpersonal Issues, Conflict Resolution, Family Issues, etc.) - Stress and Crisis Management - Spiritual Formation and Discipleship - Separation and Divorce - Parenting - Problem-Solving - Assertiveness Training - Sexual Abuse and Sex Trafficking - Addictions (specializing in pornography) - Sleep Disturbance - Grief and Loss - Developmental challenges Lisa has presented workshops on several topics including: - Identity and Worth in a Christ Centered Model - Enhancing Relationships Through Spiritual Identity Formation - Making the Connection between Pornography and Sex Trafficking - The Myth of the Soul Mate - The Fall, The Curse and Restoring Sexuality - Your Brain on Porn, Neuroplasticity and Romans 12:2: What the Church Response is Missing - Cognitive Theory and Judea-Christian Principles–Convergence Model - Human Sexuality - Thought Life and Spiritual Growth - Social Psychology - Human Behavior and The Social Environment **\*Lisa accepts Self Pay** Convergence Therapy focuses on spiritual development by utilizing cognitive theory and spiritual principles to inform one’s interpersonal and professional growth. The emphasis is on forming our identity apart from outside influences such as performance, opinion of others, entitlement, and past and future circumstances. Coaching will focus on facilitating self-discovery for personal transformation. Cognitive restructuring may be useful in facilitating change in an individual’s functioning, but real change requires spiritual transformation. Coaching will present a convergence model of cognitive precepts and Christian spiritual principles that can be utilized in such transformation. A theoretical context will be provided and experiential techniques will be modeled for application. This particular coaching is of value in preparing persons to work in the areas of social work, family science, sociology, theology, Christian Ministries, youth leadership/ development, health related fields, psychology, and business management. It provides information for personal introspection, healthy decision making, and training in assisting individuals in this important area of life. [![LisaPay 2 - Lisa Pay](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/LisaPay-2.jpg "Lisa Pay - Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/LisaPay-2.jpg) #### Information **Office location:** Suite #206, 14074 Trade Center Drive, Fishers, Indiana 46038 **Cell phone:** **Office hours:** **Categories:** Counselors --- ## Pages ### [Home](https://www.livestransforming.com/) **Published:** November 18, 2010 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ![2 - Home](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/2.jpg "Home")Christian counseling and Christian marriage counseling available in Fishers, IN and surrounding areas. [Christian Counselors](https://www.livestransforming.com/services/)Christian Counseling ![tgftgfg - Home](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/layerslider/home/tgftgfg.jpg "Home") ![1 - Home](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/1.jpg "Home")We are now offering counseling sessions via video and phone from the comfort of your own home. [Telehealth Christian Counselors](https://www.livestransforming.com/services/)Telehealth Sessions Now Available ![tgftgfg - Home](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/layerslider/home/tgftgfg.jpg "Home") ![parallax 2 - Home](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/parallax-2.jpg "Home")Lives Transforming books are a great spiritual resource for anyone looking to navigate through the mental mind fields we all find ourselves in from day to day. [TRANSFORMATIONAL BOOKS](https://www.amazon.com/stores/Derek-Wilder/author/B00NLCKY3M?ref=ap_rdr&isDramIntegrated=true&shoppingPortalEnabled=true)Spiritual Resource Books ![tgftgfg - Home](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/layerslider/home/tgftgfg.jpg "Home") [![FUKLFIY - Home](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/FUKLFIY.jpg "Home - Lives Transforming")](https://www.amazon.com/stores/Derek-Wilder/author/B00NLCKY3M?ref=ap_rdr&isDramIntegrated=true&shoppingPortalEnabled=true) #### [Transformational Books](https://www.amazon.com/stores/Derek-Wilder/author/B00NLCKY3M?ref=ap_rdr&isDramIntegrated=true&shoppingPortalEnabled=true) [](https://livestransforming.com/freedom-videos/) #### [Freedom Videos](https://livestransforming.com/freedom-videos/) Freedom from others’ opinions, Freedom from performance, Freedom from difficult circumstances [I](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-shack-video-wayne-jacobsen/) #### [The Shack Interview - Wayne Jacobsen](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-shack-video-wayne-jacobsen/) The Shack Video Presentation is an incredible discussion between Derek Wilder, Executive Director of Lives Transforming [![THES - Home](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/THES.jpg "Home - Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/services/) #### [Christian Counseling](https://livestransforming.com/services/) [](https://livestransforming.com/minds-on-fire-volume-1-2/) #### [Minds on Fire Videos](https://livestransforming.com/minds-on-fire-volume-1-2/) This video series is based on the book Minds on Fire: What Is Wrong With Our Thoughts..And How To Fix It [](https://livestransforming.com/pro-race-car-driver-transformed/) #### [Pro Race Car Driver Video](https://livestransforming.com/pro-race-car-driver-transformed/) Retired race car driver Derek Daly shares his own story about the victories and obstacles of his career and personal life. [![Untitled 2 - Home](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Untitled-2.jpg "Home - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/41OV8Ej) #### [Buy Freedom Book](https://amzn.to/41OV8Ej) [](https://livestransforming.com/bos-cafe-2/) #### [BO's Cafe Video](https://livestransforming.com/bos-cafe-2/) A delightful video training series based on the deeply rich life lessons from Bo’s Cafe focusing on God’s love [k](https://livestransforming.com/how-grace-leads-to-obedience/) #### [How Grace Transforms Video](https://livestransforming.com/how-grace-leads-to-obedience/) Derek Wilder and Brent Henderson address the ever going debate of Grace vs Obedience. “Our counselor has been a lifesaver in the midst of our family crisis. She is exactly what the Bible refers to when it says to seek “wise counsel.” We are grateful for her and the wise counsel she has provided for us. I can honestly say the FREEDOM book contains information so critical regarding how we “think” that it’s a must read for everyone. FREEDOM has restored my relationships and revolutionized my teaching style. This will absolutely change your life.” [](tel:317-548-2146) #### [317-548-2146](tel:317-548-2146) Call Now! #### Christian Counseling ### *All therapists are licensed and certified and are here to help you renew your mind and get your life back on track.* ### *Through Christian Convergence Therapy you will find the Truth that God is revealing in your life and use it to change the way you think and live.* [MEET THE COUNSELORS](https://livestransforming.com/services/) ![headefinal1 1 e1610664215172 - Home](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/headefinal1-1-e1610664215172.png "Home")  #### Visit 14074 Trade Center Drive Fishers, IN 46038 Suite 204 and Suite 206  #### Mailing Address 12915 Whitebridge Drive Fishers, IN 46037  #### Let's Talk 844-6FREEDOM 317-548-2146 --- ### [Successful Submission](https://www.livestransforming.com/contact-a-counselor-thank-you/) **Published:** March 11, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # **Thank you for contacting Lives Transforming!** # **We will be in contact with you soon!** --- ### [Courtney Leslie, LCSW](https://www.livestransforming.com/courtney-leslie/) **Published:** July 10, 2023 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ### Courtney Leslie, BSW, MSW, LSW, LCSW #### **Accepting Anthem Blue Cross, Aetna, Cigna,** #### **Quest Behavioral Health, Evernorth Insurance, and Self-Pay** OFFERING IN-PERSON AND TELEHEALTH PHONE SESSIONS! **Educational Experiences:** - Licensed Clinical Social Worker - Master of Social Work: Indiana University School of Social Work - Bachelors in Social Work: University of Indianapolis **About Courtney:** Courtney is a Licensed Clinical Social Worker who lives with her husband and 2 daughters. She is a school social worker for Hamilton Southeastern Schools full time. She is on the crisis response team, resilience team, and leads trainings throughout the district such as QPR and Restorative Practices. Before being in the schools Courtney was a child forensic interviewer for law enforcement while pursuing her master’s degree. She then worked as a school social worker for kids diagnosed primarily with emotional disabilities. Courtney worked with the students and parents on therapy and skills to help get the students back into a general education setting. Courtney has been a diving coach for the past 8 years before deciding to switch to private practice. She states; “I love coaching, it just became clear to me that I could help athletes mentally just as much as I could coach them physically.” She now works with athletes on how to better themselves when it comes to performance anxiety. Courtney’s passion continues to grow in helping adults and students become the best version of themselves integrating spiritual views with TEAM-CBT, practicing the Convergence therapy model founded by Derek Wilder. She plans to pursue her doctorate in Educational Leadership next fall. **Client Scheduling & Session Length:** - Consultation: Free by phone (text to schedule) - Scheduling: In-session scheduling & Text scheduling options - Initial Counseling & Coaching Session: 45-60min. - Additional Counseling Session: 45-50min., 90min., 3-4 hr intensives - Additional Coaching Sessions: 20min., 45min., 90min., 3-4 hr intensives **Client Fees & Payment for Services:** - Payment Due: At time of service - Payment Method: Cash, Check, Quick pay Zelle, and Credit Card - In the process of getting paneled with Anthem - \*Sliding fee scale clients accepted upon request & approval as long as funds are available. **Professional Counseling Services:** - Anxiety - Depression - Stress - Anger - Marriage - Relationship - Individual - Crisis Intervention - Professional Coaching Services: - Spiritual - Relational - Personal - Leadership - Identity formation - Relationships - Spiritual Transformation - Conflict Resolution - Family Dynamics - Divorce - Parenting - Changes & Life Transitions - Family [![Courntney - Courtney Leslie, LCSW](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Courntney.jpg "Courtney Leslie, LCSW - Lives Transforming")](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Courntney.jpg) #### Information **Office location:** Suite #206, 14074 Trade Center Drive, Fishers, Indiana 46038 **Office hours:** 8am – 8pm Mon. – Sat. **Office phone:** 844-6FREEDOM (Extension 705) [](https://www.psychologytoday.com/profile/1192856) Loading... --- ### [The Coach](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-coach/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## The Coach **THE COACH** training focuses on equipping individuals and couples to coach and disciple others one-on-one. Each believer is called to “go and make disciples” (Matthew 28:19) – but exactly how is this accomplished? “The Coach” training shows you how to create safe environments to help others grow spiritually. THE COACH: Go out and train everyone you meet, far and near, in this way of life, marking them by baptism in the threefold name: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. – Matthew 28:19 (MSG): The COACH = training individuals we meet [The Coach Training Overview](https://livestransforming.com/download/Coach_Overview.pdf) **SESSION 1** 1. [Session 1 – The Coach Training](https://livestransforming.com/download/Coach_Session_1.pdf) 2. [Introduction Video](https://livestransforming.com/freedom-introduction/) 3. [FREEDOM from Other People’s Opinions Video Series](https://livestransforming.com/category/freedom-training/freedom-from-others-opinions/) **SESSION 2** 1. [Session 2 – The Coach Training](https://livestransforming.com/download/Coach_Session_2.pdf) 2. [FREEDOM from Failure Video Series](https://livestransforming.com/category/freedom-training/freedom-from-fauilure/) 3. [FREEDOM from Being Used by God Video Series](https://livestransforming.com/category/freedom-training/3-freedom-from-being-used-by-god/) **SESSION 3** 1. [Session 3 – The Coach Training](https://livestransforming.com/download/Coach_Session_3.pdf) 2. [FREEDOM from Wanting What You Don’t Have Video Series](https://livestransforming.com/category/freedom-training/4-freedom-from-coveting/) 3. [FREEDOM from the Past and Future Video Series](https://livestransforming.com/category/freedom-training/5-freedom-from-past-and-future/) **SESSION 4** 1. [Session 4 – The Coach Training](https://livestransforming.com/download/Coach_Session_4.pdf) 2. [FREEDOM from Difficult Circumstances Video Series](https://livestransforming.com/category/freedom-training/6-freedom-from-difficult-circumstances/) 3. [FREEDOM from Fixing Others Video Series](https://livestransforming.com/category/freedom-training/freedom-from-the-need-to-fix-others/) ![coach logo - The Coach](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/coach_logo.png "The Coach - Lives Transforming") --- ### [Derek Wilder - Author Bio](https://www.livestransforming.com/derek-wilder-author-bio/) **Published:** December 29, 2024 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** DEREK WILDER, PhD, is the Executive Director of Lives Transforming Group, Inc., a Christian counseling ministry focused on personal transformation, and the author of *Freedom: How Grace Transforms Your Life Now* and *Minds of Fire: What is Wrong with Our Thoughts and How to Fix It*. Wilder has a Master of Theological Studies, a Master of Divinity in Pastoral Counseling, and a PhD in Biblical Exposition. Wilder’s scholarly focus lies in the field of Pauline studies, with his doctoral dissertation specifically examining the ontological implications present in the eighth chapter of Paul’s Epistle to the Romans. Wilder, an adjunct professor, founded Convergence Therapy, integrating cognitive therapy and grace-based theology into the accredited college course: “Thought Life & Spirit Growth.” --- ### [Dr. Williams Unique Approach](https://www.livestransforming.com/dr-williams/) **Published:** January 25, 2025 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** --- ### [The Shack Interview - Wayne Jacobsen](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-shack-video-wayne-jacobsen/) **Published:** February 7, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** #### **The Shack Interview – Wayne Jacobsen Presentation** is an incredible discussion between Derek Wilder, Executive Director of Lives Transforming, Inc. and Wayne Jacobsen, publisher of the NY Times Bestselling book *The Shack*. You will thoroughly enjoy the laid back atmosphere Wayne creates as he answers some of the most difficult questions about God’s love, God’s judgment and, of course, the controversial bestseller, *The Shack.* [](#) [](#) [](#) [](#) [](#) [](#) [](#) [](#) [](#) [](#) [](#) [](#) [![the shack - The Shack Interview - Wayne Jacobsen](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/the-shack.jpg "The Shack Interview - Wayne Jacobsen - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/3Pdrj8Y) **1. Interview – Part 1:** Chris Mishler, Senior Pastor, The Bridge, Anderson IN introduces Wayne Jacobsen and Derek Wilder. Wayne Jacobsen is the author of He Loves Me, So You Don’t Want to Go to Church Anymore and a collaborator of the NY Times bestselling book, The Shack. There was life before The Shack. Wayne had a life before The Shack that was less public, more relational. Anonymity made it easier to travel as a brother, helping others on the journey of knowing Christ and then begins telling us about the origins of The Shack. **2. Interview – Part 2:** Wayne continues telling how The Shack came into being, discusses his encounter with Paul Young, author, and the story of the journey to publication of the NY Times bestseller. **3. Question 1:** What does it mean to live in Papa’s affection? There are metaphors throughout The Shack that are familiar from your own books: He Loves Me, and So You Don’t Want to Go to Church Anymore. What have you come to understand it to mean, to live in Papa’s affection? **4. Question 2:** Why was God the Father presented as a black woman in The Shack? Obviously in scripture God is viewed as paternal. One of the most controversial issues associated with The Shack is how God the Father was represented. Can you elaborate on that? **5. Question 3:** Tell about your own Shack experience. The Shack experience is that encounter with forgiveness, right? Wayne tells the story that changed everything for him, and what The Shack meant in that context. **6. Question 4:** At age 42, after 20 years as a pastor, a seminary education, you had to go to Australia to learn about the cross? On a trip to Australia, Wayne learned about the cross of Christ in a way he had never heard before. He tells what made everything new. **7. Question 5:** Looking back from the second act of your life, what would you do differently in the first act? Given the opportunity to look back, Wayne tells what he would change in hindsight. **8. Question 6:** What about hell and punishment, and how do we change the mind of the church? Wayne tackles a difficult question and clarifies important teaching about the love of God in the face of sin and human choice. **9. Question 7:** You alluded to the fact that the last three years of your life have not been the best because of the book. Where do you think God is leading you through The Shack? Wayne gives an honest answer, touches on God’s purpose for the book, divine intervention in its success and his desire for rooms of 20. 10\. Question 8: In The Shack, Papa talks about grace and works. You said the book was not written for Christians, but this is a big issue for Christians. How do we break from any type of religious bondage with the control that the church puts on people? **11. Question 9:** Why do you think so many Christian churches dislike The Shack? Wayne explains how religion has put God into a Good Cop/Bad Cop situation with Jesus as finite minds attempt to grasp the eternal. **12. Question 10:** How can recognizing ourselves in the loving parent metaphor of The Shack help us as parents? Parenting is another way God helps us to understand how he works among us. Wayne recommends a book on the subject and explains that God is far more than just nice in The Shack. **13. Question 11:** Why don’t people want the love and freedom God has for them? I have friends like that—they are so close, but they just do not get it. What can I do for them? Wayne sheds light on whose job it is to teach others about freedom, and points out that we are only asked to love as we have been loved. --- ### [Bo’s Cafe Author Interview](https://www.livestransforming.com/bos-cafe-author-interivew/) **Published:** February 7, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** A delightful video training series based on the deeply rich life lessons from Bo’s Cafe focusing on God’s love, discipleship, our identity in Christ, creating safer relational space created by John Lynch, author of Bo’s Cafe and Derek Wilder of Lives Transforming. #### BOOK SUMMARY High-powered executive Steven Kerner is living the dream in southern California. But when his bottled pain ignites in anger one night, his wife kicks him out. Then an eccentric mystery man named Andy Monroe befriends Steven and begins unravelling his tightly wound world. Andy leads Steven through a series of frustrating and revealing encounters to repair his life through genuine friendship and the grace and love of a God who has been waiting for him to accept it. A story to challenge and encourage, BO’S CAFE is a model for all who struggle with unresolved problems and a performance-based life. Those who desire a fuller, more authentic way of living will find this journey of healing a restorative exploration of God’s unbridled grace. ### **CLICK ON IMAGE BELOW!** [![boscafe - Bo’s Cafe Author Interview](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/boscafe.jpg "Bo’s Cafe Author Interview - Lives Transforming")](https://amzn.to/4fyvwPv) #### VIDEO SEGMENTS **Segment 1: Why Bo’s Café** John Lynch, author of Bo’s Cafe, explains why Bo’s Cafe was written. **Segment 2: Discipleship – How?** It appears that discipleship is a main theme of Bo’s Cafe. Listen to John’s perspective on discipleship. **Segment 3: Who Am I?** Who I Am is discussed throughout the book. Why is this so important? John explains why this is key to our spiritual growth. **Segment 4: Performance** Performing ourselves into the good graces of God can be very risky. John explains how this critical issue changes everything. **Segment 5: Safe Places** Creating safe places is a key component for spiritual growth. John answers why it is so difficult for Christians to create safety in relationships. **Segment 6: Fix Them!