The ultimate result of the conquests of Alexander the Great went far beyond the expansion of geographical boundaries and invaded the core of culture and society through the process of Hellenization. Leonard Greenspoon succinctly defines Hellenism as “the spread of traditional Greek linguistic, political, social, cultural, historical, and religious beliefs and practices throughout the ancient Near East from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC to the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC.”[1] Hellenism threatened both the Palestinian and Diaspora Jews by potentially undermining their religious beliefs and, in certain circumstances, imposing physical violence. Possibly the most profound expression of the threat of Hellenization leveled at Jewish beliefs and survival come in the form of the Seleucid king, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who ruled from 175-164 BC. According to Larry Helyer, the Jewish devotion to their faith and, more specifically, their strict monotheism posed risks to the king’s agenda.[2] Accordingly, Antiochus decreed that the Jews must become fully Hellenized citizens of his empire and renounce their faith (see 1 Macc 1:41-43, 48-50).[3] The Jewish priest, Mattathias, refused to engage in Antiochus’s forced methods of conversion and killed a Jew who agreed to offer a pagan sacrifice on the altar of Modein; Mattathias also killed the king’s officer who was to enforce the sacrifice (1 Macc 2:15-26). Mattathias’s rebellion led to a protracted struggle against religious persecution of the Jews.

The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians
Questions regarding the reasons why some Jews resisted Hellenization and others embraced it points to a longstanding scholarly debate. Scholars such as Martin Hengel emphasize the impact of Hellenism in the Second Temple period upon Judaism, while scholars such as L. H. Feldman assert that Hellenism did not significantly impact Judaism.[4] Accordingly, although there is no consensus as to the extent of Jewish resistance or acceptance of Hellenism, evidence for both exists. N. T. Wright and Michael Bird identify three primary instruments of Hellenization: language, the city-state, and religious syncretism.[5] Hellenization was embraced by some Jews for various reasons, not the least of which was the fear of persecution as discussed above. However, more practical reasons also existed. David DeSilva explains that the Greek language was a requirement for meaningful interaction with the Greek population, which would certainly include business and legal affairs.[6] Learning the Greek language and culture could also open educational opportunities. Additionally, the city-state political structure provided incentives for Hellenization. DeSilva notes that embracing certain cultural practices such as dress, décor, entertainment, and dining protocol facilitated participation and integration into the civic and social life of the cities.[7] Alternatively, as Everett Ferguson explains, the paganism associated with Hellenism demonized religion, integrated astrology and magic, associated cults with prominent individuals, disassociated morality from religion, and was nonexclusive.[8] The religious syncretism espoused by Hellenism caused many Jews to resist not only the religious aspects of Hellenism but also the entire cultural system. The author of the Letter of Aristeas affirms the notion by stating that Jews “not mingle at all with any of the other nations, but remain pure in body and soul, free from all vain imaginations, worshiping the one Almighty God above the whole creation” (Let. Aris. 139-140).
Although some Jews resisted Hellenization more than others, it was possible to remain faithful to the Jewish traditions while simultaneously embracing various aspects of Greek culture. DeSilva contends that the engagement or even the mastery of Greek language, literature, philosophy, and rhetoric did not preclude Jews from either observing the commandments of the Torah or keeping a commitment to their Jewish roots.[9] Examples of acculturation abound in ancient Jewish literature during the Second Temple period without apostasy. The Jewish author of 4 Maccabees leans on Greek philosophy represented by Stoicism by engaging the four cardinal virtues when stating, “The forms of wisdom consist of prudence, justice, courage, and temperance” (4 Macc 1:18). However, instead of highlighting humanistic reason, the author insists that the intellect of man was given the Mosaic Law for the purpose of empowering the “temperate and just and good and brave” (4 Macc 2:23). The Wisdom of Solomon provides another example, which, according to Ferguson, attempts to reconcile the Hebrew Wisdom tradition with Hellenistic philosophy.[10] Again, the author refers to the four cardinal virtues when stating, “If one prizes righteousness, the fruits of her labors are virtues. For she teaches temperance and prudence, justice and fortitude, and nothing in life is of more value for men than these” (Wis 8:7). Although Second Temple literature is only one category of examples, it appears evident that embracing certain aspects of Greek culture did not require an abandonment of the Jewish faith or heritage.