** Is it our job to try and fix people who are broke? Our fixing mentality can be very dangerous and John explains why. **Segment 7: Listening Power** Listening is a powerful part of discipleship. Listening for readiness may be the most undervalued skill of iscipleship. #### ABOUT THE AUTHOR Bruce McNicol is president of Leadership Catalyst, Inc. and an international speaker and consultant. He holds a master’s in theology and a doctorate in organizational and leadership development. Previously he served for ten years as president of the international church planting organization Interest Associates. Bill Thrall serves as vice-chair of Leadership Catalyst, mentor, and coauthor of the bestselling TrueFaced resources (www.truefaced.com), The Ascent of a Leader, and Beyond Your Best. John Lynch is a national conference speaker and writer for LCI, holds a master’s of theoology from Talbot Seminary, and has twenty years’ experience as a teaching pastor of Open Door Fellowship. He’s also cofounder and playwright of a theater troupe in Phoenix --- ### [Lives Transforming Books](https://www.livestransforming.com/lives-transforming-books/) **Published:** February 11, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # Lives Transforming Books ### Derek Wilder, author and one of Americas Top Life Coaches, shows you how to navigate through the mental mind fields we all find ourselves in from day to day. Real life situations with real tools to help you transform your thoughts, emotions and actions from the inside out! #### [You Will Discover](http://stores.lulu.com/livestransforming) ##### 1. Freedom From Other People’s Opinions ##### 2. Freedom From Failure ##### 3. Freedom From Being Used… Even By God ##### 4. Freedom From Wanting What We Don’t Have ##### 5. Freedom From The Past And Future ##### 6. Freedom From Difficult Circumstances ##### 7. Freedom From The Need To Fix Others #### [Minds On Fire Helps You](http://www.lulu.com/spotlight/livestransforming) ##### 1. Unlock the secret to authentic spiritual formation and discipleship. ##### 2. Debunk the biggest Enemy driven lie that keeps you awake at night. ##### 3. Prevent unhealthy emotions from controlling your life. ##### 4. Discover your true identity and eliminate shame and guilt. ##### 5. Learn how to allow God to transform your life… now! # **CLICK ON THE IMAGE BELOW!** # **CLICK ON THE IMAGE BELOW!** [![freedom 1 - Lives Transforming Books](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/freedom-1.jpg "Lives Transforming Books - Lives Transforming")](https://a.co/d/f0mz2nl) [![Minds on fire - Lives Transforming Books](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Minds-on-fire.jpg "Lives Transforming Books - Lives Transforming")](https://a.co/d/bGDqik5) --- ### [Services](https://www.livestransforming.com/services/) **Published:** June 3, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ### Angela Ford LMFT (Anthem, Aetna, CareSource, Humana, Self-Pay) NOW OFFERING TELEHEALTH PHONE AND VIDEO SESSIONS! [![Angie Ford 1 - Services](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Angie-Ford-1.jpg "Services - Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Angie-Ford-1.jpg) Angela earned a master’s degree in Counseling from Gonzaga University and a post master’s degree in Marriage and Family from Indiana Wesleyan University. She is a member of the American Association of Marriage and Family Therapist. Angela is also a registered Domestic Relations Mediator in Indiana and a highly credentialed coach with over 20 years of experience in working with individuals and organizations. Angela’s therapeutic focus utilizes Christian Convergence Therapy with individuals, couples, and families. Additionally, she also offers mediation and coaching services from a Christian worldview. Angela is also a mother of four children, ages 2 to 15. Angie can meet with clients in person at 14074 Trade Center Drive, Suite #206, Fishers, IN 46038, or via video or phone sessions from the comfort of your home. #### Information **Office location:** Suite #206, 14074 Trade Center Drive, Fishers, Indiana 46038 **Cell phone:** 317.937.4717 **Office hours:** 8am – 8pm Mon. – Fri. [Contact Angie](https://livestransforming.com/angie-ford-lmft/) ### Jennifer Cullen MA, LMHC (Anthem, Self-Pay) NOW OFFERING TELEHEALTH PHONE SESSIONS! [![Jennifer Cullen 1 - Services](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Jennifer-Cullen-1.jpg "Services - Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Jennifer-Cullen-1.jpg) Jennifer is a licensed mental health counselor who attended both Christian-based Asbury University and IUPUI while earning her undergraduate degree. She then earned her Master’s Degree from the University of Indianapolis. Jennifer has several years of experience in working with families, children and adolescents in individual, group and family therapy. She utilizes Cognitive Behavioral and Solution Focused approaches while incorporating Christian principles and faith. Jennifer has been married to her husband, Ryan, and has two daughters, Avery and Callie. #### Information **Office location:** Suite #206, 14074 Trade Center Drive, Fishers, Indiana 46038 **Cell phone:** **Office hours:** 8am – 8pm Mon. – Fri. [Contact Jennifer](https://livestransforming.com/jennifer-cullen-lmhc/) ### Courtney Leslie #### **Accepting Anthem Blue Cross, Aetna, Cigna,** #### **Quest Behavioral Health, Evernorth Insurance, and Self-Pay** **Educational Experiences:** Licensed Clinical Social Worker Master of Social Work: Indiana University School of Social Work Bachelors in Social Work: University of Indianapolis [![courtney leslie - Services](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/courtney-leslie.jpg "Services - Lives Transforming")](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/courtney-leslie.jpg) Courtney is a Licensed Clinical Social Worker who lives with her husband and 2 daughters. She is a school social worker for Hamilton Southeastern Schools full time. She is on the crisis response team, resilience team, and leads trainings throughout the district such as QPR and Restorative Practices. Before being in the schools Courtney was a child forensic interviewer for law enforcement while pursuing her master’s degree. She then worked as a school social worker for kids diagnosed primarily with emotional disabilities. Courtney worked with the students and parents on therapy and skills to help get the students back into a general education setting. Courtney has been a diving coach for the past 8 years before deciding to switch to private practice. She states; “I love coaching, it just became clear to me that I could help athletes mentally just as much as I could coach them physically.” She now works with athletes on how to better themselves when it comes to performance anxiety. Courtney’s passion continues to grow in helping adults and students become the best version of themselves integrating spiritual views with TEAM-CBT, practicing the Convergence therapy model founded by Derek Wilder. She plans to pursue her doctorate in Educational Leadership next fall. #### Information #### **Office location:** Suite #206, 14074 Trade Center Drive, Fishers, Indiana 46038 **Office hours:** 8am – 8pm Mon. – Sat. **Office phone:** 844-6FREEDOM (Extension 705) [Contact Courtney](https://www.livestransforming.com/courtney-leslie/) ### Haley Ferguson LMHC NOW OFFERING TELEHEALTH PHONE SESSIONS! Licensed Mental Health Counselor Master of Counseling: Western Michigan University Bachelor of Arts- Psychology & Family Sciences: Anderson University [![haley - Services](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/haley.jpg "Services - Lives Transforming")](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/haley.jpg) Haley is a multi-state (FL, CO, IN) licensed professional counselor and Certified EMDR Therapist. Haley has over a decade of experience in supportive and teaching roles and six years in professional counseling. Haley has assistant taught communications courses, supported sexual abuse research, counseled families and young adults in juvenile and family services programs, and now owns a virtual private practice. Haley’s passion and scope of practice are for adult clients seeking help navigating (complicated/traumatic) grief and loss, life transitions, military life issues, family of origin challenges, abuse and neglect survival, perinatal issues, and anxiety/specific phobias. Haley’s mind-body approach to therapy includes the use of Eye-Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), EMDR with attachment focus, mindfulness and somatic processing, parts work, cognitive behavioral interventions, and Solution Focused Therapy (SFT). Haley has specific effectiveness in working with clients who have previously struggled to see results with traditional talk therapy. Haley is allied with veterans/service members, the BIPOC community, and the LGBTQIA+ community. She is blessed to have an amazing spouse and two puppies. #### Information **VIRTUAL:** Video Conferencing **Hours:** Call for Appointment **Phone:** (720) 306-1105 [Contact Haley](https://www.livestransforming.com/haley-ferguson/) ## **David A. Soper, PhD** ### *Virtual / Telepsychology / Teletherapy sessions (Available online only)* ### *Accepting Aetna, Cigna, Optum, and Out-of-Network / Self-Pay* **QUALIFICATIONS AND EXPERTISE:** PhD in Clinical Psychology In Practice for 31 Years Licensed Psychologist in Florida (PY9783) and Indiana (20040752A) Certificate from Authority to Practice Interjurisdictional Telepsychology\* (APIT# 15887) providing secure / HIPAA compliant teletherapy sessions in 40 PSYPACT Participating States. [![David A Soper - Services](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/David-A-Soper.jpg "Services - Lives Transforming")](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/David-A-Soper.jpg) Dr. Soper’s goal and passion are to help people resolve current problems and long-standing patterns that may interfere with God’s perfect plan for their life. For the Christian client, research shows that progress is made more rapidly and completely when both psychology and theology are integrated. Christian Convergence Therapy (CCT) integrates psychology and theology in a way that encourages personal development through sound Christian teachings (e.g., it tells us “what” to do) and psychological techniques in a cognitive and behavioral format (e.g., it tells us “how”) to achieve our spiritual and psychological goals. #### Information **VIRTUAL:** Video Conferencing **Hours:** Call for Appointment **Phone:** (720) 306-1105 [Contact David](https://www.livestransforming.com/david-soper/) ### Kylene Toney, BSW, MSW, LSW NOW OFFERING TELEHEALTH PHONE AND VIDEO SESSIONS! [![Kylene 2 - Services](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Kylene-2.jpg "Services - Lives Transforming")](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Kylene-2.jpg) Kylene is a Licensed Social Worker for the Hamilton Southeastern (HSE) School System, mother of three and wife. Kylene is a HSE crisis response team member and (mental health) educator throughout the district specializing in suicide crisis response-Question Persuade, Refer (QPR) and Restorative Practices. Kylene has ten years of juvenile probation experience as well. Kylene has personal experience navigating the medical system as a parent of children with congenital medical diagnoses/early diagnoses requiring differing levels of intervention, extensive rehabilitation and countless hours in hospital. Out of her struggle, Kylene has grown a specific passion to empower and support parents experiencing medical trauma and caregiver burnout. In session, Kylene takes a multidisciplinary approach with mindfulness, Postpartum Support International (PSI), Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), trauma-informed practices and Convergence Therapy model founded by Derek Wilder. Kylene has an approachable and warm demeanor with the intention of cultivating a safe space to transform lives mentally, emotionally and spiritually. #### Information #### Information **VIRTUAL:** Google Meet, Zoom, or Microsoft Teams **Hours:** 8am – 10pm Mon. – Sat. **Phone:** (317) 572-8797 [Contact Kylene](https://www.livestransforming.com/kylene/) --- ### [Haley Ferguson, LPC, LMHC](https://www.livestransforming.com/haley-ferguson/) **Published:** February 19, 2024 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ### Haley Ferguson, MA, LPC, LMHC NOW OFFERING TELEHEALTH PHONE AND VIDEO SESSIONS! About Haley: Haley is a multi-state (FL, CO, IN) licensed professional counselor and Certified EMDR Therapist. Haley has over a decade of experience in supportive and teaching roles and six years in professional counseling. Haley has assistant taught communications courses, supported sexual abuse research, counseled families and young adults in juvenile and family services programs, and now owns a virtual private practice. Haley’s passion and scope of practice are for adult clients seeking help navigating (complicated/traumatic) grief and loss, life transitions, military life issues, family of origin challenges, abuse and neglect survival, perinatal issues, and anxiety/specific phobias. Haley’s mind-body approach to therapy includes the use of Eye-Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), EMDR with attachment focus, mindfulness and somatic processing, parts work, cognitive behavioral interventions, and Solution Focused Therapy (SFT). Haley has specific effectiveness in working with clients who have previously struggled to see results with traditional talk therapy. Haley is allied with veterans/service members, the BIPOC community, and the LGBTQIA+ community. She is blessed to have an amazing spouse and two puppies. **Client Fees & Payment for Services:** - Payment Due: At time of service - Payment Method: Cash, Check, PayPal, Venmo, and Credit Card **Educational Experiences:** - Licensed Mental Health Counselor - Master of Counseling: Western Michicgan University - Bachelors of Arts- Psychology & Family Sciences: Anderson University [![haley - Haley Ferguson, LPC, LMHC](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/haley.jpg "Haley Ferguson, LPC, LMHC - Lives Transforming")](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/haley.jpg) #### Information **VIRTUAL:** Video Conferencing **Hours:** Call for Appointment **Phone:** (720) 306-1105 Loading... --- ### [Kylene Toney, LSW](https://www.livestransforming.com/kylene/) **Published:** February 19, 2024 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ### Kylene Toney, BSW, MSW, LSW NOW OFFERING TELEHEALTH PHONE AND VIDEO SESSIONS! **Client Scheduling & Session Length:** - Consultation: Free by phone - Scheduling: In-session scheduling & Text scheduling options - Initial Coaching Session: 45-60min - Additional Coaching Sessions: 20min., 45min., 90min About Kylene: Kylene is a Licensed Social Worker for the Hamilton Southeastern (HSE) School System, mother of three and wife. Kylene is a HSE crisis response team member and (mental health) educator throughout the district specializing in suicide crisis response-Question Persuade, Refer (QPR) and Restorative Practices. Kylene has ten years of juvenile probation experience as well. Kylene has personal experience navigating the medical system as a parent of children with congenital medical diagnoses/early diagnoses requiring differing levels of intervention, extensive rehabilitation and countless hours in hospital. Out of her struggle, Kylene has grown a specific passion to empower and support parents experiencing medical trauma and caregiver burnout. In session, Kylene takes a multidisciplinary approach with mindfulness, Postpartum Support International (PSI), Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), trauma-informed practices and Convergence Therapy model founded by Derek Wilder. Kylene has an approachable and warm demeanor with the intention of cultivating a safe space to transform lives mentally, emotionally and spiritually. **Client Fees & Payment for Services:** - Payment Due: At time of service - Payment Method: Cash, Check, PayPal, Venmo, and Credit Card \*Sliding fee scale clients accepted upon request & approval as long as funds are available. **Professional Coaching Services:** - Anxiety - Depression - Stress - Anger - Marriage - Relationship - Individual - Crisis Intervention - Professional Coaching Services: - Spiritual - Relational - Personal - Leadership - Identity formation - Relationships - Spiritual Transformation - Conflict Resolution - Family Dynamics - Parenting - Changes & Life Transitions - Family **Educational Experiences:** - Licensed Social Worker - Master of Social Work: Indiana University School of Social Work - Master of Business Administration: Liberty University - Bachelors of Arts- Social Work: Anderson University [![Kylene 2 - Kylene Toney, LSW](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Kylene-2.jpg "Kylene Toney, LSW - Lives Transforming")](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Kylene-2.jpg) #### Information **VIRTUAL:** Google Meet, Zoom, or Microsoft Teams **Hours:** 8am – 10pm Mon. – Sat. **Phone:** (317) 572-8797 Loading... --- ### [Jennifer Cullen, LMHC](https://www.livestransforming.com/jennifer-cullen-lmhc/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ### Jennifer Cullen MA, LMHC (Anthem, Self-Pay) NOW OFFERING TELEHEALTH PHONE SESSIONS! Jennifer is a licensed mental health counselor who attended both Christian-based Asbury University and IUPUI while earning her undergraduate degree. She then earned her Master’s Degree from the University of Indianapolis. Jennifer has several years of experience in working with families, children and adolescents in individual, group and family therapy. She utilizes Cognitive Behavioral and Solution Focused approaches while incorporating Christian principles and faith. Jennifer has been married to her husband, Ryan, and has two daughters, Avery and Callie. **Jennifer has experience working with children and adolescents in the following settings:** - School systems - Residential - Private Practice - Hospitals - Community Outreach Programs - Sexual Abuse Clinics - Group Homes - Community Mental Health Centers **Jennifer has provided therapeutic services for the following:** - Post Traumatic Stress - Anxiety - Depression - Grief - Self injurious behaviors - Behavioral issues - Physical/Sexual Abuse - Bullying - Separation and Divorce - Parenting Issues **\*Jennifer accepts Anthem, Aetna, and Self Pay** [![20140802 141303 e1417555234280 - Jennifer Cullen, LMHC](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/20140802_141303-e1417555234280.jpg "Jennifer Cullen, LMHC - Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/20140802_141303-e1417555234280.jpg) #### Information **Office location:** Suite #206, 14074 Trade Center Drive, Fishers, Indiana 46038 **Office phone:** 844-6FREEDOM (Extension 706) **Office hours:** 8am – 8pm Mon. – Fri. Loading... --- ### [Angela D. Ford, LMFT, CSCS, PES](https://www.livestransforming.com/angie-ford-lmft/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ### Angela Ford LMFT (Anthem, Aetna, CareSource, Humana, Self-Pay) NOW OFFERING TELEHEALTH PHONE AND VIDEO SESSIONS! **Client Scheduling & Session Length:** - Consultation: Free by phone (text to schedule) - Scheduling: In-session scheduling & Text scheduling options - Initial Counseling & Coaching Session: 45-60min. - Additional Counseling Session: 45-50min., 90min., & 3-4hr intensives - Additional Coaching Sessions: 20min., 45min., 90min., & 3-4hr intensives **Client Fees & Payment for Services:** - Payment Due: At time of service - Payment Method: Cash, check, credit card, HSA cards, and, insurance when applicable, are all accepted. \*Sliding fee scale clients accepted upon request & approval as long as funds are available. **Professional Counseling Services:** - Family - Marriage - Relationship - Group - Individual - Youth - Child - Crisis Intervention - Professional Coaching Services: - Spiritual - Relational - Personal - Leadership - Identity - Wellness - Fitness - Youth - Mediation - Professional Areas of Interest: - Identity formation - Relationships - Healing - Spiritual Transformation - Servant Leadership - Conflict Resolution - Family Dynamics - Marriage - Divorce - Parenting - Youth - Crisis Intervention - Changes & Life Transitions - Domestic Violence ***(Professional Areas of Interest continued):*** - Grief & Loss - Anxiety - Depression - Stress - Anger - Suicide Ideation - Bullying - Finances - Fitness & Wellness **Educational Experiences:** - Post Masters: Marriage & Family Therapy, Indiana Wesleyan University, 2011 - Masters of Art: Counseling, Gonzaga University, 1999 - Bachelor of Art: Psychology, with a minor in Bible, Milligan College, 1995 - Diploma in Biblical Studies: Maritime Christian College, 1993 **Professional License & Certifications:** - Indiana mental health license: Marriage & Family Therapist, 2018 - Indiana mental health license: Marriage & Family Therapist Associate, 2012 - Brain coach: Amen Clinics, 2018 - Professional coach: Intrinsic Coaching & Totally Coached, 2008 - Nutrition coach: Precision Nutrition, 2012 - Wellness coach: Creating Wellness, 2008 - Strength & Conditioning coach: National Strength & Conditioning Association, 2002 - Performance Enhancement Specialist: National Academy of Sports Medicine, 2003 - Fitness coach: Resist-a-ball, Inc., 2002 - Yoga teacher: Yogafit Training Systems Worldwide, 2001 - Pilates Mat & Reformer teacher: Pilates Institute & IMX, 2001 **Professional Memberships:** - American Association of Marriage & Family Therapists, 2018 - American Red Cross Crisis Response Volunteer, 2018 - American Red Cross CPR, First Aid, & AED certified, 2001 - National Strength & Conditioning Association, 2001 - Professional Experiences: - Entrepreneur for over 27yrs. - Mental health professional for over 23yrs. - Fitness & Wellness professional for over 27yrs. **Personal Experiences & Interests:** - Marriage for more than 20yrs. - Mother of four children, two boys & two girls, from ages 22 – 9 yrs. - Enjoys the beautiful outdoors, spending time with her children, family, & friends, animals, reading books, dancing & listening to music, playing games, and watching movies **\*Angie accepts Aetna, Anthem, CareSource, Cigna, and Humana.** [![Angie Ford 1 - Angela D. Ford, LMFT, CSCS, PES](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Angie-Ford-1.jpg "Angela D. Ford, LMFT, CSCS, PES - Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Angie-Ford-1.jpg) #### Information **Office location:** Suite #206, 14074 Trade Center Drive, Fishers, Indiana 46038 **Cell phone:** 317.937.4717 **Office phone**: 844-6FREEDOM (Extension 701) **Office hours:** 8am – 8pm Mon. – Fri. Loading... --- ### [David A. Soper, PhD](https://www.livestransforming.com/david-soper/) **Published:** October 20, 2023 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## **David A. Soper, PhD** ### *Virtual / Telepsychology / Teletherapy sessions (Available online only)* ### *Accepting Aetna, Cigna, Optum, and Out-of-Network / Self-Pay* Dr. Soper’s goal and passion are to help people resolve current problems and long-standing patterns that may interfere with God’s perfect plan for their life. For the Christian client, research shows that progress is made more rapidly and completely when both psychology and theology are integrated. Christian Convergence Therapy (CCT) integrates psychology and theology in a way that encourages personal development through sound Christian teachings (e.g., it tells us “what” to do) and psychological techniques in a cognitive and behavioral format (e.g., it tells us “how”) to achieve our spiritual and psychological goals. **BIO:** - David Soper has three decades of experience providing clinical psychological services and therapy for adults and adolescents. - He has worked in a variety of settings (e.g., community mental health centers, psychiatric consortiums, department of corrections, public schools, state hospitals, residential treatment centers, churches, military clinics, and private practice). - He has experience providing a full spectrum of psychological services (e.g., individual, couples, groups, psychological testing, etc.) and administrative duties (e.g., supervision of master-level clinicians, clinical director of residential treatment facility, etc.). - Soper takes a client-centered and collaborative approach, utilizing evidence-based treatments (e.g., CBT, ACT, DBT, CPT, EMDR, and more.). - Soper currently works at Tyndall Air Force Base Mental Health Clinic, as a full-time licensed psychologist, a position he has held for 8+ years, providing services to active-duty military members (primarily Air Force, Navy, USCG). - He and his wife moved from Indiana and now live in Panama City, Florida. They have three adult daughters who live in Indianapolis, Indiana. **Client Fees & Payment for Services:** - FREE 15-minute Initial Consultation - Individual Sessions $150 (out-of-network / self-pay) - Pay by Mastercard, Visa, HSA cards, and Ivy Pay (like PayPal for therapists) ***I am in-network for Aetna, Cigna, and Optum (see below for a full list of my paneled insurance plans\*\*); but I can also provide a superbill for my out-of-network clients and help with reimbursement. Please reach out with any questions, we’re happy to work with you to keep therapy affordable.*** **QUALIFICATIONS AND EXPERTISE:** - PhD in Clinical Psychology - In Practice for 31 Years - Licensed Psychologist in Florida (PY9783) and Indiana (20040752A) - Certificate from Authority to Practice Interjurisdictional Telepsychology\* (APIT# 15887) providing secure / HIPAA compliant teletherapy sessions in 40 PSYPACT Participating States. \*For a complete list of PSYPACT Participating States, click [HERE](https://psypact.org/page/psypactmap). **SPECIALTIES** - General mental health - Anxiety and panic disorders - Depression - Religion and spirituality - Trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - Adjustment / Phase of Life / Life Transitions **BEGINNING THERAPY:** During your FREE initial consultation, I’ll ask questions to get a basic understanding of your treatment needs and goals. This time is an introduction to determine if outpatient teletherapy is indicated or if another level of care is recommended. It is also a time for you to ask questions to get to know me, my expertise, and the therapy process. From this basic introduction, I hope to create a safe, collaborative partnership with you. If we decide this is a good fit, I will direct you to the intake paperwork needed for us to begin this journey together. We will set measurable treatment goals to monitor progress, assign practical homework to make headway outside of sessions, and adapt the therapy as needed. My goal is to provide practical, interactive, solution-based therapy to help you resolve current problems and long-standing patterns that may interfere with God’s perfect plan for your life. **\*\*Full list of Insurance Plans:** - UnitedHealthcare - Oxford Health Plans - Cigna - Aetna - UMR - Oscar - UHC Student Resources - All Savers UHC - Harvard Pilgrim - Meritain - Nippon - United Healthcare Shared Services - Allied Benefit Systems – Aetna - Surest (Formerly Bind) - Health Plans Inc. - UnitedHealthcare Global - Christian Brothers Services – Aetna - Trustmark Health Benefits – Aetna - Trustmark Health Benefits – Cigna - Trustmark Small Business Benefits – Aetna - Health Scope – Aetna [![David A Soper - David A. Soper, PhD](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/David-A-Soper.jpg "David A. Soper, PhD - Lives Transforming")](https://www.livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/David-A-Soper.jpg) #### Information ## My Practice at a Glance On-line only **Office phone:** 844-6FREEDOM (Extension 707) Panama City, FL 32405 [](https://www.psychologytoday.com/profile/1187854) Loading... --- ### [Why Are We Here?](https://www.livestransforming.com/about-4/) **Published:** April 20, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## Why are we here? Lives Transforming…that is exactly why we exist: we are a motley crew of Christ-followers learning how to continually be transformed into His image. Transformation comes when we renew our minds by focusing on God’s Truth. We ask questions like “So What?” “How?” and sometimes even “Why?” We started asking these questions with great intensity when lives of Christian friends seemed to be falling apart all around us: husbands committing adultery, moms burying invisible depression with pills, wives suppressing anger until it finally exploded, men hiding resentment of controlling wives, college graduates hiding secret images, employees taking tranquilizers to handle the stress of pleasing bosses, pastors being rejected and abandoned by their churches, families in financial distress and believe it or not, many, many more. Millions of Christian men and women go to church every Sunday, most pray daily and many read their bible every week. They work hard, re-commit, and then try even harder. And then wake up not understanding why they are soaked in sweat from anxiety, angry with their spouse, frustrated with their children and looking for relief. But nowhere in scripture are we promised that going to church, praying or reading the Bible transforms lives. In fact Jesus said, “if you just use my words in Bible studies and don’t work them into your life, you are like a dumb carpenter who built a house but skipped the foundation. When the swollen river came crashing in, it collapsed like a house of cards. It was a total loss.” (Luke 6:49 – The Message). Of course there is nothing wrong with going to church. Nothing wrong with reading the Bible. But – if you don’t know how to work God’s Truth into your life, you can expect your house to come crashing down like a house of cards. So HOW do you work Truth into your life? Simple – but not easy: by changing the way you think. “Let God transform you into a new person by changing the way you think.” (Romans 12:2 – New Living Translation). Here’s how it happened with me: God was transforming me with the Truth I was never taught in Sunday school class even though it was right there between Genesis and Revelation. Truth from scripture started coming alive, and sometimes the Truth seemed ridiculous. Truth like “challenges are gifts” (James 1:2-3 – The Message): I grew up thinking God was punishing me when life got tough. Truth like “I no longer need to try to impress God” (Galatians 2:19-21 – The Message): I always thought I needed to impress God or else. Truth like “it doesn’t matter if others approve of me” (Luke 6:26 – The Message): I was taught if everyone liked me, God could “use” me more. Truth like “if other people need corrected…God can handle that without my help” (Romans 14:2-4 – The Message): I was taught that it was my job to hold people accountable. (See My Story) So as God’s Truth started to be released from the Spirit of Christ in us and resonate in our minds, our lives began to transform. Anxiety and depression medicine was decreased and eventually thrown out. Marriages started to reconcile. Anger started to subside. Divorced men and women became civil. Worry dissipated and frustration subsided. Lives all around us, hundreds of lives all around were transforming. And we are inviting you to join us and discover Truth. Here’s my personal commitment: You will be challenged. You will be moved. You will be loved. And you will have the Truth of scripture throughout our Transforming family of sites. We may not always agree, but you won’t get personal opinions without biblical support. You won’t get judged by us, just a steady dose of Truth. Lives Transforming is a safe place to take a deep breath, look around and discover Truth. You will learn to discern lies, apply Truth, and connect with other travelers on the journey. You will be encouraged, immersed into the stories of others, and possibly inspired to contribute. Our site has been created to allow you to submit articles and content and share what God is doing in your life. So register, email us, or call us and participate! Our contact information and phone numbers are accessible to anyone who’s interested in Lives Transforming! ![out of dark - Why Are We Here?](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/out-of-dark.png "Why Are We Here? - Lives Transforming") ![Live of Christians2 - Why Are We Here?](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Live-of-Christians2.png "Why Are We Here? - Lives Transforming") ![Traveler on Tracks2 - Why Are We Here?](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Traveler-on-Tracks2.png "Why Are We Here? - Lives Transforming") ![headefinal1 1 e1610664215172 - Why Are We Here?](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/headefinal1-1-e1610664215172.png "Why Are We Here?")  #### Visit 14074 Trade Center Drive Fishers, IN 46038 Suite 204 and Suite 206  #### Mailing Address 12915 Whitebridge Drive Fishers, IN 46037  #### Let's Talk 844-6FREEDOM 317-548-2146 --- ### [LT Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/lt-counseling/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## LT Worksheet Download [![worksheetdownload - LT Counseling](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/worksheetdownload.png "LT Counseling - Lives Transforming")](https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B4bYNMXHy4PpY2dURHlhMnRPc1k/view?usp=sharing) [![worksheetsampledownload - LT Counseling](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/worksheetsampledownload.png "LT Counseling - Lives Transforming")](https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B4bYNMXHy4PpWmh4cWdCbGQwY2c/view?usp=sharing) --- ### [Derek Wilder, MDIV](https://www.livestransforming.com/derek-wilder-mdiv/) **Published:** February 17, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ### Derek Wilder, MDIV, Pastoral Counseling **Client Scheduling & Session Length:** - Consultation: Free by phone (text to schedule) - Scheduling: In-session scheduling & Text scheduling options - Initial Pastoral Counseling & Coaching Session: 45-60min. - Additional Counseling Session: 45-50min., 90min. - Additional Coaching Sessions: 20min., 45min., 90min. **Professional Counseling Services:** - Family - Marriage - Relationship - Individual - Crisis Intervention - Professional Coaching Services: - Spiritual - Relational - Personal - Leadership - Identity formation - Relationships - Spiritual Transformation - Servant Leadership - Conflict Resolution - Family Dynamics - Marriage - Divorce - Parenting - Crisis Intervention - Changes & Life Transitions - Anxiety - Depression - Stress - Anger **Educational Experiences:** - Ph.D. Student, Liberty University - Masters of Divinity (MDIV), Pastoral Counseling: Liberty University - Master of Theological Studies (MTS), Liberty University - Bachelor of Art: Anderson University, 1990 About Derek: Derek lives in Fishers, Indiana and has an undergraduate degree from Anderson University, a Christian liberal arts university, a Masters Degree in Theological Studies, a Master of Divinity in Pastoral Counseling, and currently a Ph.D. student. As a Certified Public Accountant he worked for the international consulting firm Deloitte for a number of years before starting his own business. Wilder is currently the Executive Director of Lives Transforming, Inc. He is the founder of Convergence Therapy, which integrates cognitive therapy and grace-based theology into the accredited college course: Thought Life and Spiritual Growth. To contact this counselor fill out the form below. [![Wilder 3 1 - Derek Wilder, MDIV](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Wilder_3-1.jpg "Derek Wilder, MDIV - Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Wilder_3-1.jpg) #### Information **Office location:** Suite #206, 14074 Trade Center Drive, Fishers, Indiana 46038 **Phone:** 866-6FREEDOM **Office hours:** 8am – 8pm Mon. – Fri. Loading... --- ### [Feedback](https://www.livestransforming.com/feedback/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## Lives Transforming University Student Feedback ##### If this class has influenced your relationship with others, please elaborate. This class influenced my relationship with others in the way I handle conflict and conversation with my friends who are struggling. I learned how to converse with people in a way that serves them rather than becoming really involved in their situation. This course allowed me to grow closer in my relationships with people I am already close with and to help me understand those I am not yet close with. This class has been essential to my own story and process of growth in relationships specifically. It teaches us to know and implement key theories into having effective communication and healthy, interdependent relationships. It has impacted my communication in relationships and has helped me to grasp a more healthy view and approach to interacting with those close to me. I have used the interpersonal counseling techniques taught in this class in several of my relationships already. This course focuses on developing healthy communication skills. We learned techniques to help people dealing with difficult circumstances or unhealthy thoughts. We developed skills in listening, empathy, and inquiry that already have improved the way I communicate with people. I now strive to truly listen to my peers and their struggles, and approach conversations in an emphatic way. This class has really helped me develop my interpersonal skills and has given me multiple techniques I can use out in the counseling field. I have a better understanding on how to help others when they are feeling down or have some problem that they need to work on. I feel that I will be able to help them more. This class has allowed me to communicate better. It has also improved my listening and comprehension skills. I learned a lot about grace and forgiveness, which is something I struggle with. This has impacted my relationships. Professor Pay is a fantastic teacher. She’s one of the few people I could trust immediately, and not just because of her soothing voice. She listens as if she genuinely cares, not just because she has to or is paid to. She knows the course very well and her additional humor and honesty really lightens up the course and makes it easier to understand who you could be if you were free. This has been one of the most influential classes of my entire college years. Lisa Pay and Derek Wilder gave new insight that you will never gain from the secular world, and yet they respect the secular world in all its positives and negatives. ##### If this class has impacted your thought life, please describe how. I am much more in tune with how my thoughts influence my emotions. I start learning reasons for why I am anxious about situations. I have been able to work through my problems with different techniques and gain a new perspective on my situation. I am able to look at my challenges as gifts and know that God is going to carry me through it…I don’t need to rely on my own strength. Oh wow, well I have gained such a greater awareness of my thoughts and where they stem from. This class has GREATLY impacted my thought life and helped me see through lies that I’ve believed for a long time. Firstly, this class taught me thought life is important. It trains us how to think and therefore feel and act as Christ did—in confidence of the love of God for us. I have understood better what it means practically to renew my mind, and have been able to identify negative thought patterns and change them. I have learned that my thoughts are not always truth and in order to maintain spiritual health. I must always be aware of the root of my thoughts. The root can either be based in a lie or truth. If I determine that I am believing a lie, I now have the skills to identify that lie and replace it with spiritual truth. When I first experience emotions that are not fruits of the Spirit, I often find myself checking to evaluate what lie I could be believing. This class changed the way I think; when I am feeling down about myself I can now figure out which truth I am believing in and it helps me switch my view around. I have a better understanding on how God works in us and how to distinguish between unhealthy thought and emotions versus the healthy ones. I can now recognize the lies that I have allowed myself to believe for so long. I see where my value comes from now. I didn’t see that before. Even though I still fall into a LOT of my bad habits with thought life, this has given me a chance to attempt to think differently. I can’t begin to describe it. The first realization I had of an actual application was with Martin Luther and righteousness. I had backslid into a particular sin that day and felt awful about it, and then, while I was walking to go get food, I felt this little nudge and the words from this class came tumbling in. We are made righteous in Christ and by our own works, we cannot succeed in the same—if we could, Christ’s sacrifice would be irrelevant; we are righteous because His Spirit is in us and that is all. And from that moment, I realized that, even when I made a mistake, I wasn’t an atrocious human being. I shouldn’t have done it, but my repentance came almost instantly whereas it might have taken me weeks to return to before this course. Without the guilt, I was attracted to Christ much more quickly and felt a swelling of warmth towards Him and how incredible He was the He would do this great mercy for us. The second time was during a project I hadn’t managed to find the research for. I was sobbing because I wanted to keep my scholarship and ashamed that I might lose it for my last semester. I was ashamed because I didn’t want my mom to know and I didn’t want her disappointed in me. While she did say it was okay if I did lose it (which just played into my need to be thought of well by others \[Other People’s Opinions\]), I began to realize that it wouldn’t be the end of the world to lose my scholarship, even though it’s a tremendous amount of money lost and a good extra year trying to pay it off. What God did through your teaching in the Thought Life class will forever be a part of my testimony ?? Coming to learn the true gospel changes everything. He is so good and loves us so well. ##### Comments: Use the space provided in the text area below for your comments This class, integrated with my counseling, has changed my life completely. I will never be the same in my conversations with others because I will always be putting these techniques into practice. This course, above any others I’ve taken so far for my family science major, has helped for my future in counseling— this SHOULD be a required class for Family Science I absolutely love this class and the useful skills it teaches to war against the lies that are constantly aimed at us. I have been struggling with many things and the realization that almost all of my struggles stem from the thoughts I wasn’t aware I entertained. It was actually a mistake that I took this class, because originally I was supposed to be signed into SOCI 3100, which I eventually did; but, decided to keep this class after it was accidently added to my schedule. I don’t believe in coincidences, I know that God directed me to take this class in order to be able to fight against the enemy who seeks to destroy me. I honestly would recommend everyone to take this class and really dig into the content; do not treat this class as any other because the lasting effects of this course could make the difference between eternal life and death. Definitely a life changing course. I am incredibly thankful I took this course. It is incredibly beneficial. I LOVED this course! Prof. Pay has been a wonderful professor this semester and in this class. She has helped me grow in my thought life and am very thankful I was able to take this class. Thank you Professor Pay!! This was a good class and I’m really glad I took it. I like to see more factual knowledge, especially within the realm of psychology. I understand that this is not the purpose of the course and that there was certainly an attempt to “mesh” Christianity and Psychology, but I would like to see more of that. Specifically, I want to see how that realistically and behaviorally looks in both Christian and non-Christian mental health settings. Professor Pay is an amazing woman and a wonderful teacher. I wish I’d been able to take a dozen more classes with her. I’m going to recommend this class to everyone who hasn’t taken it yet. This course was very