Certain Jewish groups appear to have been more inclined to accept Greek culture than others. In general, Grant Osborne suggests that the “pull of Hellenism was always felt primarily by the upper-class nobility, and it was strongest in Jewish communities of the dispersion.”[11] Accordingly, the urban nobility would be inclined to accept Greek culture, while the peasants saw Hellenism as a danger that could undermine the Torah. Furthermore, the diaspora Jews would be more likely to engage Hellenism than Palestinian Jews, but the differences must not be overstated, for Osborne notes that the Hellenistic Jews in the diaspora still regarded themselves as foreigners and considered Palestine their true home.[12] Based on these general distinctions, it is not surprising that the inclinations spilled over into the more formalized groups of Jews: the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. Josephus contends that the Pharisees were the party of the people (Ant. 13.296). Furthermore, Michelle Lee-Barnewell suggests the Pharisees may have had their origins from the Hasideans, the pious ones, and were known for emphasizing the study and observance of the Law.[13] The Essenes also strongly emphasized the Law, but also accentuated the importance of separation. Thus, both the Pharisees and the Essenes would be less inclined to accept Greek culture. Alternatively, Ferguson identifies the Sadducees as wealthy priests and friends of the aristocracy who combined religion and politics.[14] Furthermore, George Holley Gilbert explains that the Sadducees rejected isolating themselves from society, and thus they were more inclined to engage Greek civilization.[15] Although different groups of Jews engaged Hellenism with various emphases, strict or absolute lines of differentiation must be carefully avoided.
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[1] Leonard J. Greenspoon, “Hellenism,” ed. John D. Barry et al., The Lexham Bible Dictionary (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).
[2] Larry R. Helyer, “The Hasmoneans and the Hasmonean Era,” in The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts, ed. Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald, Annotated. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017), 39-40.
[3] Ibid., 40.
[4] Louis H Feldman, “How Much Hellenism in the Land of Israel?,” Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman Period 33, no. 3 (2002): 290–291, 312–313.
[5] N. T. Wright and Michael F. Bird, The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2019), 143–144.
[6] David DeSilva, “Jews in the Diaspora,” in The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts, ed. Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017), 281.
[7] Ibid., 282.
[8] Everett Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 175–177.
[9] DeSilva, “Jews in the Diaspora,” 283.
[10] Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 444.
[11] Grant Osborne, “Hellenistic Judaism,” ed. Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1988), 956.
[12] Ibid., 959.
[13] Michelle Lee-Barnewall, “Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes,” in The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts, ed. Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017), 218.
[14] Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 519.
[15] George Holley Gilbert, “The Hellenization of the Jews between 334 B. C. and 70 A. D.,” The American Journal of Theology 13, no. 4 (1909): 539.
Bibliography
- DeSilva, David. “Jews in the Diaspora.” In The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts, edited by Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017.
- Feldman, Louis H. “How Much Hellenism in the Land of Israel?” Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman Period 33, no. 3 (2002): 290–313.
- Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003.
- Gilbert, George Holley. “The Hellenization of the Jews between 334 B. C. and 70 A. D.” The American Journal of Theology 13, no. 4 (1909): 520–540.
- Greenspoon, Leonard J. “Hellenism.” Edited by John D. Barry, Derek R. Brown, Rachel Klippenstein, Douglas Magnum, Carrie Sinclair Wolcott, Lazarus Wentz, Elliot Ritzema, and Wendy Widder. The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016.
- Helyer, Larry R. “The Hasmoneans and the Hasmonean Era.” In The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts, edited by Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald. Annotated. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017.
- Lee-Barnewall, Michelle. “Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes.” In The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts, edited by Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017.
- Osborne, Grant. “Hellenistic Judaism.” Edited by Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel. Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1988.
- Wright, N. T., and Michael F. Bird. The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2019.