life changing to me. I have made gains in my relationships with loved ones in my life as well as with God. I have become more aware of my self esteem and my spiritual life. This class is incredible for anyone at any level of spiritual or personal growth. This class has definitely shaped the way I think on a day to day basis. It has truly begun to change my life as I apply the material to my life. Everyone should take this class. I find myself using the material we learned in class almost everyday. It truly gave me a new perspective on how I think about problems. ##### If your relationship with others has been effected, please describe how. I find that I am able to have deeper conversations with some people due to the cognitive skills that we learned in this course. I am able to slow my thinking process down in order to relate to others in their world. I just feel that I can better handle supporting others. I felt like in the past I always felt like I needed to fix everyone that had issues. I have learned that this is not really a healthy thing to do. I have become much more open about what I am feeling and thinking. As a result, I have been able to develop deeper relationships as well as handle conflict better. I am able to explain how I am feeling more effectively to those around me. I’m also able to give others the grace that Jesus calls us to give, and more importantly, give this same grace most times. I understand how to be there for people without trying to fix them. ##### Have there been specific ways your daily thought life has been impacted by this course? If so, please elaborate. Yes, I find myself recognizing unhealthy thoughts and lies that I believe frequently. I am able to combat these and have a higher self-esteem and confidence level. In turn, this often enables me to perform better. See above. This course has made me take the time to think situations and emotions through. I used to be quick to act. Now I take my time to think things through. I think my own train of thought is better. I am able to think about the thought process I am having and realize if it is beneficially or not. When I am thinking in a negative way I am able to process it and realize that I need to change this line of thought. I find myself doing TEA naturally in my head all the time it has brought a lot of freedom to my life and allowed me to realize that I am not always what I think I am. I am now able to see the lies from Satan and the truth of God. I am able to quickly realize my cognitive distortions. It has been impacted as I am constantly making sure my thoughts are from God and not filled with sin. I am always aware of the actions I take and how my emotions and thoughts drive those actions. I also like all the different resources given to us. I plan on reading the books over again and finishing the ones we did not read all the way through. They are just good resources outside of this class. ![headefinal1 1 e1610664215172 - Feedback](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/headefinal1-1-e1610664215172.png "Feedback")  #### Visit 14074 Trade Center Drive Fishers, IN 46038 Suite 204 and Suite 206  #### Mailing Address 12915 Whitebridge Drive Fishers, IN 46037  #### Let's Talk 844-6FREEDOM 317-548-2146 --- ### [Minds on Fire Download](https://www.livestransforming.com/minds-on-fire-download/) **Published:** February 25, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** [![COVER Minds On Fire scaled - Minds on Fire Download](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/COVER-Minds-On-Fire-scaled.jpg "Minds on Fire Download - Lives Transforming")](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1MSQyFEIm2FCJzKl57wf7Q7k-JvvpOetL/view?usp=sharing) --- ### [Contact](https://www.livestransforming.com/contact/) **Published:** March 11, 2016 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ### Lives Transforming Counseling Call 317-548-2146 or Toll Free 844-6-FREEDOM Counseling Office Main Location 13005 Parkside Drive, Fishers, IN 46038-3864 Our office is located between the Bridgeway Church and the Karate studio (off SR 37 behind the Texas Roadhouse between 126th St and 131st St.). ### Business Mailing Address 433 East 53rd Street, Anderson, IN 46013 ![headefinal1 1 e1610664215172 - Contact](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/headefinal1-1-e1610664215172.png "Contact")  #### Visit 14074 Trade Center Drive Fishers, IN 46038 Suite 204 and Suite 206  #### Mailing Address 12915 Whitebridge Drive Fishers, IN 46037  #### Let's Talk 844-6FREEDOM 317-548-2146 --- ### [Lisa Pay](https://www.livestransforming.com/lisa-pay/) **Published:** February 3, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ### Lisa D. Pay LCSW, ACSW, MSW, BASW Lisa is currently not accepting new clients. Lisa is a licensed clinical social worker with 28 years of professional experience including her current position of 17 years as a Professor of Social Work at Anderson University. Lisa directed the Counseling Center at the University for 10 years prior to teaching. Lisa has implemented several Christ based 12 step recovery programs for churches and organizations, such as Celebrate Recovery. She has developed a workshop series for youth that is based on Christian Identity and Worth as understood in the Convergence Model of the Lives Transforming Ministry. She is a sought after speaker for church, college, counseling seminars and youth groups. She teaches the college course Thought Life and Spiritual Growth that has spawned a college based recovery program based on the Cognitive Theory and Christian Principles found in the Freedom Series with Derek Wilder and Dr. David Soper. She is in private practice with Lives Transforming Counseling in Fishers, Indiana. Quotes: “It was great, look forward to it again or some form of follow up. I especially enjoyed hearing the presentation from Lisa, as I have heard Derek a few times and the new voice was refreshing to me.” “I loved Lisa. Her approach was great and she was such a wonderful example of how to react in tough situations. She was so calm, and reassuring.” Therapy and Life Coaching with Convergence Therapy: Lisa is a licensed clinical social worker with 28 years of experience in a variety of settings including: - domestic violence shelters - hospitals (inpatient psychiatric and state hospitals) - community mental health centers - community and church based recovery programs - university counseling centers - day treatment programs - prisons Lisa has experience with a wide range of issues including: - Depression - Anxiety (including Generalized Anxiety, Simple Phobias / Agoraphobia, Panic Disorder, and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder) - Adolescent / Teen Issues - Relationship Problems (Marriage Relationships, Interpersonal Issues, Conflict Resolution, Family Issues, etc.) - Stress and Crisis Management - Spiritual Formation and Discipleship - Separation and Divorce - Parenting - Problem-Solving - Assertiveness Training - Sexual Abuse and Sex Trafficking - Addictions (specializing in pornography) - Sleep Disturbance - Grief and Loss - Developmental challenges Lisa has presented workshops on several topics including: - Identity and Worth in a Christ Centered Model - Enhancing Relationships Through Spiritual Identity Formation - Making the Connection between Pornography and Sex Trafficking - The Myth of the Soul Mate - The Fall, The Curse and Restoring Sexuality - Your Brain on Porn, Neuroplasticity and Romans 12:2: What the Church Response is Missing - Cognitive Theory and Judea-Christian Principles–Convergence Model - Human Sexuality - Thought Life and Spiritual Growth - Social Psychology - Human Behavior and The Social Environment **\*Lisa accepts Self Pay** Convergence Therapy focuses on spiritual development by utilizing cognitive theory and spiritual principles to inform one’s interpersonal and professional growth. The emphasis is on forming our identity apart from outside influences such as performance, opinion of others, entitlement, and past and future circumstances. Coaching will focus on facilitating self-discovery for personal transformation. Cognitive restructuring may be useful in facilitating change in an individual’s functioning, but real change requires spiritual transformation. Coaching will present a convergence model of cognitive precepts and Christian spiritual principles that can be utilized in such transformation. A theoretical context will be provided and experiential techniques will be modeled for application. This particular coaching is of value in preparing persons to work in the areas of social work, family science, sociology, theology, Christian Ministries, youth leadership/ development, health related fields, psychology, and business management. It provides information for personal introspection, healthy decision making, and training in assisting individuals in this important area of life. [![LisaPay 2 - Lisa Pay](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/LisaPay-2.jpg "Lisa Pay - Lives Transforming")](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/LisaPay-2.jpg) #### Information **Office location:** Suite #206, 14074 Trade Center Drive, Fishers, Indiana 46038 **Cell phone:** **Office hours:** --- ### [Pro Race Car Driver Transformed](https://www.livestransforming.com/pro-race-car-driver-transformed/) **Published:** February 7, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** #### Pro Race Car Driver Transformed Retired race car driver Derek Daly shares his own story about the victories and obstacles of his career and personal life, and how he finally found his way to Christ. Daly spent many years going to church, but he didn’t “get” Christianity until the struggles in his personal life opened his ears to hear God speaking for the first time. Another story of how the Lives Transforming ministry impacts lives. --- ### [Freedom Videos](https://www.livestransforming.com/freedom-videos/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** [Freedom Training Intro](https://livestransforming.com/freedom-introduction/) [Freedom From Others Opinions](https://livestransforming.com/other-peoples-opinions/) [Freedom From Others Opinions 2](https://livestransforming.com/other-peoples-opinions-2/) [Freedom From Failure](https://livestransforming.com/failure/) [Freedom From Failure 2](https://livestransforming.com/failure-2/) [Freedom From Being Used by God](https://livestransforming.com/used-by-god/) [Freedom From Being Used by God 2](https://livestransforming.com/used-by-god-2/) [Freedom From Coveting](https://livestransforming.com/coveting/) [Freedom From Coveting 2](https://livestransforming.com/coveting-2/) [Freedom From Past & Future](https://livestransforming.com/past-and-future/) [Freedom From Past & Future 2](https://livestransforming.com/past-and-future-2/) [Freedom From Hard Circumstances](https://livestransforming.com/difficult-circumstances/) [Freedom From Hard Circumstances 2](https://livestransforming.com/difficult-circumstances-2/) [Freedom From Fixing Others](https://livestransforming.com/need-to-fix-others/) [Freedom From Fixing Others 2](https://livestransforming.com/need-to-fix-others-2/) --- ### [Introductory Video](https://www.livestransforming.com/introductory-video/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## CCT Introduction [Download Movie](http://www.surgevideos.com/LT_Training/IntroductionCCT.mov) (You may need to right-click the link and select “Save Target As” or “Save Link As”) ![headefinal1 1 e1610664215172 - Introductory Video](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/headefinal1-1-e1610664215172.png "Introductory Video")  #### Visit 14074 Trade Center Drive Fishers, IN 46038 Suite 204 and Suite 206  #### Mailing Address 12915 Whitebridge Drive Fishers, IN 46037  #### Let's Talk 844-6FREEDOM 317-548-2146 --- ### [Location](https://www.livestransforming.com/location/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ### Location We have a dedicated counseling office at ***14074 Trade Center Drive, Fishers, IN 46038. (Suite 204 and Suite 206)*** Counseling sessions are by appointment only. We do not have walk-in office hours. ### Location 14074 Trade Center Drive Fishers, IN 46038 Suite 204 and Suite 206 Call 317-548-2146 to make an appointment or fill out our [contact form here](https://livestransforming.com/contact/). Toll-free 844-6FREEDOM See our [counselors accepting new clients](https://livestransforming.com/services/). ### Business Mailing Address 433 East 53rd Street, Anderson, IN 46013 ![headefinal1 1 e1610664215172 - Location](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/headefinal1-1-e1610664215172.png "Location")  #### Visit 14074 Trade Center Drive Fishers, IN 46038 Suite 204 and Suite 206  #### Mailing Address 12915 Whitebridge Drive Fishers, IN 46037  #### Let's Talk 844-6FREEDOM 317-548-2146 --- ### [Contact A Life Coach](https://www.livestransforming.com/contact-a-life-coach/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ### Get in Touch ### Lives Transforming Counseling Call Now 317-548-2146 Toll Free 844-6FREEDOM Business Mailing Address 433 East 53rd Street Anderson, IN 46013 First Name Last Name Your Email Address Preferred Counselor \* Preferred Counselor \*Derek WilderLisa PayAngie Ford Message Submit ![headefinal1 1 e1610664215172 - Contact A Life Coach](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/headefinal1-1-e1610664215172.png "Contact A Life Coach")  #### Visit 14074 Trade Center Drive Fishers, IN 46038 Suite 204 and Suite 206  #### Mailing Address 12915 Whitebridge Drive Fishers, IN 46037  #### Let's Talk 844-6FREEDOM 317-548-2146 --- ### [How Grace Leads to Obedience](https://www.livestransforming.com/how-grace-leads-to-obedience/) **Published:** February 7, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** #### How Grace Leads to Obedience Derek Wilder and Brent Henderson address the ever going debate of Grace vs Obedience. This especially becomes a challenge when we see sin in the lives of people close to us and feel the need to change them. So how do we get people to change? How do we change our own actions? And how does grace make all the difference? --- ### [Minds on Fire Volume 1 + 2](https://www.livestransforming.com/minds-on-fire-volume-1-2/) **Published:** February 4, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ##### This video series is based on the book Minds on Fire Volume 1 : Changing Your Mind ##### This video series is based on the book Minds on Fire Volume 2: Discovering Your Worth --- ### [FTC Disclosure](https://www.livestransforming.com/ftc-disclosure/) **Published:** April 8, 2016 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FTC Disclosure **COMPENSATION AND AFFILIATION AFFIDAVIT** As per mandates from FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION, 16 CFR Part 255 – Guides Concerning the Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising, the purpose of this document is to establish the possible compensatory affiliation with Lives Transforming, Inc. and Any Testimonialists or Endorsers found on the pages of our site. Any or all endorsements from testimonialists used in our promotional materials MAY be affiliated with us as Marketing Affiliates and therefore might have an established connection with us in the form of Commissions paid on sales resulting from Referrals from those Testimonialists that might lead some readers to believe that the testimonial reviews on the pages of our products might be biased. However, the reviews and comments on the pages of this site are to the best of our knowledge the true statements and beliefs of the endorsement givers and any claims made on the pages of this site can be substantiated on request. 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Examples in these materials are not to be interpreted as a promise or guarantee of earnings in any way. Any earning potential is entirely dependent on the person using these products, ideas and techniques and we do not purport this as a “get rich scheme.” Any claims made of actual earnings or examples of actual results can be verified upon request. Your level of success in attaining the results that may have been claimed in our materials depends on the time you devote to the program, ideas and techniques mentioned, your finances, previous knowledge and various skills. Since these factors differ according to individuals, we cannot guarantee your success or income level. Nor are we responsible for any of your actions. Materials in our product(s) and on our website may contain information that includes or is based upon forward-looking statements within the meaning of the Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. Forward-Looking Statements give our expectations or forecasts of future events. You can identify these statements by the fact that they do not relate strictly to historical or current facts. Such Forward Looking Statements use words such as “anticipate,” “estimate,” “expect,” “project,” “intend,” “plan,” “believe,” and other such words and terms of similar meaning in connection with a description of potential earnings or financial performance. Your Results May Vary from ours and those of anyone else who is, or will be using these products, techniques, and/or services. Any and all forward looking statements here or on any of our sales material are intended to express our opinion of earnings potential not actual earnings expected. Many factors will be important in determining your actual results and no guarantees are made, expressed or implied that you will achieve results similar to ours or anybody else’s. In fact no guarantees are made that you will achieve any results from our ideas and techniques in our material at all. All materials on this site are © copyrighted by us. No part of this may be copied, or changed in any format, sold, or used in any way, online or offline, other than what is outlined within this site, under any circumstances without express permission from us **CONTACT INFORMATION: **Lives Transforming, Inc.** --- ### [Terms of Service](https://www.livestransforming.com/terms-of-service/) **Published:** January 25, 2016 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## Terms of Service **WEBSITE TERMS OF USE** **If you do not agree to the Terms of Use, discontinue using the site immediately!** By using this site, you signify your Assent and Agreement to these Terms of Use. If you do not agree to these Terms of Use, do not use the site. **Restrictions on Use of Materials** Materials in this website are Copyrighted and all rights are reserved. 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Any video is © copyrighted by us and is protected under the US Copyright Act of 1976 and all other applicable international, federal, state and local laws, with ALL rights reserved. No part of this may be copied, or changed in any format, sold, or used in any way other than what is outlined within this under any circumstances without express permission from us. **Other Legal Stuff** These Terms of Use will apply to every access to our website url. We reserve the right to issue revisions to these Terms of Use by publishing a revised version of this document on this site: that version will then apply to all use by you following the date of publication. Each access of information will be a separate, discrete transaction based on the then prevailing terms. This Terms of Use and the license granted may not be assigned or sublet by You without our written consent in advance. These Terms of Use shall be governed by, construed and enforced in accordance with the laws of Indiana, as it is applied to agreements entered into and to be performed entirely within such jurisdiction. To the extent you have in any manner violated or threatened to violate our website and/or its affiliates’ intellectual property rights, we and/or our affiliates may seek injunctive or other appropriate relief in any state or federal court in the State of identified above, and you consent to exclusive jurisdiction and venue in such courts. Any other disputes will be resolved as follows: If a dispute arises under this agreement, we agree to first try to resolve it with the help of a mutually agreed-upon mediator in the following location: Anderson, Indiana. Any costs and fees other than attorney fees associated with the mediation will be shared equally by each of us. If it proves impossible to arrive at a mutually satisfactory solution through mediation, we agree to submit the dispute to binding arbitration at the city identified above, under the rules of the American Arbitration Association. Judgment upon the award rendered by the arbitration may be entered in any court with jurisdiction to do so. If any provision of this agreement is void or unenforceable in whole or in part, the remaining provisions of this Agreement shall not be affected thereby. **Termination** These Terms of Use agreement are effective until terminated by either party. You may terminate this agreement at any time by destroying all materials obtained from any and all of our site(s) and all related documentation and all copies and installations thereof, whether made under the terms of this agreement or otherwise. This agreement will terminate immediately without notice at our sole discretion, should you fail to comply with any term or provision of this agreement. Upon termination, you must destroy all materials obtained from this site and any and all other site(s) and all copies thereof, whether made under the terms of this agreement or otherwise. --- ### [Clinical Disclaimer](https://www.livestransforming.com/clinical-disclaimer/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## Clinical Disclaimer **Disclaimer of Clinical Advice and Therapeutic Relationship:** PLEASE NOTE: This web site, and any information or e-mail sent, including any attachments thereto, is intended only for the visitors to this site and is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute clinical, legal or counseling advice nor does contacting this site, nor sending nor receiving email from this site, Lives Transforming, Inc. or other sites owned or controlled by Lives Transforming, Inc., constitute the establishment of any medical, clinical, counseling or therapeutic relationship with Lives Transforming, Inc., its employees, contractors or counselors. To ensure compliance with requirements imposed by applicable law and professional practice, please know that any advice contained in communication (including any attachments) is not intended to be taken as a substitute for appropriate face-to face clinical consultations with an appropriately educated, credentialed and licensed health care professional. All information sent to and from Lives Transforming, Inc. is not confidential or privileged and is not protected from third party observation unless otherwise specifically stated by Lives Transforming, Inc. and such confidentiality is necessarily limited by the inherent limitations of any used communication devices and employed technology from origination point to point of receipt. Any unintended recipient is hereby notified that any dissemination, distribution or copying of any e-mail, and any attachments thereto, is strictly prohibited. If recipients receive any e-mail from Lives Transforming, Inc., its employees or subcontractors or counselors in error, please immediately notify us by return e-mail and permanently delete the original and any copy of the e-mail message and any printout thereof. Thank You. --- ### [Privacy Policy](https://www.livestransforming.com/privacy-policy-2/) **Published:** January 13, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## Privacy Policy **PRIVACY POLICY** Last Updated: 10/5/2010 LivesTransforming.com strives to offer its visitors the many advantages of Internet technology and to provide an interactive and personalized experience. We may use Personally Identifiable Information (your name, e-mail address, street address, telephone number) subject to the terms of this privacy policy. We will never sell, barter, or rent your email address to any unauthorized third party. Period.” **How we gather information from users** How we collect and store information depends on the page you are visiting, the activities in which you elect to participate and the services provided. For example, you may be asked to provide information when you register for access to certain portions of our site or request certain features, such as newsletters or when you make a purchase. You may provide information when you participate in sweepstakes and contests, message boards and chat rooms, and other interactive areas of our site. Like most Web sites, we also collect information automatically and through the use of electronic tools that may be transparent to our visitors. For example, we may log the name of your Internet Service Provider or use cookie technology to recognize you and hold information from your visit. Among other things, the cookie may store your user name and password, sparing you from having to re-enter that information each time you visit, or may control the number of times you encounter a particular advertisement while visiting our site. As we adopt additional technology, we may also gather information through other means. In certain cases, you can choose not to provide us with information, for example by setting your browser to refuse to accept cookies, but if you do you may be unable to access certain portions of the site or may be asked to re-enter your user name and password, and we may not be able to customize the site’s features according to your preferences. **What we do with the information we collect** Like other Web publishers, we collect information to enhance your visit and deliver more individualized content and advertising. We respect your privacy and do not share your information with anyone. Aggregated Information (information that does not personally identify you) may be used in many ways. For example, we may combine information about your usage patterns with similar information obtained from other users to help enhance our site and services (e.g., to learn which pages are visited most or what features are most attractive). Aggregated Information may occasionally be shared with our advertisers and business partners. Again, this information does not include any Personally Identifiable Information about you or allow anyone to identify you individually. We may use Personally Identifiable Information collected to communicate with you about your registration and customization preferences; our Terms of Service and privacy policy; services and products offered and other topics we think you might find of interest. Personally Identifiable Information collected may also be used for other purposes, including but not limited to site administration, troubleshooting, processing of e-commerce transactions, administration of sweepstakes and contests, and other communications with you. Certain third parties who provide technical support for the operation of our site (our Web hosting service for example) may access such information. We will use your information only as permitted by law. In addition, from time to time as we continue to develop our business, we may sell, buy, merge or partner with other companies or businesses. In such transactions, user information may be among the transferred assets. We may also disclose your information in response to a court order, at other times when we believe we are reasonably required to do so by law, in connection with the collection of amounts you may owe to us, and/or to law enforcement authorities whenever we deem it appropriate or necessary. Please note we may not provide you with notice prior to disclosure in such cases. **Affiliated sites, linked sites and advertisements** We expect our partners, advertisers and affiliates to respect the privacy of our users. Be aware, however, that third parties, including our partners, advertisers, affiliates and other content providers accessible through our site, may have their own privacy and data collection policies and practices. For example, during your visit to our site you may link to, or view as part of a frame on a web page, certain content that is actually created or hosted by a third party. Also, through our website you may be introduced to, or be able to access, information, Web sites, features, contests or sweepstakes offered by other parties. We are not responsible for the actions or policies of such third parties. You should check the applicable privacy policies of those third parties when providing information on a feature or page operated by a third party. While on our site, our advertisers, promotional partners or other third parties may use cookies or other technology to attempt to identify some of your preferences or retrieve information about you. For example, some of our advertising is served by third parties and may include cookies that enable the advertiser to determine whether you have seen a particular advertisement before. Other features available on our site may offer services operated by third parties and may use cookies or other technology to gather information. We do not control the use of this technology by third parties or the resulting information, and is not responsible for any actions or policies of such third parties. You should also be aware that if you voluntarily disclose Personally Identifiable Information on message boards or in chat areas, that information can be viewed publicly and can be collected and used by third parties without our knowledge and may result in unsolicited messages from other individuals or third parties. Such activities are beyond our control and this policy. Internet Advertising We may use Microsoft adCenter to promote our business online. To more effectively market our product or service, we use a small text file known as a cookie to record the completion of your transaction. Microsoft adCenter wants to assure you that any information that is gathered will remain anonymous and cannot be used to identify you. Browsers, such as Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox, let you delete cookies and choose what types of cookies you want to allow on your computer. Please check Help for your browser to learn how to delete cookies or change the privacy level on your computer. We may use Google Analytics, Google AdWords Conversion tracker, and other Google services that place cookies on a browser across the website. These cookies help us increase the website’s effectiveness for our visitors. These cookies are set and read by Google. To opt out of Google tracking, please visit this page. We may use AdWords remarketing to market our sites across the web. We place a cookie on a browser, and then a 3rd party (Google) reads these cookies and may serve an ad on a 3rd party site. You may opt out of this ad serving on Google’s opt out page. If you are concerned about 3rd party cookies served by networks, you should also visit the Network Advertising Initiative opt-out page. Lives Transforming Group Inc. is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to amazon.com. **Children** We do not knowingly collect or solicit Personally Identifiable Information from or about children under 13 except as permitted by law. If we discover we have received any information from a child under 13 in violation of this policy, we will delete that information immediately. If you believe we have any information from or about anyone under 13, please contact us at the address listed below. **Contacting Us.** We can be reached by contacting: Email: derekwilder@livestransforming.com **Changes to this Policy** We reserve the right to change this policy at any time. Please check this page periodically for changes. Your continued use of our site following the posting of changes to these terms will mean you accept those changes. Information collected prior to the time any change is posted will be used according to the rules and laws that applied at the time the information was collected. **Governing law** This policy and the use of this Site are governed by Indiana law. If a dispute arises under this Policy we agree to first try to resolve it with the help of a mutually agreed-upon mediator in the following location: Anderson, Indiana. Any costs and fees other than attorney fees associated with the mediation will be shared equally by each of us. If it proves impossible to arrive at a mutually satisfactory solution through mediation, we agree to submit the dispute to binding arbitration at the above location, under the rules of the American Arbitration Association. Judgment upon the award rendered by the arbitration may be entered in any court with jurisdiction to do so. 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These three are one in essence but distinct in person and function. We affirm that the Father is the first person of the Trinity and the source of all that God is and does. From Him the Son is eternally generated and from Them the Spirit eternally proceeds. He is the designer of creation, the speaker of revelation, the author of redemption, and the sovereign of history. We affirm that the Lord Jesus Christ is the second person of the Trinity, eternally begotten from the Father. He is God. He was conceived by the virgin Mary through a miracle of the Holy Spirit. He lives forever as perfect God and perfect man: two distinct natures inseparably united in one person. We affirm that the Holy Spirit is the third person of the Trinity, proceeding from the Father and the Son and equal in deity. He is the giver of all life, active in the creating and ordering of the universe; He is the agent of inspiration and the new birth; He restrains sin and Satan; and He indwells and sanctifies all believers. We affirm that all things were created by God. Angels were created as ministering agents, though some, under the leadership of Satan, fell from their sinless state to become agents of evil. The universe was created in six historical days and is continuously sustained by God; thus it both reflects His glory and reveals His truth. Human beings were directly created, not evolved, in the very image of God. As reasoning moral agents, they are responsible under God for understanding and governing themselves and the world. We affirm that the Bible, both Old and New Testaments, though written by men, was supernaturally inspired by God so that all its words are the written true revelation of God; it is therefore inerrant in the originals and authoritative in all matters. It is to be understood by all through the illumination of the Holy Spirit, its meaning determined by the historical, grammatical, and literary use of the author’s language, comparing Scripture with Scripture. We affirm that Adam, the first man, willfully disobeyed God, bringing sin and death into the world. As a result, all persons are sinners from conception, which is evidenced in their willful acts of sin; and they are therefore subject to eternal punishment, under the just condemnation of a holy God. We affirm that Jesus Christ offered Himself as a sacrifice by the appointment of the Father. He fulfilled the demands of God by His obedient life, died on the cross in full substitution and payment for the sins of all, was buried, and on the third day He arose physically and bodily from the dead. He ascended into heaven where He now intercedes for all believers. We affirm that each person can be saved only through the work of Jesus Christ, through repentance of sin and by faith alone in Him as Savior. The believer is declared righteous, born again by the Holy Spirit, turned from sin, and assured of heaven. We affirm that the Holy Spirit indwells all who are born again, conforming them to the likeness of Jesus Christ. This is a process completed only in Heaven. Every believer is responsible to live in obedience to the Word of God in separation from sin. We affirm that a church is a local assembly of baptized believers, under the discipline of the Word of God and the lordship of Christ, organized to carry out the commission to evangelize, to teach, and to administer the ordinances of believer’s baptism and the Lord’s table. Its offices are pastors and deacons, and it is self-governing. It functions through the ministry of gifts given by the Holy Spirit to each believer. We affirm that the return of Christ for all believers is imminent. ![headefinal1 1 e1610664215172 - Statement of Faith](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/headefinal1-1-e1610664215172.png "Statement of Faith")  #### Visit 14074 Trade Center Drive Fishers, IN 46038 Suite 204 and Suite 206  #### Mailing Address 12915 Whitebridge Drive Fishers, IN 46037  #### Let's Talk 844-6FREEDOM 317-548-2146 --- ### [Renewing the Mind](https://www.livestransforming.com/renewing-the-mind/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## Renewing the Mind Renewing the mind came to my mind last week when I met with a friend of mine that has been in youth ministry for several years. It seems a couple decades of youth ministry would take its toll on about anyone, and accordingly he was trying to decide what career path God would lead him next. It seems as if everyone is constantly looking for God’s direction, guidance and will. In fact, a few weeks ago I was thinking the same thought, what is God’s will? If I could sum it up in just a sentence or two. Then I was given a wonderful little verse; actually it’s just a ½ of a verse. It simultaneously intrigued me and set me back. A very simple short verse: “It is God’s will that you should be sanctified” 1 Thessalonians 4:3. Wow, it seems God was getting straight to the point with me, however, what in the world does sanctified mean? I asked a few Christian friends and they had no idea. Sanctification is the “process of being made holy (God’s nature) resulting in a changed life-style for the believer” (Holman’s Bible Dictionary). In other words, Sanctification is simply the process of our selves (our being) being transformed to God’s nature and when this occurs then our life (actions) change. It is God’s will that my life (my very essence) is transformed to be and think like Him because when this occurs then my actions will accordingly follow suit. The analysis I went through was very interesting but, quite frankly, after reviewing what I had learned it seemed to be more theoretical rhetoric. If God’s will for my life is for me (my being) to be in process, and this process is for me to be transformed by God how in the world was I suppose to do it? What was I suppose to do? Many believe that the process of being made holy is to try and be as moral as possible. Others believe that being made holy can only be accomplished by God; thus, there’s not a lot I can do about it. What’s my part? What’s God’s part? How do I turn onto the road of transformation? As I continued my pursuit I found a verse that gave me a glimpse of how I could be transformed. “Be transformed by the renewing of your mind” (Romans 12:2). Now maybe I was on to something. Realizing that “be transformed” was in the passive voice (not active) answered a couple questions. First, “be transformed,” means the process of being transformed is not something I can “do”; it’s only something God can do. This was God’s part. In other words, “be transformed” could be rephrased to say, “Let God transform you”. So it’s God’s job to transform me, but it’s my job to let Him transform me. How can I let Him transform me? Well, the rest of the phrase tells us, “by the renewing of your mind”. Accordingly, if I renew my mind then I’ll be letting God transform me, but God can’t transform me unless my mind is renewed. Now all I have to do is figure out how to renew my mind. ![4steps1 - Renewing the Mind](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/4steps1.png "Renewing the Mind - Lives Transforming") ![4stepswords1 - Renewing the Mind](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/4stepswords1.png "Renewing the Mind - Lives Transforming") ##### STEP #1 WRITE DOWN YOUR UNHEALTHY EMOTION We are able to shed some light on how to renew our minds from 2 Corinthians 10:5, “We take captive every thought to make it obedient”. In the Message this passage is explained as “tearing down barriers erected against the truth of God, fitting every loose thought and emotion and impulse into the structure of life shaped by Christ.” In order to identify the thoughts that need to be taken captive we have to identify which thoughts do not line up with God’s Truth. This is rather simple. When we identify unhealthy emotions like anger, judgment, jealously, inadequacy, and perfectionism etc. we can be sure there is a thought creating the emotion lurking. Imagine when you were five years old if you were riding in backseat of your parent’s car and someone in the lane beside you flipped you off! Would you get mad? Of course not! You wouldn’t even know what “flipped you off” means. However, with the same scenario fifteen years later your emotion would be totally different. Why? Because at age five your thought was, “that’s a weird way to wave at me, maybe I’ll wave back.” However, at age 20 your thought might be to wave back but with very different intentions and certainly with different emotions. Only our thoughts can create our emotions. So if our emotions are unhealthy we can be sure we have a thought that has not been taken captive. Thus, the easiest way to realize a thought has not been taken captive is to write your unhealthy emotion down on paper and then begin the search for the thought that created the emotion that needs to be taken captive. As a point of clarification I believe it’s important that for purposes of this exercise that the emotion we are identifying is an unhealthy one. In other words, emotions such as sadness may be considered by some to be negative. However, in the case of a spouse dying, sadness would not be considered negative at all, instead, it would be considered very healthy. It seems the unhealthy emotion in this scenario would certainly be, except under the most extraordinary circumstances, jubilation. ![4stepswords2 - Renewing the Mind](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/4stepswords2.png "Renewing the Mind - Lives Transforming") ![4steps2 - Renewing the Mind](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/4steps2.png "Renewing the Mind - Lives Transforming") ##### STEP #2 WRITE DOWN THE THOUGHT (the lie) THAT CREATED THE UNHEALTHY EMOTION Once the unhealthy emotion is identified we simply need to ask ourselves what the thought was that created the emotion. Normally these thoughts shoot into our heads very quickly like lightning, so we have to be very attentive when they occur. These thoughts do not come from deep within us but it feels as if they come from outside of ourselves and attempt to grasp at us. In fact these thoughts that create the unhealthy emotions are coming from outside of us; they are coming from the world…from Satan. Most of us recall the recognizable verse of “the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world” (I John 4:4). It’s imperative we understand when thoughts feel as if they are coming from outside us (from the world), they are not coming from God and are extremely dangerous. I used to believe these thoughts creating unhealthy emotions were simply thoughts that didn’t serve me well, however, now I believe every thought that creates an unhealthy emotion is a lie! Although a bold statement, I think you’ll soon agree. We know the fruit of the Holy Spirit, or the work which the Holy Spirit’s presence within us accomplishes is “love, joy (gladness), peace, patience (an even temper, forbearance), kindness, goodness (benevolence), faithfulness, gentleness (meekness, humility), self-control (self restraint, continence).” (Galatians 5:22-23). So if I have a thought that creates authentic joy it’s reasonable to believe it is coming from the Holy Spirit, which resides in me. However, if a thought creates negative emotions such as pride, envy, jealousy, anger, strife, arrogance, malice etc. we can be sure the thought is not coming from the Holy Spirit, but from the world. And since the Holy “Spirit is the truth” (I John 5:6), we can conclude that thoughts that create unhealthy emotions are lies because thoughts that result in emotions opposite of the natural result or fruit of the Holy Spirit cannot originate from God. Thoughts from the world (or Satan) are being shot at us daily and sometimes it seems we try to eliminate these thoughts (lies) but they just keep popping up. All of us have experienced an argument with another person like our spouse and during the day we replay the fight in our heads over and over, guessing at what we might have said to get our point across. We want to stop thinking about the argument but just can’t get it out of our mind. This is the experience of many people who allow their thoughts to create havoc in their lives. The goal is to specifically write the thoughts down on paper. By writing them down on paper you will start to obtain control over (or take captive) those thoughts (lies) instead of allowing them to control you (hold you hostage or in bondage). ![4steps3 - Renewing the Mind](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/4steps3.png "Renewing the Mind - Lives Transforming") ![4stepswords3 - Renewing the Mind](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/4stepswords3.png "Renewing the Mind - Lives Transforming") ##### STEP #3 WRITE DOWN THE REPLACEMENT THOUGHT (the Truth) Once we realize that all thoughts that create unhealthy emotions are lies it is time to replace each of the thoughts (lies) identified above with Truth. Replacing thoughts with Truth is an integral part of sanctification (the process of transformation). In fact, Jesus makes this point emphatically when He asks His Father to “Sanctify them by the Truth” in a prayer for His disciples (John 17:17). Becoming prolific at replacing lies with Truth takes first and foremost an openness to the Spirit (this is the source of all Truth), patience, and sometimes, the assistance of a healthy friend is beneficial. Many times replacing lies with truth can be as simple as writing down the opposite thought of the one identified as a lie. For instance, you may write, “I need to eat less”, in response to your unhealthy emotion of strife. And as a replacement thought you might simply write, “I don’t have to eat less, I can choose to eat more or less, God gives me free will and I enjoy the freedom that comes from God”. Another simple thought you may write that fits this pattern and analogy is, “My spouse should lose weight”, in response to your unhealthy emotion of judgment. As a replacement thought you might write, “Based on the thought patterns, motivation level, and amount of food my spouse devours, my spouse should not be losing a single pound!” I believe it is obvious that the latter thought is not only the truth; it also has the power to dramatically change judgment into acceptance, a characteristic that has an enormous amount of power to influence. It may seem apparent for those of you who have been down the path of replacing lies with truth that not all thought replacements are as simple as writing the opposite statement. In fact at times it will be imperative for entire paradigms to shift in order to obtain the truth. For example, you may write, “I’m a loser”, in response to your negative emotion of shame towards yourself. Before you write your replacement thought you may have to ask a few questions. For instance, you may ask yourself, “How exactly do I define a loser?” If your answer is, “a loser is someone who people don’t like”, then you have made significant progress. The revelation that, “nobody is liked by everyone” may soon become apparent when you write your answer, and accordingly, you will realize that either everyone is a loser or your definition must somehow be skewed. In fact, as you continue to try and define “loser” you will continually “get stuck”. It is at this point the shift in thinking can occur. A shift from the Spirit. A moment when we open up to the Spirit and are reminded that when we believe in God and ask Him to be a part of our lives we actually become righteous (the standing acceptable to God). Specifically, it is written the righteousness of God is credited “to us who believe in him who raised Jesus our Lord from the dead” (Romans 4:24). Thus, if I am a believer it is impossible for me to be a loser, in fact, I become righteous (the standing acceptable to God), and if I’m acceptable to God what makes me think I’m not good enough for myself? Is it reasonable for my conditions of an acceptable self to be higher than God’s? I think not! Now we can document truth. And as a replacement thought you might write, “A loser is an indefinable label that is meaningless for purposes of defining my worth, however, because I believe in God, I have become righteous, acceptable, and loved by the God of the universe”. Once again the replacement thought is true and has the power of God to change our contempt to love. (For further discussion regarding replacing lies with truth see the “Truth Finding” document.) ![4steps4 - Renewing the Mind](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/4steps4.png "Renewing the Mind - Lives Transforming") ![4stepswords4 - Renewing the Mind](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/4stepswords4.png "Renewing the Mind - Lives Transforming") ##### STEP #4 CONTINUALLY RE-READ THE REPLACEMENT THOUGHT (the truth) It is extraordinarily important to realize that the process we have encountered so far is NOT renewing the mind. Although significant progress has been made towards the goal, it is of utmost importance that we are not deceived into believing that replacing lies with truth is the renewal process, it is emphatically not! Replacing lies with truth is revelation not renewal. Revelation is “the content and process of God’s making Himself known to people. All knowledge of God comes by way of revelation” (Holman’s Bible Dictionary). Replacing lies with truth is procuring the knowledge of God (truth) because only truth can come from God. At the point truth is revealed the opportunity for renewal commences. The Greek word for renewing is “anakainosis”. It is important to note that “ana” as a prefix means repetition, intensity, and reversal (Strong’s Hebrew & Greek Dictionary). It is the intense repetition of Truth that causes reversal from lies to truth to occur within us and this process is the renewing of the mind. We must never underestimate the power and importance of intense repetition in the process of renewing our minds. At this point I believe it is imperative to reiterate exactly who is responsible for transformation occurring in a life. Clearly, we can take no credit for transformation; we have no ability to transform. God can transform, Truth can transform, but let us never fall into the mental trap of thinking that we have any power to transform others or ourselves. The only power we have (and even this is God given) is the power to choose. God’s very nature has extended free will to each and every one of us, and accordingly, we must take the initiative to choose to renew our minds before God even has the ability to transform us. In other words, when we choose to renew our minds, our choice allows God (lets God) transform us. If God decided to transform us without our choosing, He, in effect, would be usurping the very thing He created…free will and God cannot usurp Himself. Thus, we must do our part before God can do His part. Finally, it is my opinion that most believers would agree that transformation comes by way of renewing the mind. The command, “be transformed by the renewing your mind,” in Romans 12:2 is so succinct that it’s very difficult for any believer to disconnect the result of transformation from the method of obtaining it via the renewing of the mind. However, the method by which renewing the mind actually occurs is a very different matter. In fact, although it is apparent “what” we are to do (renew the mind) it has been very difficult for me to find resources specifically addressing “how” we are to renew the mind. I wrote this order to address one way to renew the mind that has had tremendous impact on my life and the lives of people within my sphere of influence. This paper is not documenting a system or method, but instead a discipline. Its not attempting to be comprehensive in its scope, nor is it in any way to suggest the 4 steps identified above are the only or even the best methods by which one can renew the mind. I am simply ignorant of any other method more effective. Instead, it is an attempt to address the obvious “what” and the obscure “how”. ### -Derek Wilder ![4stepswords5 - Renewing the Mind](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/4stepswords5.png "Renewing the Mind - Lives Transforming") ![4steps5 - Renewing the Mind](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/4steps5.png "Renewing the Mind - Lives Transforming") ![headefinal1 1 e1610664215172 - Renewing the Mind](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/headefinal1-1-e1610664215172.png "Renewing the Mind")  #### Visit 14074 Trade Center Drive Fishers, IN 46038 Suite 204 and Suite 206  #### Mailing Address 12915 Whitebridge Drive Fishers, IN 46037  #### Let's Talk 844-6FREEDOM 317-548-2146 --- ### [The Story](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-story/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## The Story Workaholic is a word that has been used to describe me, but I would say “performance addict” was probably more accurate. As the son of a world-class shooter (whose legacy included 24 national championships and numerous medals in world class competition), I chose to listen to my dad’s sports psychologist at the Colorado Springs Olympic Training Center, whose cassette tapes about “how we think” played on my headset while mowing the lawn at age nine, which I thought, at the time, aptly accompanied my “Winners make it happen and losers let it happen” poster on my bedroom wall. I was on the fast track from the beginning. But about the same time I was listening to my dad’s tapes I also decided to get baptized. I went to church every Sunday morning with my family but church seemed to be disconnected from the rest of my life. Even at the ripe old age of 12 I wondered how my thoughts had anything to do with God. During my freshman year of college, I remember thinking about what career path to take and considered going into the ministry, and I asked my father what he thought. His advice was, “Work hard and make a lot of money. Then people will listen to you.” So I did. Age 21, I graduated from a Christian liberal arts college. Swimming in student loan debt, I landed a job with one of the world’s premier consulting firms, Deloitte & Touche. At 24 I started my own business; at 25 I had my first six-figure income and by 30 was a millionaire after growing the business to one of the top 5 in the state of Indiana. The more I succeeded, the harder I worked. “Winners make it happen…” I was determined to be in the winner’s group, and losers who let life happen to them were my least favorite people. I was not quite 30 when “it” happened. I’m not sure what “it” is or was, but I call it my own personal beautiful train wreck. My personal physician thought it had to do with my “emotions”. I told him I didn’t think I had any of “those” things. Regardless, the “it” manifested itself in all kinds of physical issues. Hives, swelling, numbness, waking up in the middle of the night in a pool of sweat…and why couldn’t I stop crying behind my closed office doors. Of course the first person I turned to was my wife…who quickly explained that she didn’t like being around me anymore. Next. Now I turned back to my doctor who gave me some pills that “could be addictive” so “be careful”. He also mentioned that some counseling might be helpful. My pastor at the time agreed to meet with me. His first question was, “where is God working in your life?” I told him I didn’t know. Of course he followed up with, “So what’s that tell you about your spiritual life if you don’t know where God is?” He was correct. He also quickly identified me as having the spiritual gift of leadership. I had no idea what he was talking about, but I remember listening to a speech given by Bill Hybells introducing me to a God who gifts certain people with a Holy Spirit endowed gift of leadership. You don’t earn it, you don’t work for it…it’s simply a gift. I wept again…but for a different reason. All the worldly success would have been impossible without this gift. Hmm…my leadership performance was never really mine…it was a gift? Maybe life wasn’t all about me after all. Why did this realization comfort me? A little confused and extremely determined I procured a very talented executive coach. He was a Christian believer who continued pointing me towards God’s Truth, which I absorbed like desert sand in a rainstorm. As an insatiable learner earnestly seeking physical, emotional and spiritual health, I began to see connections between my life and God’s Truth. When I realized my value and worth doesn’t come from my performance, my anxiety started to subside. This Truth started freeing me from the tyranny of my anxiety. I wanted to know more. I wanted to know HOW to get Truth inside my life (not realizing He was already there) and HOW to communicate Truth to others. During the next 10 years or so, I learned a lot, mostly from dead guys (Oswald Chambers, Watchman Nee, C.S. Lewis), and some more contemporary ones (Robert McGee, David Burns, MD, and M. Scott Peck, MD). Not all are Christians, and I didn’t agree with everything even the Christians believed, but each one took me deeper into the journey that brought me life. The parts that resonated in my life are those that contain the “big T” Truths of scripture…and I have learned to apply the Truth of God to continue to be transformed by the Word. Now my telephone, office and email inbox continually fill up with others asking the same questions I had: “So what?” And most of all, “HOW?” Many of these people are desperate, and some are simply seeking. Often, pastors who are rejected by their churches, lifelong believers who can no longer “keep the faith,” people who have never been to church but down deep desire Truth, individuals who cannot find or even identify “love,” decimated marriages, children of those marriages, people in financial bondage from poverty to wealth, drug addicts (neat ones and messy ones), abused women, church elders, homosexuals, congressmen, professional athletes, sports figures and more. My mission is simple. Go! Make disciples…transform lives by pointing them to God and connecting them with others. ### -Derek Wilder ![headefinal1 1 e1610664215172 - The Story](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/headefinal1-1-e1610664215172.png "The Story")  #### Visit 14074 Trade Center Drive Fishers, IN 46038 Suite 204 and Suite 206  #### Mailing Address 12915 Whitebridge Drive Fishers, IN 46037  #### Let's Talk 844-6FREEDOM 317-548-2146 --- ### [The Word](https://www.livestransforming.com/the-word/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## The Word **THE WORD** training focuses on equipping individuals to enhance their knowledge and application of Scripture in order to lead others in their understanding of the Word. As opposed to lessons from a Bible teacher, The Word training assumes that God wants to talk directly to you through His Word. Accordingly, The Word training shows you how to read and study the Bible in a way that applies verses directly to your life, and then shows you how to help others do the same. THE WORD: For the word of God is living and active and sharper than any two edged sword.Hebrews 4:12 NASB The WORD= the knowledge [The Word Training Overview](https://livestransforming.com/download/Word_Overview.pdf) **SESSION 1** 1. [Session 1 – Information](https://livestransforming.com/download/Word_Session_1.pdf) 2. [Galatians: Sample Context – The Bible Knowledge Commentary](https://livestransforming.com/download/Gal_Context_Sample_BKC.pdf) 3. [Galatians 1: Sample Commentary – The Bible Knowledge Commentary](https://livestransforming.com/download/Gal_Context_Sample_BKC.pdf) 4. [Galatians 1:1-7: Sample Commentary – Baker Exegetical Commentary](https://livestransforming.com/download/Gal_Ch1_Sample_BECNT.pdf) **SESSION 2** 1. [Session 2 – Transformation](https://livestransforming.com/download/Word_Session_2.pdf) 2. [Session 2 – Transformation Example](https://livestransforming.com/download/Word_Session_2_Example.pdf) 3. [Galatians 2: Sample Commentary – The Bible Knowledge Commentary](https://livestransforming.com/download/Gal_Ch2_Sample_BKC.pdf) 4. [Galatians 1:8-14: Sample Commentary – Baker Exegetical Commentary](https://livestransforming.com/download/Gal_Ch1_8-14_Sample_BECNT.pdf) **SESSION 3** 1. [Session 3 – Personalization](https://livestransforming.com/download/Word_Session_3.pdf) 2. [Session 3 – Personalization Example](https://livestransforming.com/download/Word_Session_3_Example.pdf) 3. [Galatians 3: Sample Commentary – The Bible Knowledge Commentary](https://livestransforming.com/download/Gal_Ch3_Sample_BKC.pdf) 4. [Galatians 1:15-21: Sample Commentary – Baker Exegetical Commentary](https://livestransforming.com/download/Gal_Ch1_15-21_Sample_BECNT.pdf) 5. [The Power of Prayer](https://livestransforming.com/download/Power_of_Prayer.pdf) **SESSION 4** 1. [Session 4 – Facilitation](https://livestransforming.com/download/Word_Session_4.pdf) 2. [Session 4 – Word Guide](https://livestransforming.com/download/Word_Guide.pdf) **LEADING THROUGH THE NEW TESTAMENT** 1. [Through the New Testament – Sample](https://livestransforming.com/download/Word_Thru_the_NT.pdf) 2. [Bank Word Guide](https://livestransforming.com/download/Word_Guide_Blank.pdf) ![word logo - The Word](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/word_logo.png "The Word - Lives Transforming") --- ### [Vision](https://www.livestransforming.com/vision-2/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## Vision Lives Transforming takes a look at the institutional church. What are the problems, what are the solutions, and what does it biblically mean to be “the church” ? We have a vision for what the church can be and what potential the followers of Christ truly have to impact the people around them. The following articles written by Lives Transforming Executive Director, Derek Wilder, explains what he sees for the future of the church. [Epic Problem](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Epic_Problem.pdf) [Epic Solution](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Epic_Solution.pdf) [Institution vs. Movement](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Institution_vs_Movement.pdf) ![iStock bible - Vision](https://livestransforming.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/iStock_bible.jpg "Vision - Lives Transforming") --- ### [FREEDOM From the Need to Fix Others: Week 14](https://www.livestransforming.com/need-to-fix-others-2/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM From the Need to Fix Others: Week 14 --- ### [FREEDOM from the Need to Fix Others: Week 13](https://www.livestransforming.com/need-to-fix-others/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM from the Need to Fix Others: Week 13 --- ### [FREEDOM from Difficult Circumstances: Week 12](https://www.livestransforming.com/difficult-circumstances-2/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM from Difficult Circumstances: Week 12 --- ### [FREEDOM from Difficult Circumstances: Week 11](https://www.livestransforming.com/difficult-circumstances/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM from Difficult Circumstances: Week 11 --- ### [FREEDOM from Past and Future: Week 10](https://www.livestransforming.com/past-and-future-2/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM from Past and Future: Week 10 --- ### [FREEDOM from Past and Future: Week 9](https://www.livestransforming.com/past-and-future/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM from Past and Future: Week 9 --- ### [FREEDOM from Coveting: Week 8](https://www.livestransforming.com/coveting-2/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM from Coveting: Week 8 --- ### [FREEDOM from Coveting: Week 7](https://www.livestransforming.com/coveting/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM from Coveting: Week 7 --- ### [FREEDOM from Being Used by God: Week 6](https://www.livestransforming.com/used-by-god-2/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM from Being Used by God: Week 6 --- ### [FREEDOM from Being Used by God: Week 5](https://www.livestransforming.com/used-by-god/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM from Being Used by God: Week 5 --- ### [FREEDOM from Failure: Week 4](https://www.livestransforming.com/failure-2/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM from Failure: Week 4 --- ### [FREEDOM from Failure: Week 3](https://www.livestransforming.com/failure/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM from Failure: Week 3 --- ### [FREEDOM from Other People’s Opinions: Week 2](https://www.livestransforming.com/other-peoples-opinions-2/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM from Other People’s Opinions: Week 2 --- ### [FREEDOM from Other People’s Opinions: Week 1](https://www.livestransforming.com/other-peoples-opinions/) **Published:** January 31, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## FREEDOM from Other People’s Opinions: Week 1 --- ### [HIPPA Notice](https://www.livestransforming.com/hippa-notice/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## HIPPA Notice of Privacy Practices **Lives Transforming Counseling’s HIPPA Notice of Privacy Practices to Protect the Privacy of Your Health Information** **THIS NOTICE DESCRIBES HOW PSYCHOLOGICAL AND MEDICAL INFORMATION ABOUT YOU MAY BE USED AND DISCLOSED AND HOW YOU CAN GET ACCESS TO THIS INFORMATION. PLEASE REVIEW IT CAREFULLY.** This HIPAA Notice of Privacy Practices (the “**Notice**“) contains important information regarding your medical information. Our current Notice is posted at \[ELECTRONIC LOCATION\]. You also have the right to receive a paper copy of this Notice and may ask us to give you a copy of this Notice at any time. If you received this Notice electronically, you are entitled to a paper copy of this Notice. If you have any questions about this Notice please contact the person listed below. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (“**HIPAA**“) imposes numerous requirements on health care providers regarding how certain individually identifiable health information – known as protected health information or PHI – may be used and disclosed. This Notice describes how Lives Transforming Counseling (“**LTC**”) may use and disclose your protected health information for treatment, payment, or health care operations and for other purposes that are permitted or required by law. This Notice also describes your rights to access and control your protected health information. “Protected health information” is information that is maintained or transmitted by LTC, which may identify you and that relates to your past, present, or future physical or mental health or condition and related mental health services. We understand that medical information about you and your health is personal. We are committed to protecting medical information about you and will use it to the minimum necessary to accomplish the intended purpose of the use, disclosure, or request of it. This Notice applies to all of the medical records we maintain. We are required by law to abide by the terms of this Notice to: - Make sure that medical information that identifies you is kept private. - Give you this Notice of our legal duties and privacy practices with respect to medical information about you. - Follow the terms of the Notice that is currently in effect. ## I. How We May Use and Disclose Medical Information about You. HIPAA generally permits use and disclosure of your health information without your permission for purposes of health care treatment, payment activities, and health care operations. These uses and disclosures are more fully described below. Please note that this Notice does not list every use or disclosure; instead, it gives examples of the most common uses and disclosures. - **Treatment:** When and as appropriate, we may use or disclose medical information to facilitate medical treatment or services by providers. We may disclose medical information to health care providers, including doctors, nurses, technicians, medical students, or other hospital personnel who are involved in taking care of you. For example, we might disclose medical information in consult with another health care provider who is treating you, such as your family physician or another mental health provider. - **Payment:** When and as appropriate, we may use and disclose medical information to obtain reimbursement and facilitate payment for the treatment and services you receive from us. For example, we may share medical information with your health insurance provider to assist with determining your eligibility or coverage and to coordinate reimbursement and payment for the treatment and services you receive from us. - **Health Care Operations:** When and as appropriate, we may use and disclose medical information for activities that relate to the performance and operations of LTC. For example, we may use medical information in connection with quality assessment and improvement activities; business-related matters such as audits, administrative services, and legal services; and case management and care coordination. **We will always try to ensure that the medical information used or disclosed is limited to a “Designated Record Set” and to the “Minimum Necessary” standard, including a “limited data set,” as defined in HIPAA and American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (“ARRA”) for these purposes.** We may also contact you to provide information about treatment options or alternatives or other health-related benefits and services that may be of interest to you. ## II. Other Permitted Uses and Disclosures Requiring Authorization We may use or disclose medical information for purposes outside of treatment, payment, health care operations, or those circumstances listed in Part III below when your appropriate authorization and consent is obtained. In those instances when we are asked for information for purposes outside of treatment, payment, health care operations, or those circumstances listed in Part III below, we will obtain an authorization from you before releasing this information. We will also need to obtain an authorization or consent from you before releasing your Psychotherapy Notes. “Psychotherapy Notes” are notes that your counselor has made about your conversation during a private, group, joint, or family counseling session, which your counselor has kept separate from the rest of your medical record. These notes are given a greater degree of protection than PHI. However, your Psychotherapy Notes may be used without your authorization or consent by the originator of the Psychotherapy Notes for treatment or by us to defend ourselves in a legal action or other proceeding brought by you. You may revoke all such authorizations (of PHI or Psychotherapy Notes) at any time, provided each revocation is in writing. You may not revoke an authorization to the extent that (1) we have relied on that authorization; or (2) if the authorization was obtained as a condition of obtaining insurance coverage. The law provides the insurer the right to contest the claim under the policy. ## III. Permitted Uses and Disclosures that Do Not Require Consent or Authorization Pursuant to Indiana law, we are restricted in the ways that we can use and disclose your mental health records without your authorization. However, we may use or disclose your mental health records without your consent or authorization in the following circumstances as provided for in Ind. Code § 16-39-2-6: - If the disclosure is made to you (unless it is determined by a physician that the release would be detrimental to your health); - Disclosures to our employees in certain circumstances; - For payment purposes; - For data collection, research, and monitoring managed care providers if the disclosure is made to the division of mental health; - For law enforcement purposes or to avert a serious threat to the health and safety of you or others; - To a coroner or medical examiner; - To satisfy reporting requirements including in cases where we believe or have reason to believe that a child is a victim of child abuse or neglect or a crime or that an endangered adult has been harmed or threatened with harm as a result of abuse or neglect, a crime, or exploitation of their personal services or property; - To satisfy release of information requirements that are required by law such as laws related to worker’s compensation; - To another provider in an emergency; - For legitimate business purposes; - Under a court order including in a proceeding to determine mental competency, or a proceeding in which a defense of mental competency is raised. Absent a court order, we will not release your mental health records without the written authorization of you or your legally appointed representative as such information is privileged under Indiana law; - To the Secret Service if necessary to protect a person under Secret Service protection; or - To the statewide waiver ombudsman. ## IV. Patient’s Rights You have the following rights regarding medical information that we maintain about you: - *Right to Request Restrictions*: You have the right to request a restriction on certain uses and disclosures of your medical information for treatment, payment, healthcare operations, or to persons involved in your care, except when specifically authorized by you, when required by law, or in the case of an emergency. However, we are not legally required to agree to your request. We will inform you of our decision on your request. Additionally, you have the right to restrict disclosures of your medical information to your health plan for payment and health care operations purposes (and not for treatment) if the disclosure pertains to a health care item or service for which you paid out of pocket in full. - *Right to Receive* *Confidential Communications by Alternative Means and at Alternative Locations*: You have the right to request that we communicate with you about medical matters in a confidential manner, such as sending you mail to an address other than your home address, by notifying us in writing of the specific manner or location for us to communicate with you. We will not ask you the reason for you request and we will make a good faith effort to honor your request. However, we are not legally required to approve your request if the request is unreasonable or infeasible. We will inform you of our decision on your request. - *Right to Inspect and Copy*: In most cases, you have the right to inspect and obtain an electronic or paper copy of medical information that we use to make decisions about your care. If you submit a written request for copies, we may charge a fee for the cost of copying, mailing, or other related supplies and services. If we deny your request to review or obtain a copy, you may submit a written request for a review of that decision. On your written request, we will discuss with you the details of the request and denial process. - *Right to Amend*: If you believe that information in your record is incorrect or if important information is missing, you have the right to request an amendment of your information by submitting a request in writing that provides the reason for requesting the amendment. We may deny your request for amendment if the information was not created by us, if it is not part of the record maintained by us, or if we determine that the record is accurate. On your written request, we will discuss with you the details of the amendment process. - *Right to an Accounting*: You generally have the right to receive an accounting of those instances where we have disclosed your medical information where such disclosures were required by law or made in connection with public health activities. You do not have a right to an accounting of disclosures where such disclosures were made for treatment, payment, or health care operations or where you specifically authorized a disclosure. When requesting an accounting of disclosures, you must state the time period desired for the accounting, which may not be longer than six years and may not include dates before April 14, 2003, and your request should indicate in what form you want the list (for example, paper or electronic). The first list you request within a 12-month period will be free. For additional lists, we may charge you for the costs of providing the list. We will notify you of the cost involved and you may choose to withdraw or modify your request at that time before any costs are incurred. On your written request, we will discuss with you the details of the accounting process. - *Right to a Paper Copy*: You have the right to obtain a paper copy of the Notice from us upon request, even if you have agreed to receive the notice electronically. **1. Breach Notification.** Pursuant to changes to HIPAA required by the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act of 2009 and its implementing regulations (collectively, “**HITECH Act**”) under the **ARRA**, this Notice also reflects federal breach notification requirements in the event that your “unsecured” protected health information (as defined under the HITECH Act) is acquired by an unauthorized party. We understand that medical information about you and your health is personal and we are committed to protecting your medical information. Furthermore, we will notify you following the discovery of any “breach” of your unsecured protected health information as defined in the HITECH Act (the “**Notice of Breach**”). Your Notice of Breach will be in writing and provided via first-class mail, or alternatively, by email if you have previously agreed to receive such notices electronically. Your Notice of Breach shall be provided without unreasonable delay and in no case later than 60 days following the discovery of a breach and shall include, to the extent possible: - A description of the breach. - A description of the types of information that were involved in the breach. - The steps you should take to protect yourself from potential harm - A brief description of what we are doing to investigate the breach, mitigate the harm, and prevent further breaches. - Our relevant contact information. Additionally, for any substitute Notice of Breach provided via web posting or major print or broadcast media, the Notice of Breach shall include a toll-free number for you to contact us to determine if your protected health information was involved in the breach. ## VI. Changes to this Notice We can change the terms of this Notice at any time. If we do, the new terms and policies will be effective for all of the medical information we already have about you as well as any information we receive in the future. In the event we change our notice, we will post the new notice in the office and on our website. We will provide you a copy of the new notice upon your request. ## VII. Complaints If you are concerned that we have violated your privacy rights, or you disagree with a decision we made about access to your records, you may contact Lisa Pay, LCSW and/or send a written complaint to the Indiana Professional Licensing Agency or the Indiana Attorney General’s Office. You may also send a written complaint to the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The person listed above can provide you with the appropriate address upon request. ## VIII. Effective Date This notice will go into effect on 12/01/20. --- ### [Registration Forms](https://www.livestransforming.com/registration-forms/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** ## LTC Registration Forms Click [HERE](https://get.adobe.com/reader/) to download the FREE Adobe Reader to view and complete the following forms. If you have Adobe Reader, simply click the links below to access the forms: [LTC Registration Form](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1sPhCawgW8JV2rhEnUdg9S3QxCpDcGuVd/view?usp=sharing) [LTC Release of Information](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1k2xNC_7PMNOSWCUKokTGW4SQkAQ0fQ4o/view?usp=sharing) [LTC Notice of Privacy](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1w3PxQmd_L6V26lXdc58bABwbRf1JDs9T/view?usp=sharing) [LTC Notice of Privacy Acknowledgement](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1m6wwn9oKR5EhuTgI1VrhQ2iZegnhBuQQ/view?usp=sharing) [LTC Informed Consent](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1K-E_lX3o3OneFa7NSFmrE2LnS2_pDmxN/view?usp=sharing) [LTC History Form](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1NzgXTbwkM0bJjA2VJSqguyO0SBOmsoT4/view?usp=sharing) [LTC History for Children](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1qH3hekLrI1WzDKQO6pGsWMTLeFcMCy0a/view?usp=sharing) [LTC Informed Consent – Life Coaching](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1SlRW4iftW4PPcGmunB8LaWYCAjTU_5Ut/view?usp=sharing) --- ### [Vision](https://www.livestransforming.com/vision/) **Published:** January 14, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** \[cmsmasters\_row data\_width=”boxed” data\_top\_style=”default” data\_bot\_style=”default” data\_color=”default” data\_bg\_color=”#fdfdfd” data\_padding\_top=”50″ data\_padding\_bottom=”50″\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/1″\]\[cmsmasters\_heading type=”h1″ font\_size=”36″ font\_weight=”bold” font\_style=”normal” text\_align=”center” margin\_top=”0″ margin\_bottom=”0″ animation\_delay=”0″\]Services & Therapy\[/cmsmasters\_heading\]\[cmsmasters\_heading type=”h3″ font\_family=”Droid+Serif:400,400italic,700,700italic” font\_size=”15″ line\_height=”25″ font\_weight=”normal” font\_style=”italic” text\_align=”center” color=”#868686″ margin\_top=”5″ margin\_bottom=”0″ animation\_delay=”0″\]Jane Roberts is highly verified and certificated practicing psychologist\[/cmsmasters\_heading\]\[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[/cmsmasters\_row\]\[cmsmasters\_row data\_padding\_bottom=”0″ data\_padding\_top=”0″ data\_bg\_color=”#fdfdfd” data\_color=”default” data\_bot\_style=”default” data\_top\_style=”default” data\_padding\_right=”0″ data\_padding\_left=”0″ data\_width=”fullwidth”\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/1″\] \[cmsmasters\_divider width=”long” height=”1″ style=”solid” position=”center” margin\_top=”0″ margin\_bottom=”0″ animation\_delay=”0″\] \[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[/cmsmasters\_row\]\[cmsmasters\_row data\_width=”boxed” data\_top\_style=”default” data\_bot\_style=”default” data\_color=”default” data\_padding\_top=”80″ data\_padding\_bottom=”50″\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/1″\] \[cmsmasters\_portfolio orderby=”date” order=”DESC” count=”6″ categories=”family,group,individual,therapy,coaching” layout=”grid” layout\_mode=”perfect” columns=”3″ metadata\_grid=”title,categories,rollover” gap=”large” pagination=”disabled”\] \[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[/cmsmasters\_row\]\[cmsmasters\_row data\_padding\_bottom=”100″ data\_padding\_top=”120″ data\_bg\_parallax\_ratio=”0.05″ data\_bg\_parallax=”true” data\_bg\_size=”cover” data\_bg\_attachment=”fixed” data\_bg\_repeat=”no-repeat” data\_bg\_position=”top center” data\_bg\_img=”10451|http://psychology-help.cmsmasters.net/demo/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2016/04/04.jpg|full” data\_color=”default” data\_bot\_style=”default” data\_top\_style=”default” data\_width=”boxed”\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/1″\]\[cmsmasters\_heading type=”h1″ font\_size=”48″ line\_height=”56″ font\_weight=”900″ font\_style=”normal” text\_align=”center” color=”#ffffff” margin\_top=”0″ margin\_bottom=”5″ animation\_delay=”0″\]Therapy with Dr. Roberts\[/cmsmasters\_heading\]\[cmsmasters\_text animation\_delay=”0″\] Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. \[/cmsmasters\_text\]\[cmsmasters\_heading type=”h3″ font\_family=”Droid+Serif:400,400italic,700,700italic” font\_size=”15″ line\_height=”25″ font\_weight=”normal” font\_style=”italic” text\_align=”center” color=”#ffffff” margin\_top=”15″ margin\_bottom=”60″ animation\_delay=”0″\]Etiam sodales aliquam massa, sit amet fermentum diam ornare vitae. Praesent dictum nisi nec velit auctor aliquet. Vestibulum vitae pellentesque metus. Aliquam eu mollis lacus. Donec a venenatis odio, blandit ultricies urna. Vestibulum eget odio tortor.\[/cmsmasters\_heading\]\[cmsmasters\_button button\_link=”#” button\_target=”self” button\_text\_align=”center” button\_style=”cmsmasters\_but\_bg\_hover” button\_font\_size=”14″ button\_line\_height=”45″ button\_font\_weight=”600″ button\_font\_style=”normal” button\_border\_style=”solid” button\_bg\_color=”#ffffff” button\_text\_color=”#363636″ button\_border\_color=”#b09991″ button\_bg\_color\_h=”#b09991″ button\_text\_color\_h=”#ffffff” button\_border\_color\_h=”#b09991″ animation\_delay=”0″\]Request a free consultation now!\[/cmsmasters\_button\]\[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[/cmsmasters\_row\]\[cmsmasters\_row data\_width=”boxed” data\_top\_style=”default” data\_bot\_style=”default” data\_color=”default” data\_padding\_top=”80″ data\_padding\_bottom=”50″\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/1″\]\[cmsmasters\_heading type=”h1″ font\_size=”36″ font\_weight=”bold” font\_style=”normal” text\_align=”center” margin\_top=”0″ margin\_bottom=”10″ animation\_delay=”0″\]Have Questions?\[/cmsmasters\_heading\]\[cmsmasters\_heading type=”h3″ font\_family=”Droid+Serif:400,400italic,700,700italic” font\_size=”15″ line\_height=”25″ font\_weight=”normal” font\_style=”italic” text\_align=”center” color=”#868686″ margin\_top=”5″ margin\_bottom=”0″ animation\_delay=”0″\]Read the FAQ or fill in the form below and get your solution per email\[/cmsmasters\_heading\]\[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[/cmsmasters\_row\]\[cmsmasters\_row data\_width=”boxed” data\_top\_style=”default” data\_bot\_style=”default” data\_color=”default” data\_padding\_top=”20″ data\_padding\_bottom=”80″\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/2″\]\[cmsmasters\_toggles mode=”accordion” active=”1″ animation\_delay=”0″\]\[cmsmasters\_toggle title=”How can I make an appointment?”\]Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur ipiscing elit. Phasellus pellenesque posere risus lacinia tristique sed massa id mi sodales facilisis. Quisque augue dui, eleifend non consequat scelerisque dapibus in enim. Sed tempus turpis at tellus malesuada\[/cmsmasters\_toggle\]\[cmsmasters\_toggle title=”Should I give all my secrets away during the session?”\]Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur ipiscing elit. Phasellus pellenesque posere risus lacinia tristique sed massa id mi sodales facilisis. Quisque augue dui, eleifend non consequat scelerisque dapibus in enim. Sed tempus turpis at tellus malesuada\[/cmsmasters\_toggle\]\[cmsmasters\_toggle title=”What should I take to the therapy session?”\]Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur ipiscing elit. Phasellus pellenesque posere risus lacinia tristique sed massa id mi sodales facilisis. Quisque augue dui, eleifend non consequat scelerisque dapibus in enim. Sed tempus turpis at tellus malesuada\[/cmsmasters\_toggle\]\[cmsmasters\_toggle title=”Can I take somebody with me for support?”\]Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur ipiscing elit. Phasellus pellenesque posere risus lacinia tristique sed massa id mi sodales facilisis. Quisque augue dui, eleifend non consequat scelerisque dapibus in enim. Sed tempus turpis at tellus malesuada\[/cmsmasters\_toggle\]\[/cmsmasters\_toggles\]\[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/2″\]\[cmsmasters\_contact\_form form\_plugin=”cfb” form\_cfb=”10614″ email\_cfb=”example@example.com” animation\_delay=”0″\]\[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[/cmsmasters\_row\]\[cmsmasters\_row data\_padding\_bottom=”0″ data\_padding\_top=”0″ data\_bg\_color=”#fdfdfd” data\_color=”default” data\_bot\_style=”default” data\_top\_style=”default” data\_padding\_right=”0″ data\_padding\_left=”0″ data\_width=”fullwidth”\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/1″\] \[cmsmasters\_divider width=”long” height=”1″ style=”solid” position=”center” margin\_top=”0″ margin\_bottom=”0″ animation\_delay=”0″\] \[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[/cmsmasters\_row\]\[cmsmasters\_row data\_padding\_bottom=”90″ data\_padding\_top=”80″ data\_bg\_size=”auto” data\_bg\_attachment=”scroll” data\_bg\_repeat=”repeat” data\_bg\_position=”top center” data\_bg\_img=”9903|http://psychology-help.cmsmasters.net/demo/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/11/pattern.png|full” data\_bg\_color=”#e7e7e7″ data\_color=”default” data\_bot\_style=”default” data\_top\_style=”default” data\_width=”boxed”\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/4″\] \[cmsmasters\_divider width=”long” height=”0″ style=”solid” position=”center” margin\_top=”30″ animation\_delay=”0″\] \[cmsmasters\_image align=”left” animation\_delay=”0″\]10336|http://psychology-help.cmsmasters.net/demo/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/11/logo-bottom1.png|full\[/cmsmasters\_image\]\[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/4″\]\[cmsmasters\_simple\_icon icon=”cmsmasters-icon-location-3″ size=”32″ space=”36″ display=”block” text\_align=”left” border\_width=”0″ border\_radius=”50%” color=”#a36f61″ animation\_delay=”0″\]\[/cmsmasters\_simple\_icon\]\[cmsmasters\_heading type=”h2″ font\_weight=”bold” font\_style=”normal” text\_align=”left” margin\_top=”20″ margin\_bottom=”30″ animation\_delay=”0″\]VISIT ME\[/cmsmasters\_heading\]\[cmsmasters\_text animation\_delay=”0″\] *200 Broadway Av* *Manhattan 5024* *New York* \[/cmsmasters\_text\]\[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/4″\]\[cmsmasters\_simple\_icon icon=”cmsmasters-icon-time” size=”32″ space=”36″ display=”block” text\_align=”left” border\_width=”0″ border\_radius=”50%” color=”#a36f61″ animation\_delay=”0″\]\[/cmsmasters\_simple\_icon\]\[cmsmasters\_heading type=”h2″ font\_weight=”bold” font\_style=”normal” text\_align=”left” margin\_top=”20″ margin\_bottom=”30″ animation\_delay=”0″\]OPEN HOURS\[/cmsmasters\_heading\]\[cmsmasters\_text animation\_delay=”0″\] *Mon-Fri: 10:00 – 16:00* *Sat: 10:00 – 14:00* *Sun: Closed* \[/cmsmasters\_text\]\[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/4″\]\[cmsmasters\_simple\_icon icon=”cmsmasters-icon-comment-3″ size=”32″ space=”36″ display=”block” text\_align=”left” border\_width=”0″ border\_radius=”50%” color=”#a36f61″ animation\_delay=”0″\]\[/cmsmasters\_simple\_icon\]\[cmsmasters\_heading type=”h2″ font\_weight=”bold” font\_style=”normal” text\_align=”left” margin\_top=”20″ margin\_bottom=”30″ animation\_delay=”0″\]LET’S TALK\[/cmsmasters\_heading\]\[cmsmasters\_text animation\_delay=”0″\] *+011 765 4321* *+012 345 6789* *psycho@example.com* \[/cmsmasters\_text\]\[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[/cmsmasters\_row\]\[cmsmasters\_row data\_padding\_bottom=”0″ data\_padding\_top=”0″ data\_color=”default” data\_bot\_style=”default” data\_top\_style=”default” data\_width=”boxed”\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/1″\]\[cmsmasters\_heading type=”h1″ font\_weight=”normal” font\_style=”normal” text\_align=”left” margin\_top=”-75″ margin\_bottom=”0″ animation\_delay=”0″\]\[/cmsmasters\_heading\]\[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[/cmsmasters\_row\]\[cmsmasters\_row data\_width=”boxed” data\_no\_margin=”true” data\_top\_style=”default” data\_bot\_style=”default” data\_color=”default” data\_padding\_top=”0″ data\_padding\_bottom=”0″\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/1″\] \[cmsmasters\_twitter user=”cmsmasters” count=”5″ date=”true” control=”true” autoplay=”true” speed=”5″ animation\_delay=”0″\] \[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[/cmsmasters\_row\]\[cmsmasters\_row data\_padding\_bottom=”0″ data\_padding\_top=”0″ data\_color=”default” data\_bot\_style=”default” data\_top\_style=”default” data\_width=”boxed”\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/1″\]\[cmsmasters\_heading type=”h1″ font\_weight=”normal” font\_style=”normal” text\_align=”left” margin\_top=”-70″ margin\_bottom=”0″ animation\_delay=”0″\]\[/cmsmasters\_heading\]\[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[/cmsmasters\_row\]\[cmsmasters\_row data\_width=”boxed” data\_top\_style=”default” data\_bot\_style=”default” data\_color=”default” data\_bg\_color=”#2b2b2b” data\_padding\_top=”20″ data\_padding\_bottom=”0″\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/1″\]\[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[/cmsmasters\_row\] --- ## Layouts ### [Before Footer Section](https://www.livestransforming.com/et_pb_layout/before-footer-section/) **Published:** January 30, 2021 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** # No Results Found The page you requested could not be found. Try refining your search, or use the navigation above to locate the post. --- ## Projects ### [Individual Coaching](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/individual-coaching-2/) **Published:** February 29, 2016 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit. Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit. --- ### [Couples Therapy](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/couples-therapy-2/) **Published:** February 29, 2016 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit. Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit --- ### [Group Therapy](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/group-therapy-2/) **Published:** February 29, 2016 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit. Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit --- ### [Marriage Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/marriage-counseling-2/) **Published:** February 29, 2016 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit. Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit --- ### [Stress Management](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/stress-management-2/) **Published:** February 29, 2016 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Content:** Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit. Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit --- ### [Anxiety Treatment](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/anxiety-treatment/) **Published:** November 27, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. **Content:** \[cmsmasters\_row\]\[cmsmasters\_column data\_width=”1/1″\]\[cmsmasters\_text\]Lorem Ipsum is simply text of the Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. psum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. As well as performing in the highly esteemed Teatro Colon in Buenos Aires, BBC NOW will perform at the recently opened CorpArtes concert hall in Santiago and record and live broadcast Many of the concerts on BBC Radio 3. The tour also includes bookings in cities including Montevideo, Rosario and Cordoba. As well as performing in the highly esteemed Teatro Colon in Buenos Aires, BBC NOW will perform at the recently opened CorpArtes concert hall in Santiago and record and live broadcast Many of the concerts on BBC Radio 3. The tour also includes bookings in cities including Montevideo, Rosario and Cordoba.\[/cmsmasters\_text\]\[/cmsmasters\_column\]\[/cmsmasters\_row\] --- ### [Couples Therapy](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/couples-therapy/) **Published:** November 26, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. **Content:** Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Morbi suscipit sed justo eu tempus. Mauris scelerisque ligula odio, at fermentum ante varius non. Vivamus ac velit nec magna interdum pharetra at ac augue. Nulla quis lorem vitae elit rutrum volutpat nec elementum mi. Donec condimentum dignissim purus, vitae sollicitudin dolor ultricies ac. Fusce ullamcorper ipsum a purus vulputate ullamcorper. Pellentesque mollis risus vitae iaculis congue. Integer pulvinar congue consequat. Ut lorem turpis, iaculis at velit vitae, sagittis viverra diam. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Morbi suscipit sed justo eu tempus. Mauris scelerisque ligula odio, at fermentum ante varius non. Vivamus ac velit nec magna interdum pharetra at ac augue. Nulla quis lorem vitae elit rutrum volutpat nec elementum mi. Donec condimentum dignissim purus, vitae sollicitudin dolor ultricies ac. Fusce ullamcorper ipsum a purus vulputate ullamcorper. Pellentesque mollis risus vitae iaculis congue. Integer pulvinar congue consequat. Ut lorem turpis, iaculis at velit vitae, sagittis viverra diam. --- ### [Depression Therapy](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/depression-therapy/) **Published:** November 25, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. **Content:** Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit.c sollicitudin. --- ### [Family Practice](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/family-practice/) **Published:** November 24, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. **Content:** Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit. Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit. --- ### [Group Therapy](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/group-therapy/) **Published:** November 23, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. **Content:** Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit. --- ### [Individual Coaching](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/individual-coaching/) **Published:** November 22, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. **Content:** Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit. Quisque pellentesque nibh ut sem elementum pulvinar. Integer bibendum, ligula a dapibus bibendum, massa lectus condimentum augue, sit amet rhoncus nibh arcu ut urna. Nam imperdiet id lectus sed vestibulum. Ut tempor libero sit amet metus fermentum ullamcorper. Nullam scelerisque iaculis purus eu varius. Integer molestie in leo et consectetur. Donec varius velit quis tellus eleifend iaculis. Aenean mi nulla, aliquam placerat orci non, maximus semper ligula. Donec dictum massa et pulvinar maximus. Nunc ut felis a lorem vestibulum posuere. Proin nulla erat, fringilla a sem vel, tincidunt finibus neque. Etiam porta urna eget neque imperdiet efficitur. Aliquam odio orci, vehicula in interdum ultricies, bibendum in velit. --- ### [Marriage Counseling](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/marriage-counseling/) **Published:** November 21, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. **Content:** Nunc ornare mollis libero in convallis. Integer eget ex lobortis felis lobortis mattis. Duis feugiat luctus orci a tincidunt. Suspendisse ac mi a elit auctor gravida. Cras ac ornare purus. Ut egestas sit amet purus non pretium. Suspendisse aliquet sapien sed imperdiet scelerisque. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Praesent congue molestie nunc a viverra. Fusce condimentum lectus vitae felis tristique dapibus. Suspendisse vehicula, nunc sed posuere pulvinar, arcu dui congue magna, ac tincidunt erat lacus eu magna. Sed accumsan lacinia tortor, a molestie nisi varius eu. Maecenas eget dolor vel augue aliquet euismod vel ac tellus. Nulla eget lectus sit amet est sagittis suscipit. Duis interdum commodo ante, quis faucibus diam aliquet in. Cras urna ligula, ornare ut odio a, consequat semper est. Donec iaculis et ipsum id laoreet. Integer in tellus consectetur, tempor nibh quis, ultricies ex. Cras nec cursus diam. Sed tempus ac metus ut egestas. Nulla iaculis, orci eu rhoncus euismod, quam risus congue odio, ut laoreet neque urna et dui. Etiam non pulvinar metus. Integer nec turpis ac sapien posuere elementum at nec augue. Donec eleifend a orci posuere ornare. --- ### [Stress Management](https://www.livestransforming.com/project/stress-management/) **Published:** November 20, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. **Content:** Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Morbi suscipit sed justo eu tempus. Mauris scelerisque ligula odio, at fermentum ante varius non. Vivamus ac velit nec magna interdum pharetra at ac augue. Nulla quis lorem vitae elit rutrum volutpat nec elementum mi. Donec condimentum dignissim purus, vitae sollicitudin dolor ultricies ac. Fusce ullamcorper ipsum a purus vulputate ullamcorper. Pellentesque mollis risus vitae iaculis congue. Integer pulvinar congue consequat. Ut lorem turpis, iaculis at velit vitae, sagittis viverra diam. --- ## Events ### [Marital Therapy Professional Training Level 1: Bridging the Couple Chasm](https://www.livestransforming.com/event/marital-therapy-professional-training-level-1-bridging-the-couple-chasm/) **Published:** November 27, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Sed rutrum, libero non pretium tristique, arcu mi sollicitudin ex, quis venenatis orci tellus vel dolor. Donec gravida, dolor ut auctor facilisis, enim dolor pellentesque lectus, nec vehicula nibh risus ac leo. Mauris volutpat aliquam tellus nec rhoncus. Aliquam et nibh pulvinar, sodales nibh et, pretium urna. **Content:** Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Pellentesque fermentum massa vel enim feugiat gravida. Phasellus velit risus, euismod a lacus et, mattis condimentum augue. Vivamus fermentum ex quis imperdiet sodales. Sed aliquam nibh tellus, a rutrum turpis pellentesque ac. Nulla nibh libero, tincidunt cursus gravida ut, sodales ut magna. Sed sodales libero sapien, et rutrum mi placerat eget. Nulla vestibulum lacus vel eros eleifend molestie. Sed rutrum, libero non pretium tristique, arcu mi sollicitudin ex, quis venenatis orci tellus vel dolor. Donec gravida, dolor ut auctor facilisis, enim dolor pellentesque lectus, nec vehicula nibh risus ac leo. Mauris volutpat aliquam tellus nec rhoncus. Aliquam et nibh pulvinar, sodales nibh et, pretium urna. Vivamus quam augue, maximus in consequat imperdiet, iaculis non nibh. Aliquam erat volutpat. Curabitur venenatis massa sed lacus tristique, non auctor nisl sodales. Sed ultricies lacus ut libero faucibus fringilla. Ut nisi tellus, posuere vel mattis nec, convallis a metus. Nullam elementum molestie felis nec lobortis. Cras at justo eu elit semper tempor sed quis orci. In risus magna, malesuada vel elementum ut, finibus et nunc. Cras dapibus ullamcorper dictum. Vivamus nec erat placerat felis scelerisque porttitor in ac turpis. In nec imperdiet turpis. Suspendisse quis orci ut orci pulvinar eleifend. Nulla eu mattis ipsum. Integer eget sagittis nulla. Praesent consectetur lacus et maximus eleifend. Integer non lacus dui. Mauris tortor diam, laoreet quis commodo vitae, sodales vel augue. **Event Categories:** Training --- ### [2 Day Intensive Dialectical Behaviour Therapy Training](https://www.livestransforming.com/event/2-day-intensive-dialectical-behaviour-therapy-training/) **Published:** November 27, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Sed rutrum, libero non pretium tristique, arcu mi sollicitudin ex, quis venenatis orci tellus vel dolor. Donec gravida, dolor ut auctor facilisis, enim dolor pellentesque lectus, nec vehicula nibh risus ac leo. Mauris volutpat aliquam tellus nec rhoncus. Aliquam et nibh pulvinar, sodales nibh et, pretium urna. **Content:** Sed rutrum, libero non pretium tristique, arcu mi sollicitudin ex, quis venenatis orci tellus vel dolor. Donec gravida, dolor ut auctor facilisis, enim dolor pellentesque lectus, nec vehicula nibh risus ac leo. Mauris volutpat aliquam tellus nec rhoncus. Aliquam et nibh pulvinar, sodales nibh et, pretium urna. Vivamus quam augue, maximus in consequat imperdiet, iaculis non nibh. Aliquam erat volutpat. Curabitur venenatis massa sed lacus tristique, non auctor nisl sodales. Sed ultricies lacus ut libero faucibus fringilla. Ut nisi tellus, posuere vel mattis nec, convallis a metus. Nullam elementum molestie felis nec lobortis. Cras at justo eu elit semper tempor sed quis orci. In risus magna, malesuada vel elementum ut, finibus et nunc. Cras dapibus ullamcorper dictum. Vivamus nec erat placerat felis scelerisque porttitor in ac turpis. In nec imperdiet turpis. Suspendisse quis orci ut orci pulvinar eleifend. Nulla eu mattis ipsum. Integer eget sagittis nulla. Praesent consectetur lacus et maximus eleifend. Integer non lacus dui. Mauris tortor diam, laoreet quis commodo vitae, sodales vel augue. **Event Categories:** Training --- ### [16th Annual Society of Consulting Psychology Winter Conference](https://www.livestransforming.com/event/16th-annual-society-of-consulting-psychology-winter-conference/) **Published:** November 27, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Sed rutrum, libero non pretium tristique, arcu mi sollicitudin ex, quis venenatis orci tellus vel dolor. Donec gravida, dolor ut auctor facilisis, enim dolor pellentesque lectus, nec vehicula nibh risus ac leo. Mauris volutpat aliquam tellus nec rhoncus. Aliquam et nibh pulvinar, sodales nibh et, pretium urna. **Content:** Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Pellentesque fermentum massa vel enim feugiat gravida. Phasellus velit risus, euismod a lacus et, mattis condimentum augue. Vivamus fermentum ex quis imperdiet sodales. Sed aliquam nibh tellus, a rutrum turpis pellentesque ac. Nulla nibh libero, tincidunt cursus gravida ut, sodales ut magna. Sed sodales libero sapien, et rutrum mi placerat eget. Nulla vestibulum lacus vel eros eleifend molestie. Sed rutrum, libero non pretium tristique, arcu mi sollicitudin ex, quis venenatis orci tellus vel dolor. Donec gravida, dolor ut auctor facilisis, enim dolor pellentesque lectus, nec vehicula nibh risus ac leo. Mauris volutpat aliquam tellus nec rhoncus. Aliquam et nibh pulvinar, sodales nibh et, pretium urna. Vivamus quam augue, maximus in consequat imperdiet, iaculis non nibh. Aliquam erat volutpat. Curabitur venenatis massa sed lacus tristique, non auctor nisl sodales. Sed ultricies lacus ut libero faucibus fringilla. Ut nisi tellus, posuere vel mattis nec, convallis a metus. Nullam elementum molestie felis nec lobortis. Cras at justo eu elit semper tempor sed quis orci. In risus magna, malesuada vel elementum ut, finibus et nunc. Cras dapibus ullamcorper dictum. Vivamus nec erat placerat felis scelerisque porttitor in ac turpis. In nec imperdiet turpis. Suspendisse quis orci ut orci pulvinar eleifend. Nulla eu mattis ipsum. Integer eget sagittis nulla. Praesent consectetur lacus et maximus eleifend. Integer non lacus dui. Mauris tortor diam, laoreet quis commodo vitae, sodales vel augue. **Event Categories:** Conference --- ### [Marriage and family therapy - Courses for Couples](https://www.livestransforming.com/event/marriage-and-family-therapy-courses-for-couples/) **Published:** November 25, 2015 **Author:** Derek Wilder **Excerpt:** Sed rutrum, libero non pretium tristique, arcu mi sollicitudin ex, quis venenatis orci tellus vel dolor. Donec gravida, dolor ut auctor facilisis, enim dolor pellentesque lectus, nec vehicula nibh risus ac leo. Mauris volutpat aliquam tellus nec rhoncus. Aliquam et nibh pulvinar, sodales nibh et, pretium urna. **Content:** Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Pellentesque fermentum massa vel enim feugiat gravida. Phasellus velit risus, euismod a lacus et, mattis condimentum augue. Vivamus fermentum ex quis imperdiet sodales. Sed aliquam nibh tellus, a rutrum turpis pellentesque ac. Nulla nibh libero, tincidunt cursus gravida ut, sodales ut magna. Sed sodales libero sapien, et rutrum mi placerat eget. Nulla vestibulum lacus vel eros eleifend molestie. Sed rutrum, libero non pretium tristique, arcu mi sollicitudin ex, quis venenatis orci tellus vel dolor. Donec gravida, dolor ut auctor facilisis, enim dolor pellentesque lectus, nec vehicula nibh risus ac leo. Mauris volutpat aliquam tellus nec rhoncus. Aliquam et nibh pulvinar, sodales nibh et, pretium urna. Vivamus quam augue, maximus in consequat imperdiet, iaculis non nibh. Aliquam erat volutpat. Curabitur venenatis massa sed lacus tristique, non auctor nisl sodales. Sed ultricies lacus ut libero faucibus fringilla. Ut nisi tellus, posuere vel mattis nec, convallis a metus. Nullam elementum molestie felis nec lobortis. Cras at justo eu elit semper tempor sed quis orci. In risus magna, malesuada vel elementum ut, finibus et nunc. Cras dapibus ullamcorper dictum. Vivamus nec erat placerat felis scelerisque porttitor in ac turpis. In nec imperdiet turpis. Suspendisse quis orci ut orci pulvinar eleifend. Nulla eu mattis ipsum. Integer eget sagittis nulla. Praesent consectetur lacus et maximus eleifend. Integer non lacus dui. Mauris tortor diam, laoreet quis commodo vitae, sodales vel augue. **Event Categories:** Courses, Training --- ## Categories ### [Uncategorized](https://www.livestransforming.com/category/uncategorized/) --- ### [Academic](https://www.livestransforming.com/category/academic/) --- ### [Book Reviews](https://www.livestransforming.com/category/academic/book-reviews/) --- ### [Research](https://www.livestransforming.com/category/academic/research/) --- ### [Research Brief](https://www.livestransforming.com/category/academic/research-brief/) --- ### [0. 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